Flow and Telepresence contributing to Internet Abuse: Differences according to Gender and Age

Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1941–1948

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Flow and Telepresence contributing to Internet Abuse: Differences according to Gender and Age Vasilis Stavropoulos ⇑, Kyriaki Alexandraki, Frosso Motti-Stefanidi Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

a r t i c l e

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Article history: Available online 1 May 2013 Keywords: Internet Abuse Flow Telepresence Adolescence

a b s t r a c t Flow describes immersive tendencies to Internet activities, and Telepresence defines the level one is absorbed in his virtual environment. The aim of this study was twofold: (a) to test whether and how Flow and Telepresence may contribute to Internet Abuse and (b) to examine group differences in Internet Abuse, Flow and Telepresence according to gender and age among adolescents. The sample consisted of 1609 adolescents, with a mean age of 16 years old. Internet Abuse was assessed with the Internet Addiction Test (Young, 1998), Flow with the Flow Questionnaire (Chen, Wigand, & Nilan, 1999) and Telepresence with the Presence II questionnaire (Witmer & Singer, 1998). Findings revealed that Flow and Telepresence were related with Internet Abuse with Telepresence positively moderating the effect of Flow. Considering group differences, males were at higher risk of Internet Abuse and were more likely to experience Flow and Telepresence, while older adolescents scored higher only in Telepresence. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Aims of this study were to examine whether and how Flow and Telepresence may contribute to Internet Abuse among adolescents. Moreover, we investigated the associations of gender and age with Internet Abuse, Flow and Telepresence respectively. The present research was directed by the need to better understand causal factors of Internet Abuse during adolescence, contributing possibly to its effective treatment. Internet Abuse is defined as ‘‘an individual’s inability to control his Internet use, which in turn leads to feelings of distress and functional impairment of daily activities’’ (Shapira et al., 2003). Internet Abuse may disadvantage the user’s academic, social, financial, occupational, or physical competency (Simkova & Cincera, 2004; Yang & Tung, 2007; Young, 1996). It has been associated with poorer work, educational and family life (Soule, Shell, & Kleen, 2003; Young, 1996). However, the social impact is considered to be the most important of all its negative ramifications (Douglas et al., 2008). Research in adolescence indicated a link between the behavior and worse adaptation with respect to developmental tasks, such as academic achievement (Frangos, Frangos, & Kiohos, 2010) and peer relations (Yang & Tung, 2007), as well as more psychological symptoms (Casale & Fioravanti, 2011). These issues usually predict worse adaptation in adult life (Masten, Burt, & Coatsworth, 2006). Consecutively, adolescents’ high levels of Internet

familiarity (Internet World Stats, 2012; Society of Information Observatory, 2011) and their impairments due to Internet Abuse make its study important. ‘‘Hedonism’’ was significantly related with the understanding of abuse behaviors (Stephenson, Maggi, Lefever, & Morojele, 1995). They constitute manifestations of behaviors seeking pleasure, often propagated by a strong sense of dislocation, an alienation from the self and others (Alexander, 2000). Abuse behaviors are in fact a way to seek pleasure without relating to others (Alexander, 2000), something that could interpret Internet Abuse. Cognitive absorption online has been associated with the satisfaction experienced (Elmenzi & Gharbi, 2010). Therefore, what makes Internet absorbing seems interrelated with what may invite its abuse (Gainsbury & Blaszczynski, 2011). Telepresence and Flow have been associated with absorption and satisfaction (Hoffman & Novak, 1996; Steuer, 1992), describing the level one is absorbed by his virtual environment and activity respectively. Therefore, they may constitute pull factors within the Internet activity which contribute to the emergence of Internet Abuse. Douglas et al. (2008) proposed a conceptual model according to which, offline push and online pull factors collaborate provoking the behavior. Moreover, the perceived attractive web features may moderate the relationship between individual or environmental level push factors and the severity of its negative effects (Douglas et al., 2008). 1.1. Telepresence

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: University of Athens, School of Philosophy, Panepistimiopolis, Ilissia 157 84, Athens, Greece. Tel.: +30 6944291231. E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Stavropoulos). 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.011

Telepresence is described as a psychological state in which the virtual nature of Internet experience is unnoticed, (Lee & Nass,

