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Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia
Seizure 2002; 11: 330–334
doi:10.1053/seiz.2001.0610, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
CASE REPORT
Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia ABRAHAM KURUVILLA & ROLAND FLINK Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Uppsala University Hospital, S – 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden Correspondence to: Abraham Kuruvilla, MD, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Uppsala University Hospital, S – 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]
A distinctive scalp electroencephalographic (EEG) pattern of focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs) in a 23year-old man with symptomatic localization related epilepsy is presented. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain revealed cortical dysplasia over the right temporal region where the peculiar EEG abnormality was detected. We suggest that this characteristic EEG pattern may be predictive of focal cortical dysplasia (FCD). A brief review of the rhythmic EEG abnormalities in FCDs is also presented. c 2002 BEA Trading Ltd. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Key words: cortical dysplasia; epilepsy; intractable epilepsy; EEG; focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges; FREDs.
INTRODUCTION Cortical dysplasia (CD) has been increasingly recognized as a cause of medically refractory epilepsy. Focal cortical dysplasias (FCDs), heterogenous disorders of cortical development and organization with varying subtypes, are highly epileptogenic and the mechanisms responsible for their intrinsic epileptogenicity or cellular hyperexcitability is still not completely elucidated 1–5 . A variety of electroencephalographic (EEG) abnormalities have been reported by different authors. The EEG could be normal even when the cortical dysplasia is extensive 6 . Available surgical data suggests that the dysplastic cortex should be removed completely for achieving freedom from seizures. However, the prognosis remains poor as FCD is difficult to delineate by imaging. The main predictors of a favourable outcome were complete removal of the dysplastic cortex and the epileptogenic zone. These results underscore the importance of neurophysiological data in accurately evaluating the extent of FCD 7 . We report a characteristic EEG pattern consisting of intense, focal fast rhythmic 1059–1311/02/$22.00/0
epileptiform discharges (FREDs) which correlated well with the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesion site in a patient with epilepsy and FCD.
CASE REPORT A 23-year-old male presented with his first epileptic seizure at the age of 17 years. He was born full term to a non-consanguinous parentage and there was no family history of epilepsy. There was no history of febrile convulsions in childhood and he had been completely healthy until the debut of epilepsy. His first seizure was described as a generalized tonic– clonic type and the EEG reportedly showed focal sharp waves on the right temporal area, also appearing in clusters with a duration of about 10 seconds during drowsiness. A computerized tomography (CT) scan of the brain was unremarkable. The patient was started on carbamazepine (CBZ) and he remained seizure-free. Four years later he started to complain of episodes of ‘dizziness’ without any clinical seizure and at the age of 22 years, he started to have epileptic seizures of
c 2002 BEA Trading Ltd. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia
complex partial nature, described as short attacks of staring and oral automatisms without any secondary generalization. He was continued on CBZ and only had seizures provoked by physical exercise.
331
heterotopic grey matter and closed-lip schizencephaly on the right temporal area, lateral to the trigone, extending to the parietal region (Fig. 2(a) and (b)). For the moment our patient has a satisfactory seizure control on an optimal dose of CBZ but in case of increased seizure frequency, he will be offered a preoperative evaluation.
DISCUSSION
Fig. 1(a): The scalp/sphenoidal EEG showing polyspike and wave complexes and delta waves on the right mid-temporal area. (Note the phase reversal at T4 electrode.)