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2001; Lee, Suh, Kim, & Lee, 2004). It is a perceptual illusion of nonmediation of technology on the experience (Lombard and Ditton, 1997). While Presence is defined as the sense of being in an environment, Telepresence constitutes the experience of presence in an environment by means of a communication medium (Steuer, 1992). Witmer and Singer (1998) described Telepresence as the subjective feeling of being in a place or environment while physically being in another. Two major dimensions have been proposed as determinants of Telepresence (Steuer, 1992): (a) vividness and (b) interactivity. ‘‘Vividness means the representational richness of a mediated environment as defined by its formal features, that is, the way in which an environment presents information to the senses’’ (Steuer, 1992). Vividness is stimulus driven, depending entirely upon technical characteristics (Rafaeli, 1985). Sensory breadth and depth mainly contribute to vividness. The first describes the number of sensory dimensions simultaneously presented and the latter the resolution within each of these perceptual channels. Interactivity refers to the degree to which users participate in modifying the form and content of a mediated environment in real time (Steuer, 1992). Three major factors may increase to interactivity, speed, range and mapping. Speed describes the rate at which input can be assimilated into the mediated environment; range refers to the number of possibilities for action; and mapping refers to the ability of a system to map its controls to changes in a natural and predictable manner. Subsequently, Telepresence demonstrates the level the user experiences the virtual environment as real while reality is neglected. Cognitive processes contribute to the individual’s engagement with the Internet environment, which is also facilitated by web features (Thorson, Goldiez, & Le, 2008). The user’s perception that virtual environment and real world are linked generates Telepresence and not any actual connection between those two (Heeter, 2003). Heeter in 1992 presented a model that included three dimensions of Telepresence, the personal, the social and the environmental. Personal Telepresence describes the sense of ‘‘being there’’ (ISPR, 2000). Social Telepresence depicts the level that the user acknowledges other beings (virtual or real) interacting with him. Environmental Telepresence illustrates the level that the environment seems to perceive the user and their collaboration (Heeter, 1992). As Telepresence is closely connected with the experience of absorption and satisfaction through Internet use, it may facilitate Internet Abuse (Douglas et al., 2008). 1.2. Flow While Telepresence describes the level in which a user is absorbed in the virtual world, Internet Flow refers to the level one feels absorbed by the digital activity (Chen et al., 1999). Csikszentmihalyi (1975) first suggested the concept of flow as an holistic feeling experienced while engaged in a situation of internal satisfaction or pleasure, which refers to a simultaneously ongoing activity. This satisfaction is created when perceived skills are balancing the perceived requirements and challenges of the developing activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Researchers adjusted this concept in the human–computer interplay (Chen, 2006; Sharafi, Hedman, & Montgomery, 2006). Online Flow was defined as ‘‘the state occurring during network navigation which is (1) characterized by a seamless sequence of responses facilitated by machine interactivity, (2) intrinsically enjoyable, (3) accompanied by a loss of self-consciousness, and (4) self-reinforcing’’ (Hoffman & Novak, 1996). Online Flow is characterized by intrinsic enjoyment, loss of self-consciousness, seamless sequence of responses facilitated by interactivity with the computer and self-reinforcement. Flow antecedents are skill/

challenge balance, focused attention, and Telepresence (Hoffman & Novak, 1996). Online Flow requires so deep concentration (Chen et al., 1999) which leads to the loss of consciousness, the loss of the track of time and finally to the evolution of the whole process into an autotelic activity. This term refers to an activity that is done not with the expectation of some future benefit, but simply because the activity itself functions as a reward (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Such online activity may provoke Internet Abuse (Douglas et al., 2008). According to Hoffman and Novak (1996) Telepresence may have a reinforcing role for Flow. Mainly interactive and absorbing virtual contexts like that of online games culminate flow (Chen, 2006; Wan & Chiou, 2006). 1.3. Group Differences Individual characteristics were associated with the above mentioned concepts. Men seem more likely to present Internet Abuse (Chou, Condron, & Belland, 2005; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006; Yang & Tung, 2007). Their higher web familiarity and their preference for online games and pornographic sites may put them in higher risk (Tsai et al., 2009). Gender was also related with qualities of Telepresence and Flow. Thorson et al. (2008) supported that males report stronger active cognitive involvement, spatial orientation and the ability to construct mental models, which lead to Telepresence. As far as Internet Flow is concerned, males are more likely to experience both Flow and its opposite, boredom (Novak & Hoffman, 1997). Findings are contradictory regarding age and virtual absorption in general. Some studies support that younger age is positively related with Telepresence (Bangay & Preston, 1998). Older users having greater control over their environment may not need to digitally abscond. Other studies showed the opposite (Schuemie, Abel, van der Mast, Krijn, & Emmelkamp, 2005). Considering Flow age may play a role through the balance of skills and challenges. Novak and Hoffman (1997) pointed out that younger people have increased ‘‘skills’’, which bring them closer to Flow depending on the demands of each Internet application. 1.4. Hypotheses This study examines the contribution of Telepresence and Flow experience on Internet Abuse in a sample of Greek adolescents enrolled in schools of the extended Athens area and the Peloponnese. Furthermore, we aimed to investigate group differences according to gender and age in Internet Abuse, Telepresence and Flow. The selection of the participating schools and adolescents was based on a stratified random sampling strategy, according to area of residence both between and within urban and rural areas and types of schools (academic vs vocational track high schools). Two research hypotheses were addressed: H1. Telepresence, Flow and gender are expected to be associated with Internet Abuse with Telepresence exacerbating the effect of Flow. Based on the literature reviewed above, we assumed that Telepresence and Flow would be related with higher risk of Internet Abuse (Douglas et al., 2008). As abuse behaviors are motivated by seeking pleasure, we would expect that online absorption and thus satisfaction would contribute to more addictive use of the web (Alexander, 2000). Regarding gender, we would hypothesize that being a male constitutes an Internet Abuse risk factor (Siomos, Dafouli, Braimiotis, Mouzas, & Angelopoulos, 2008; Yang & Tung, 2007). Moreover, on the basis that the subjective significance of an activity is related with the perceived importance of the environment in

V. Stavropoulos et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1941–1948

which it takes place (Thorson et al., 2008), we would expect that the effect of Flow on Internet Abuse would be increased by Telepresence (Chen, 2006). H2. Males are expected to be significantly higher in Flow and Telepresence. Older age is expected to be associated with higher Telepresence. Based on previous findings which showed that males are more actively involved with the web (Thorson et al., 2008), we hypothesized that boys would present higher levels of Telepresence and Flow. Additionally, as in later adolescence the cognitive skills demanded for Telepresence are better developed (Schuemie et al., 2005), we expected that older age would be positively associated with Telepresence. 2. Materials and Methods

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variance. Findings were similar to previous studies (Khazaal et al., 2008). 2.2.2. Presence II To assess Telepresence, we used the Presence II questionnaire of Witmer and Singer after bidirectional translation from bilingual translators. The Presence Questionnaire II (Witmer & Singer, 1998) is a self-reported instrument which consists of 32 questions and uses a seven-point scale format. In our study, the internal rate of reliability of the questionnaire was high with a Cronbach a = 0.89. A PCA analysis with direct oblimin rotation type was also applied. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value was 0.91 and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was 15157.28 with a p < 0.001. The analysis supported the presence six components with eigenvalues greater to 1, explaining 24.49%, 13.69%, 5.60%, 4.21%, 3.51% and 3.32% of the variance respectively. This solution explained a total of 54.81% of the total variance similar to other studies (Witmer & Singer, 1998).

2.1. Participants The research received the necessary approvals by: (i) The National Ministry of Education. (ii) The principal and the school’s professors of each high school. (iii) The parents’ consent. The sample was selected in Attica and the Peloponnese (Korinthia) using the method of randomized stratified selection. The participants were 1609 adolescents and young adults attending 65 classes in 21 Greek public, daytime, academic and vocational track high schools, in the extended area of Athens and semi-urban and rural areas of the Peloponnese. Eight hundred participants were boys (49.8% of the valid sample) and 807 girls (50.2% of the valid sample). Their mean age was 16.13 years old within a range of 15–22 years old. The sample’s stratification was achieved according to quotas of place of residence, high school type and gender described by the latest inventory card of the Ministry of Education. Schools participating were selected randomly. All the students of each selected school were eligible. The primary benefit of this method is to ensure that cases from smaller strata of the population are included in sufficient numbers to allow comparisons. Response and parental consent rates were obtained for over 95% of the sample. The estimated maximum sampling error with a sample size of 1609 is 2.44% at the 95% confidence level (Z = 1.96). 2.2. Instruments In our paper-based survey independently trained researchers collected the data as part of a wider research on the adolescent Internet use and abuse. A battery of questionnaires which included demographical information had to be answered. Furthermore, they answered questions concerning their relationship with the Internet. 2.2.1. Internet addiction test The Internet Addiction Test (IAT) constructed by Young (1998) was used to assess Internet Abuse. It included 20 questions evaluating the importance of negative consequences because of the Internet’s excessive use. There were six possible answers for each question; A 5-point scale (1 = ‘‘not at all’’ and 5 = ‘‘always’’) and the alternative 0 = ‘‘it does not concern me.’’ The instrument’s internal rate of reliability was satisfying with a Cronbach a = 0.91. Moreover, a PCA analysis with direct oblimin rotation type was performed. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value was 0.94 and so within the permit-able limits and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was 15608.89 with an acceptable p < 0.001. The analysis supported the presence of four components with eigenvalues greater to 1, explaining 39.04%, 6.64%, 5.30% and 5.07% of the variance respectively. This solution explained a total of 56.04% of the