He was referred to the epilepsy group at the University hospital in Uppsala for a diagnostic evaluation due to changed seizure pattern. General physical examination did not reveal any neurocutaneous marker. A detailed neurological examination was unremarkable. He was monitored for 6 hours in a closed circuit video-EEG (VEEG) monitoring system with scalp and sphenoidal electrodes. EEG showed interictal epileptiform discharges consisting of spike/polyspike and wave complexes (Fig. 1(a)) and a moderate degree of slow wave abnormality on the right mid-temporal area. In addition, a distinctive pattern consisting of a spike and wave onset followed by fast rhythmic spikes at 12–14 Hz was noted intermittently on the right temporal area (Fig. 1(b)) lasting for 4–6 seconds. These rhythms, which we call focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs), were at times preceded by a short period of electrodecrement or desynchronization lasting for 1– 1.5 seconds (Fig. 1(c)). EEG abnormalities (Fig. 1(a), (b) and (c)) were seen in wakefulness and sleep and no clinical seizure was recorded during this monitoring. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain showed a focal cortical dysplasia consisting of
Intense epileptogenicity of FCD lesions has always been a curiosity among electroencephalographers. This report highlights a distinct EEG pattern consisting of focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs). The EEG findings revealed a spike and wave onset, at times with a short period of electrodecrement or desynchronization lasting for 1–1.5 seconds, followed by a pattern with trains of rhythmic spikes at 12–14 Hz, of 4–6 seconds in duration, clearly localized to the right temporal area. The MRI of the brain revealed findings consistent with cortical dysplasia concordant with the site of EEG abnormality, pointing to a well-defined epileptogenic zone. In a report consisting of three epileptic patients over a period of 9 years, Brodtkorb et al. 8 described a peculiar pattern of continuous, fast, interictal spiking which was distinctively localized on scalp EEG. These patients showed three different types of malformations of cortical development, namely hemimegalencephaly, a subcortical heterotopion and a FCD, respectively, in the MRI. The epileptiform abnormality described by these authors was continuous spikes, whereas, our patient had subclinical electrographic seizure-like bursts lasting for only 4–6 seconds. In addition, the epileptiform discharges described by these authors were of slower frequency (upto 8 Hz) when compared to our patient who had a faster frequency (12–14 Hz). In an elaborate study comprising a group of 34 patients with CD and intractable epilepsy, Gambardella et al. 1 observed rhythmic epileptiform discharges (REDs) in 15 (44%) patients and 12 (80%) of these 15 patients had continuous epileptiform discharges (CEDs) on electrocorticogram (ECoG). These patients were compared with another group comprising 40 patients who had non-dysplastic structural lesions of the brain and none of this latter group showed REDs in their EEGs. Hence, Gambardella et al. concluded that REDs and CEDs are highly specific and sensitive indicators of FCDs. The rhythmic epileptiform spikes observed on the scalp EEGs by these investigators were of two main types: (1) trains of rhythmic spikes or sharp waves at 4–10 Hz lasting for 1–4 seconds (8/15 or 60%); and (2) slower quasi-continuous rhythmic spikes at
332
A. Kuruvilla and R. Flink
Fig. 1(b): This scalp/sphenoidal EEG illustrates the characteristic surface electrographic pattern consisting of spike/polyspike and wave onset followed by fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs) at 12–14 Hz on the right temporal area. (This pattern was never associated with clinical symptoms during this VEEG recording.)
Fig. 1(c): The scalp/sphenoidal EEG showing FREDs preceded by a brief period of focal attenuation of background EEG on the right temporal area. Note the characteristic electrodecrement or desynchronization after the polyspike and wave onset. (This pattern was never associated with clinical symptoms during this VEEG recording.)
Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia
2–7 Hz lasting more than 10 seconds (7/15 or 40%). The EEG abnormality observed in our patient is slightly different in that the rhythmic discharges consisted of a faster rhythm at 12–14 Hz preceded by a spike and wave onset and at times a transient electrodecremental state or desynchronization. In addition, the aforementioned authors found that out of the 10 patients with focal or lobar REDs, only two (20%) coincided with the distribution of interictal spiking, thereby showing that interictal sharp waves and spikes were more widespread than REDs. In our patient the interictal spikes and spike–wave complexes were always concordant with the FREDs. Kuzniecky et al. 9 investigated the use of ictal singlephoton emission computed tomography (SPECT) in two children with intractable epilepsy and found that ictal scalp EEGs failed to localize the epileptic focus and the interictal EEG data demonstrated widespread lateralized abnormalities. Although large areas of epileptogenesis was evident by scalp and subdural EEG studies, resection of the abnormal areas shown by SPECT was carried out. These authors concluded that ictal SPECT provides functional evidence for localized epileptogenesis in FCDs. The EEG findings in our patient are different from Kuzniecky et al.’s observation in that our tracing showed a very discrete, localized abnormality concordant with MRI findings. In children with extensive CD, two distinctive EEG abnormalities have been described by Quirk et al. 6 An EEG with very high amplitude rhythmic activity was found to have high specificity but low sensitivity (50% cases) for severe CD. These authors concluded that abnormal fast activity was not specific and was seen with very diverse pathologies. They added that EEG features of the majority of cases with localized CD were very variable. The abnormally fast rhythmic activity seen in our patient is unique and distinctive in that it coincided with the site of FCD lesion seen in MRI. The cellular mechanisms responsible for the trains of desynchronization or electrodecrement and fast rhythm seen on the scalp EEG of our patient appear to be complex. In a study comprising 15 CD patients, Mathern et al. 2 evaluated the electrophysiological and morphological mechanisms responsible for cellular hyperexcitability by sampling neocortical ‘most’ and ‘least’ epileptogenic areas based on neuroimaging and ECoG. The authors concluded that the abnormalities varied from hyperexcitability to hypoexcitability. Perhaps, these varying thresholds of excitation in these abnormal-appearing cells may be responsible for the electrodecremental, as well as fast, rhythms seen in our patient. It is known that cortical dysplastic tissue has a higher intrinsic ability to generate ictal-like discharges 3, 10 . These epileptiform discharges depend
333
Fig. 2: (a) T1W/Inversion recovery MRI scan in axial plane (Philips Gyroscan ACS-NT 1.5 T/TR 2500/TE 14/TI 300) showing cortical heterotopia and closed-lip schizencephaly on the right temporal-parietal region. (b) Note the closed-lip schizencephaly in the right trigone where there is frank communication between grey matter and ventricle (grey matter seen as a ‘nipple like’ projection in to the ventricle).
on excitatory amino acid receptor-mediated mechanisms 10 . Experimental studies have shown that dysplastic cortical lesions have recurrent excitation and decreased inhibitory activity, compared with adjacent non-dysplastic cortex 11 . Such dysfunction at the level of neuronal circuits may be responsible for the abnormal synchronization leading to prolonged trains of epileptic activity 1 . Given that ours is a single case report, it is difficult to derive any statistical conclusion concerning the sensitivity or specificity of this EEG pattern. However, we believe that prolonged, focal FREDs on surface EEG may be predictive of FCD and, as such, may be considered as a clue for
334
undertaking further studies with MRI for structural localization of the lesion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks to Ms Lena Eriksson of the Department of Clinical Neurophysiology for her valuable help in preparing the EEG figures.
REFERENCES 1. Gambardella, A., Palmini, A., Andermann, F. et al. Usefulness of focal rhythmic discharges on scalp EEG of patients with focal cortical and intractable epilepsy. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1996; 98: 243–249. 2. Mathern, G. W., Cepeda, C., Hurst, R. S., Flores-Hernandez, J., Mendoza, D. and Levine, M. S. Neurons recorded from pediatric epilepsy surgery patients with cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia 2000; 41 (Suppl. 6): S162–S167. 3. Mattia, D., Avoli, M. and Olivier, A. Seizure-like discharges recorded in human dysplastic neocortex maintained in vitro. Neurology 1995; 45: 1391–1395. 4. Palmini, A., Gambardella, A., Andermann, F. et al. Operative strategies for patients with cortical dysplastic lesions and intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994; 35 (Suppl. 6): S57–S61.