2.2.3. Flow questionnaire To assess Internet Flow we used the Flow questionnaire of Chen et al. (1999), after bidirectional translation from bilingual translators. The questionnaire consisted of five pairs of self-reported questions situated on flow experience. Respondents were first asked whether they had ever had an experience in the web environment as described by each question and secondly to define the application in which they had experienced it. For the final score one had to add the number of positives answers in the first question of each of the five pairs. Reliability rate of the present version of the questionnaire was acceptable with a Kuder–Richardson of 0.70. 2.2.4. Internet use and behavior To further confirm the validity of the measurement regarding Internet Abuse we added five questions regarding high risk behaviors. These investigated issues of Internet use duration (Yang & Tung, 2007), Internet overuse and absorbance (Thatcher, Wretschko, & Fridjhon, 2008), isolation and interpersonal difficulties related to the behavior (Soule et al., 2003). Specifically, they emphasize risk characteristics which are not included in the IAT, like the online amount of time spent with the closest offline relationship and the preferred Internet applications e.g. ‘‘Do you participate in Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games?’’ Moreover, they reduce the risk of subjective responses, as they ask for specific (presence vs absence of a behavior) and not interpretation depended answers. 2.3. Calculation–analysis Multi linear regression analysis, stepwise method, moderation analysis according to Hayes and Matthes (2009) and t-tests were performed using the SPSS 20 software package. 3. Results 3.1. Telepresence, Flow and Gender are expected to be associated with Internet Abuse with Telepresence exacerbating the effect of Flow A multi linear regression analysis was applied to assess whether Telepresence, Flow and gender were associated with Internet Abuse. The IAT score was the dependent variable and the independents were Telepresence, Flow, gender (as a 0–1 = male variable) and age. Flow (B = 5.84, t = 18.16, p = 0.000), Telepresence (B = 0.09, t = 5.47, p = 0.000) and gender (B = 1.85, t = 2.13, p = 0.03) contributed to the 25% of the variance of IAT scores

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{F(4, 1433) = 104.89, p = 0.000}. The effect of age did not seem significant. Findings imply that the higher the sense of Flow and Telepresence, the more vulnerable the user becomes to Internet Abuse. Boys were at higher risk than girls (see Table 1). To answer whether Telepresence exacerbated the effect of Flow on Internet Abuse, we conducted a moderation analysis, after having centered Flow and Telepresence Scores (Hayes & Matthes, 2009). Our model was estimated as follows:

Internet Abuse ¼ a þ b1 Flow þ b2 Telepresence þ b3 ðFlow  TelepresenceÞ þ b4 ðGenderÞ Findings supported that Flow and Telepresence interacted considering Internet Abuse. If the Telepresence score increased for one unit then the effect of Flow on IAT scores also increased for 0.03 (see Table 2). These results suggested that adolescents who are more absorbed in their virtual environment, and who therefore experience higher Telepresence, are at greater risk of Internet Abuse than adolescents who experience the same level of Flow (see Fig. 1). To understand from which level of Telepresence and over there is a significant increase of the effect of Flow on Internet Abuse, we applied the J–N technique (Bauer & Curran, 2005). Findings revealed that for every score of Telepresence equal or above 51.20, the

Table 1 Regression coefficients Flow, Telepresence, Gender and Age on Internet Abuse.

a: Constant b b b b

1: Flow 2: Telepresence 3: Gender 4: Age

B

S.E.

15.94 5.84 .09 1.85 .83

8.66 .32 .02 .87 .51

beta

T

P

.45 .13 .05 .04

1.84 18.16 5.47 2.13 1.62

<.05 <.001 <.001 <.05 >.05

Note: R = 0.5, R2 = 0.25, F(4, 1433) = 104.89, p < 0.001.

Table 2 OLS regression coefficients Flow, Telepresence, their interaction and Gender on Internet Abuse.

a: Constant b b b b

1: Flow (F) 2: Telepresence (M) 3: F  M 4: Gender

B

S.E.

T

P

27.08 5.61 0.09 0.03 1.82

0.56 0.30 0.02 0.01 0.80

48.01 18.80 5.68 3.14 2.26

<.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.05

Note: R = 0.48, R2 = 0.24, F(4, 1443) = 111.61, p = .0000.

Fig. 1. Interaction of Telepresence and Flow on Internet Abuse.

regression coefficient of Flow on IAT scores increased significantly {t(1445) = 3.57, p = 0.001, LLCI = 1.40 ULCI = 4.80}. To confirm the validity of our findings regarding the associations between Telepresence, Flow and Internet Abuse, we divided our participants according to the presence or not of five high risk behaviors. These groups (presence vs absence of a risk behavior) were further compared regarding Telepresence and Flow scores. Those who exceeded 3 h online during the schooldays and the weekend and participated in role playing games had significantly higher Telepresence scores than those did not. Additionally, participants who spend more than 3 h online during the schooldays and the weekend, participated in role playing games, had more time online than with their closest relationship and their closest relationship participated too in their preferred Internet application, had significantly higher Flow scores than those who did not (Table 3). 3.2. H2 males are expected to be higher in Flow and Telepresence. Older age will be associated with higher online Flow We applied multiple linear regression analysis to test this hypothesis. Regarding Flow, a significant association with gender (B = 0.27, t = 3.70, p < .001) but not age (B = 0.37, t = 0.88, p > .05) was confirmed. These findings imply that boys experienced higher sense of Internet Flow than girls{R = 0.10, R2 = 0.01, F(2, 1441) = 7.45, p < .001} (Table 4). Regarding Telepresence significant associations with both age (B = 3.59, t = 4.34, p < .001) and gender (B = 3.36, t = 2.32, p < .05) were revealed {R = 0.13, R2 = 0.02, F(2, 1443) = 11.36, p < .001}. Findings supported that boys and older adolescents experienced more Telepresence (Table 5). 4. Discussion The aim of this study was twofold: (a) to test whether and how Flow and Telepresence may contribute to Internet Abuse and (b) to examine group differences in Internet Abuse, Flow and Telepresence according to gender and age among adolescents. Results revealed that Telepresence and Flow were associated with higher risk of Internet Abuse. Additionally, Telepresence significantly increased the effect of Flow. Considering group differences, males were at higher risk of Internet Abuse and were more likely to experience Flow and Telepresence, while older adolescents scored higher only in Telepresence. 4.1. Flow, Telepresence and Internet Abuse 4.1.1. Telepresence According to our findings, Telepresence and Flow contributed to Internet Abuse with Telepresence exacerbating the effect of Flow. As Douglas et al. (2008) illustrated pull factors within the virtual context influence one’s tendency to abuse the web. The special features of the medium, might attract attention, making adolescents more absorbed and thus addicted (Chou, 2001; Ng & Wiemer-Hastings, 2005). Steuer in 1992 described online vividness as a critical Internet feature involving with Telepresence. He supported that the representational richness of an online application depending upon technical characteristics, provides sensory stimuli which enhance Telepresence (Steuer, 1992). Consecutively, Internet Abuse and Telepresence share a common space, at the extent that they both heavily relate with online absorption facilitated by Internet features. However, whilst absorption is widely understood as positive element of an experience, becoming too absorbed in virtual contexts may be perceived as a kind of dependency by them (Seah & Cairns, 2008).

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V. Stavropoulos et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1941–1948 Table 3 Flow, Telepresence and Internet Abuse behaviors. Internet Abuse risk behavior

Telepresence

Flow

Mean

SD

T

DF

p

Mean

SD

DF

p

Daily time online during school days > 3 h

No Yes

125.87 132.33

26.03 26.59

4.54

1556

<.001

2.02 2.64

1.32 1.30

8.59

1546

<.001

Daily time online during weekend > 3 h

No Yes

124.55 132.45

27.36 24.50

5.91

1552

<.001

1.92 2.62

1.30 1.30

10.32

1543

<.001

More daily time online than with their closest relationship during the weekend

No Yes

128.06 129.38

26.20 25.93

1521

>.05

2.20 2.64

1.35 1.31

3.516

1511

<.001

Closest relationship participating in first choice Internet application

No Yes

126.78 128.42

28.22 25.79

1.17

1548

>.05

1.99 2.36

1.33 1.35

5.28

1538

<.001

Role playing games’ players

No Yes

131.39 124.83

27.80 25.59

4.83

1562

<.001

2.47 2.03

1.38 1.30

1551

<.001

Table 4 Regression coefficients of Gender and Age on flow.

a: Constant b 1: Gender b 2: Age

B

S.E.