A. Kuruvilla and R. Flink 5. Raymond, A. A., Fish, D. R., Sisodiya, S. M., Alsanjari, N., Stevens, J. M. and Shorvon, S. D. Abnormalities of gyration, heterotopias, tuberous sclerosis, focal cortical dysplasia, microdysgenesis, dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour and dysgenesis of the archicortex in epilepsy. Clinical, EEG and neuroimaging features in 100 adult patients. Brain 1995; 118: 629–660. 6. Quirk, J. A., Kendall, B., Kingsley, D. P., Boyd, S. G. and Pitt, M. C. EEG features of cortical dysplasia in children. Neuropediatrics 1993; 24: 193–199. 7. Chassoux, F., Devaux, B., Landre, E. et al. Stereoelectroencephalography in focal cortical dysplasia: a 3D approach to delineating the dysplastic cortex. Brain 2000; 123: 1733–1751. 8. Brodtkorb, E., Anderson, K., Henriksen, O., Myhr, G. and Skullerud, K. Focal, continuous spikes suggest cortical developmental abnormalities. Clinical, MRI and neuropathological correlates. Acta Neurologica Scantinavica 1998; 98: 377–385. 9. Kuzniecky, R., Mountz, J. M., Wheatley, G. and Morawetz, R. Ictal single-photon emission computed tomography demonstrates localized epileptogenesis in cortical dysplasia. Annals of Neurology 1993; 34: 627–631. 10. Avoli, M., Bernasconi, A., Mattia, D., Olivier, A. and Hwa, G. G. Epileptiform discharges in the human dysplastic neocortex: in vitro physiology and pharmacology. Annals of Neurology 1999; 46: 816–826. 11. Ferrer, I., Pineda, M. and Tallada, M. Abnormal local-circuit neurons in epilepsia partialis continua associated with focal cortical dysplasia. Acta Neuropathology (Berlin) 1992; 83: 647–652.
doi:10.1053/seiz.2001.0610, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
CASE REPORT
Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia ABRAHAM KURUVILLA & ROLAND FLINK Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Uppsala University Hospital, S – 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden Correspondence to: Abraham Kuruvilla, MD, Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Centre for Neuroscience, Uppsala University Hospital, S – 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]
A distinctive scalp electroencephalographic (EEG) pattern of focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs) in a 23year-old man with symptomatic localization related epilepsy is presented. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain revealed cortical dysplasia over the right temporal region where the peculiar EEG abnormality was detected. We suggest that this characteristic EEG pattern may be predictive of focal cortical dysplasia (FCD). A brief review of the rhythmic EEG abnormalities in FCDs is also presented. c 2002 BEA Trading Ltd. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Key words: cortical dysplasia; epilepsy; intractable epilepsy; EEG; focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges; FREDs.
INTRODUCTION Cortical dysplasia (CD) has been increasingly recognized as a cause of medically refractory epilepsy. Focal cortical dysplasias (FCDs), heterogenous disorders of cortical development and organization with varying subtypes, are highly epileptogenic and the mechanisms responsible for their intrinsic epileptogenicity or cellular hyperexcitability is still not completely elucidated 1–5 . A variety of electroencephalographic (EEG) abnormalities have been reported by different authors. The EEG could be normal even when the cortical dysplasia is extensive 6 . Available surgical data suggests that the dysplastic cortex should be removed completely for achieving freedom from seizures. However, the prognosis remains poor as FCD is difficult to delineate by imaging. The main predictors of a favourable outcome were complete removal of the dysplastic cortex and the epileptogenic zone. These results underscore the importance of neurophysiological data in accurately evaluating the extent of FCD 7 . We report a characteristic EEG pattern consisting of intense, focal fast rhythmic 1059–1311/02/$22.00/0
epileptiform discharges (FREDs) which correlated well with the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesion site in a patient with epilepsy and FCD.
CASE REPORT A 23-year-old male presented with his first epileptic seizure at the age of 17 years. He was born full term to a non-consanguinous parentage and there was no family history of epilepsy. There was no history of febrile convulsions in childhood and he had been completely healthy until the debut of epilepsy. His first seizure was described as a generalized tonic– clonic type and the EEG reportedly showed focal sharp waves on the right temporal area, also appearing in clusters with a duration of about 10 seconds during drowsiness. A computerized tomography (CT) scan of the brain was unremarkable. The patient was started on carbamazepine (CBZ) and he remained seizure-free. Four years later he started to complain of episodes of ‘dizziness’ without any clinical seizure and at the age of 22 years, he started to have epileptic seizures of
c 2002 BEA Trading Ltd. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia
complex partial nature, described as short attacks of staring and oral automatisms without any secondary generalization. He was continued on CBZ and only had seizures provoked by physical exercise.