1.49 .27 .04

.69 .07 .04

beta

T

P

.10 .02

2.18 3.67 .88

<.05 <.001 >.05

R = 0.10, R2 = 0.01, F(2, 1441) = 7.45, p < .001.

Table 5 Regression coefficients of Gender and Age on Telepresence.

a: Constant b 1: Gender b 2: Age

B

S.E.

beta

T

P

183.85 3.59 3.36

13.30 .82 1.45

.12 .06

13.82 4.34 2.32

<.001 <.001 <.05

R = 0.13, R2 = 0.02, F(2, 1443) = 11.36, p < .001.

Telepresence and Internet Abuse include both high levels of engagement with the virtual context, which are likely, when interacting with specific high risk individual characteristics, (Douglas et al., 2008) to lead from web absorption to web obsession. Telepresence may thus in its extreme levels evolve to a kind of reality absence, in terms of uncompleted actions and obligations. This seems related with a major characteristic of Internet Abuse widely known as procrastination (Thatcher et al., 2008). Procrastination refers to the inability of an individual to convert an intention to act into the actual performance of an act (Blunt & Pychyl, 2005). Online procrastination is also referred to as cyberslacking (Lavoie & Pychyl, 2001, 146) or cyberloafing (Lim, 2002). This describes users distracted by the Internet probably because of experiencing Telepresence, who avoid to do tasks perceived as less challenging or interesting. The sense of being ‘‘there’’ interwoven with Telepresence experience (Steuer, 1992) might deteriorate one’s association with reality, as it directs the individual’s conscientiousness into the virtual world. Subjects experiencing Telepresence seem to confuse the digital world with the actual one, possibly culminating their retirement from the latter. A familiar sense of belonging in the Internet environment due to consecutive Telepresence experiences, could be both the reason and the result of why they remain online being deeply emerged in several Internet applications (Liu & Kuo, 2007) inducing Internet Abuse. When somebody feels a sense of belonging to an environment or a surrounding his behavior could be defined-as dependent by this sense (Hills & Argyle, 2003). This dependency could provide an additional basis of understanding the Telepresence and Internet Abuse association.

.543

t

6.409

Telepresence consists of three dimensions the personal, the social, and the environmental (Heeter, 1992). Specifically, social Telepresence is described as the level the user perceives the existence of other virtual or real beings that gradually interact with him (Heeter, 1992). High risk users might perceive the Internet as the only way to have a social life (Preece, 2000). Socialization is referred to as a central human need (Oetting & Beauvais, 1987). Therefore, the medium which functions as a solution to their socialization problems becomes crucial for them, thus becoming an abuse object. This mechanism, which might act as a push factor, could be associated with Telepresence as a pull factor. Therefore, an individual’s predisposition to create relationships basically through the Internet when combined with Telepresence and its social features may lead to increased risk of Internet Abuse. Certainly, not all Internet users show the same promptitude to experience Telepresence (Thorson et al., 2008). Users who endure undesirable situations and face personal difficulties are more likely to become immersed in an online world as a way of avoiding stressors in reality. Users motivated to escape from the real world may experience Telepresence as a kind of reality absence. Additionally, Absorption as a feature of Telepresence could be understood as a state occurring during Internet use sessions (Seah & Cairns, 2008). In terms of individual users, repeatedly engagement and seeking of Telepresence experiences through the participation in online activities may develop into an addictive trait. This kind of evolution of an emotional state into a trait could interpret why the more Telepresent an adolescent feels, the higher at risk of Internet Abuse he may be. Nevertheless, distinguishing Internet Abuse and high Internet engagement included in Telepresence may not be straightforward because of the lack of strongly destructive repercussions of the Internet Abuse behavior. 4.1.2. Flow Findings regarding the association between Flow and Internet Abuse could be mainly interpreted by the reduced sense of control in terms of time (Chen, 2006). Thatcher et al. (2008) suggested that there is a number of Flow characteristics that are shared with Internet Abuse. They considered time distortion as the most prominent of them. Flow state has been described as a state of deep involvement, during which somebody is unaware of time passing (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). However, as in the case of Telepresence, Flow has mainly positive meaning when referring to either online or offline activities often connected with creativity. The critical point to distinguish positive from negative online Flow could be the type (fertile or not infertile) of the activity in which someone may be engaged. Thatcher et al. (2008) added that when the user becomes so absorbed that he misses social and family commitments, even if he is engaged in a productive online activity, he could experience Flow causing Internet Abuse.

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The reduced sense of control, if not sense of total loss of control, has been additionally described as a common characteristic between impulse and abuse behaviors (Brandy, Myrick, & McElory, 1998). While one is absorbed by a digital activity, positive feelings are being felt. This often intensifies the user’s intention to remain online much longer than scheduled in order to extend his pleasure. This may gradually lead an individual to Internet overuse as it corresponds to a central mechanism of abuse establishment, the Positive Immediate Gratification phenomenon (P.I.G.) (Witkiewitz & Marlatt, 2007). The PIG phenomenon refers to gratification deficits, which are covered through the manifestation of an abuse behavior. However, the more the user is committed to Internet action the greater deficits he creates in his real life (Yen et al., 2008). As a result, this kind of Flow may be combined with a procrastination effect on real actions or obligations, which tends to worsen one’s position in reality. This hypothetical but still very likely condition may generate a greater motive to escape, which follows reality maladjustment in order to feel again more virtually satisfied and vice versa, keeping the adolescent on the track of a vicious circle. This evolution reminds the ‘‘drink through’’ phenomenon described in addiction literature (Witkiewitz & Marlatt, 2007). According to Douglas et al. (2008) the user’s ‘‘inner needs and motivations’’ such as his potential need for experiencing a sense of efficacy and other positive feelings may be accomplished while being absorbed in Internet action. As previously underlined, Flow is a psychological state, where one feels cognitively efficient, motivated and happy (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 227), a sense which could act in tandem with an adolescent’s non efficient self-perception in real life. This might deteriorate gradually by his commitment in virtual activities as described above. Therefore, as in the case of Telepresence, a repeated positive emotional state may provide the basis of an abuse trait.

4.1.3. Telepresence as a Flow moderator Telepresence and Internet Flow as pull factors of Internet Abuse both appear to affect one’s sense of control concerning either the space where a virtual activity is being held or the time spent on this activity (Douglas et al., 2008). According to our findings, a moderating relationship revealed between Flow and Telepresence regarding Internet Abuse. Specifically, Telepresence seems to strengthen the effect of Flow on Internet Abuse. This effect could be explained by the fact that the importance of an activity and thus the attention it may attract, depends on the importance of the environment in which it takes place. (Mitra & Schwartz, 2001). The significance of the activity is defined analogically with the subjective significance of its context. If Flow can be attributed to the significance of Internet action, then Telepresence is related to the subjective significance of this action’s virtual context. Subsequently, the moderating effect of Telepresence on the association of Flow with Internet Abuse could be easily interpreted. The greater commitment with the virtual context often along with reality resignation raises the significance of the virtual action in comparison to actions held non virtually, inducing the medium’s abuse. Furthermore, the exacerbating effect of Telepresence on Flow could be explained by the involvement of specific Telepresence features like vividness and interactivity (Steuer, 1992). As Flow is a state of consciousness experienced by individuals who are deeply involved in a joyful activity (Thatcher et al., 2008), the sensory breadth and depth offered by vividness may increase it. Equally, speed, range and mapping included in interactivity as previously described (Steuer, 1992) could boost the enjoyment of online Flow activities. However, as shown in our findings a high level of Telepresence (score 51) is needed to increase the effect of Flow on Internet Abuse. Lower Telepresence levels may not significantly empower contextual involvement as the frame of online activities.

4.2. Group differences 4.2.1. Gender Prior research has indicated that gender is an influential variable in predicting Internet usage behaviors (Sexton, Johnson, & Hignite, 2002). Our findings supported that boys experience higher Internet Abuse risk, Flow and Telepresence. Considering Internet Abuse risk, this replicates various studies (Chou et al., 2005; Ko, Yen, Chen, 2005; Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001; Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006) and could be related with the higher online familiarity of boys (Aslanidou & Menexes, 2008; Papastergiou & Solomonidou, 2005) along with their preference for online games and pornographic sites (Tsai et al., 2009). The kinds of Internet applications preferred by boys could partially explain their higher Telepresence and Flow scores. Males are said to have higher active cognitive involvement, spatial orientation and the ability to construct mental models (Thorson et al., 2008). Moreover, they seem to engage more strongly than girls in 3-D digital environments, possibly resulting to higher Telepresence (Sonnenwald, Freid, Manning, & Fuchs, 2006). Tannen (1990) found that males were more likely to actively participate in Internet usage to gain entertainment (Weiser, 2000). They generally have more positive and involving attitudes towards Internet technologies than females (Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001). These may at least partially interpret why males are more likely to experience flow (Novak & Hoffman, 1997). Differences in Preference and cognitive characteristics between males and females which influence their online engagement may explain their differences in Flow and Telepresence. 4.2.2. Age Our findings supported that older adolescents were more likely to experience Telepresence. This finding could be understood by the more developed cognitive abilities that emerge during this period (Zarrett & Eccles, 2006) and should be cautiously interpreted, due to our sample’s restricted age range. Increased ‘‘skills’’, linked with specific developmental stages may explain heavier online involvement (Novak & Hoffman, 1997) and not older age itself. As from a specific age point and further cognitive skills decline (Reynolds et al., 2005) the extend at which they may meet the online demands resulting to Telepresence may decline too. The non significant relationship between age and Flow could be understood by the fact that different Internet applications are selected by different age groups (Thayer & Ray, 2006) in order to address possibly the same level of Flow. 4.3. Research implications The findings of the present research may indicate useful directions for Internet Abuse research and prevention–intervention policies. Regarding research implications, Internet Abuse in adolescence should be understood in respect to the interaction of the virtual context within it is emerged and the individual characteristics that may collaborate with its selection. Specifically, it should be defined further the critical point that distinguishes satisfaction due to Telepresence and Flow experiences and the destructive involvement to Internet Abuse. As Telepresence and Flow have a generally positive meaning they could be used to direct individuals to the engagement in more healthy and productive Internet usage, likely for educational purposes. Moreover, less subjectively dependent measurements considering Flow and Telepresence should be applied. Similarly, Internet Abuse preventive initiatives within youth health and education should differ in comparison with other types of abuse. The close relation of males with Internet Abuse, Telepresence and Flow could provide the elements not only for the description

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of a higher risk population but also describe higher risk states of Internet involvement. Additionally, the association of later adolescence with Telepresence may prove fruitful if considered in terms of prevention. This information may be of higher value in a period of crisis, extremely proliferate for addictions (Alexander, 2000). 4.4. Limitations A major limitation of our study is that the results were based on self-report answers and thus may involve human error. Moreover, our sample included only adolescents. Additionally, the cross-sectional quality of our data proposes specific associations but not the secure direction of their causality. Moreover, cultural and socioeconomic factors should be taken into account. Research in different cultural contexts and age groups should also be conducted to verify the generalizability of our findings. Second, further research should consider other variables like the Internet applications used and constructs like self-efficacy or psychopathology to examine their effects on the associations between Flow, Telepresence and Internet Abuse. Due to space limitations, we leave the elaboration of appropriate ways to introduce and implement Internet applications to eliminate dangers and enhance benefits for future studies. 4.5. Conclusion Internet Abuse study has made significant progress in the last two decades, providing important knowledge concerning its causal factors. However, identification of elements within the Internet environment, which contribute to the abuse of the web, has yet several challenges to face. The present study illustrates the need for considering the experiences of online Flow and Telepresence as potential pull factors to the abuse of the medium among adolescents. Furthermore, findings reveal that Telepresence significantly moderates flow effect in Internet Abuse, which helps us to grasp the general image of the abuse procedure. Moreover, males stronger tendency towards Internet Abuse, Telepresence and Flow could provide guidelines for both research in different age populations and preventive initiatives in Greece. Finally, our findings help to redefine the interest on pull factors and their interactions with individual characteristics concerning Internet Abuse. Acknowledgements This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European Social Fund – ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program ‘‘Education and Lifelong Learning’’ of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) – Research Funding Program: Heracleitus II. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund. References Alexander, B. (2000). The globalization of addiction. Addiction Research, 8(6), 501–526. Aslanidou, S., & Menexes, G. (2008). Youth and the Internet: Uses and practices in the home. Computers & Education, 51, 1375–1391. Bangay, S., & Preston, L. (1998). An investigation into factors influencing immersion in interactive virtual environments. In G. Riva, B. K. Wiederhol, & E. Molinari (Eds.), Virtual environments in clinical psychology and neuroscience. Amsterdam: Ios Press. Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2005). Probing interactions in fixed and multilevel regression: Inferential and graphical techniques. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 373–400. Blunt, A., & Pychyl, T. A. (2005). Project systems of procrastinators: A personal project-analytic and action control perspective. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 153–167. Brandy, K. T., Myrick, H., & McElory, S. (1998). The relationship between substance use disorders, impulse control disorders, and pathological aggression. The American Journal on Addictions, 7(3), 221–230.

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