331
heterotopic grey matter and closed-lip schizencephaly on the right temporal area, lateral to the trigone, extending to the parietal region (Fig. 2(a) and (b)). For the moment our patient has a satisfactory seizure control on an optimal dose of CBZ but in case of increased seizure frequency, he will be offered a preoperative evaluation.
DISCUSSION
Fig. 1(a): The scalp/sphenoidal EEG showing polyspike and wave complexes and delta waves on the right mid-temporal area. (Note the phase reversal at T4 electrode.)
He was referred to the epilepsy group at the University hospital in Uppsala for a diagnostic evaluation due to changed seizure pattern. General physical examination did not reveal any neurocutaneous marker. A detailed neurological examination was unremarkable. He was monitored for 6 hours in a closed circuit video-EEG (VEEG) monitoring system with scalp and sphenoidal electrodes. EEG showed interictal epileptiform discharges consisting of spike/polyspike and wave complexes (Fig. 1(a)) and a moderate degree of slow wave abnormality on the right mid-temporal area. In addition, a distinctive pattern consisting of a spike and wave onset followed by fast rhythmic spikes at 12–14 Hz was noted intermittently on the right temporal area (Fig. 1(b)) lasting for 4–6 seconds. These rhythms, which we call focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs), were at times preceded by a short period of electrodecrement or desynchronization lasting for 1– 1.5 seconds (Fig. 1(c)). EEG abnormalities (Fig. 1(a), (b) and (c)) were seen in wakefulness and sleep and no clinical seizure was recorded during this monitoring. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain showed a focal cortical dysplasia consisting of
Intense epileptogenicity of FCD lesions has always been a curiosity among electroencephalographers. This report highlights a distinct EEG pattern consisting of focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs). The EEG findings revealed a spike and wave onset, at times with a short period of electrodecrement or desynchronization lasting for 1–1.5 seconds, followed by a pattern with trains of rhythmic spikes at 12–14 Hz, of 4–6 seconds in duration, clearly localized to the right temporal area. The MRI of the brain revealed findings consistent with cortical dysplasia concordant with the site of EEG abnormality, pointing to a well-defined epileptogenic zone. In a report consisting of three epileptic patients over a period of 9 years, Brodtkorb et al. 8 described a peculiar pattern of continuous, fast, interictal spiking which was distinctively localized on scalp EEG. These patients showed three different types of malformations of cortical development, namely hemimegalencephaly, a subcortical heterotopion and a FCD, respectively, in the MRI. The epileptiform abnormality described by these authors was continuous spikes, whereas, our patient had subclinical electrographic seizure-like bursts lasting for only 4–6 seconds. In addition, the epileptiform discharges described by these authors were of slower frequency (upto 8 Hz) when compared to our patient who had a faster frequency (12–14 Hz). In an elaborate study comprising a group of 34 patients with CD and intractable epilepsy, Gambardella et al. 1 observed rhythmic epileptiform discharges (REDs) in 15 (44%) patients and 12 (80%) of these 15 patients had continuous epileptiform discharges (CEDs) on electrocorticogram (ECoG). These patients were compared with another group comprising 40 patients who had non-dysplastic structural lesions of the brain and none of this latter group showed REDs in their EEGs. Hence, Gambardella et al. concluded that REDs and CEDs are highly specific and sensitive indicators of FCDs. The rhythmic epileptiform spikes observed on the scalp EEGs by these investigators were of two main types: (1) trains of rhythmic spikes or sharp waves at 4–10 Hz lasting for 1–4 seconds (8/15 or 60%); and (2) slower quasi-continuous rhythmic spikes at
332
A. Kuruvilla and R. Flink
Fig. 1(b): This scalp/sphenoidal EEG illustrates the characteristic surface electrographic pattern consisting of spike/polyspike and wave onset followed by fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges (FREDs) at 12–14 Hz on the right temporal area. (This pattern was never associated with clinical symptoms during this VEEG recording.)
Fig. 1(c): The scalp/sphenoidal EEG showing FREDs preceded by a brief period of focal attenuation of background EEG on the right temporal area. Note the characteristic electrodecrement or desynchronization after the polyspike and wave onset. (This pattern was never associated with clinical symptoms during this VEEG recording.)
Focal fast rhythmic epileptiform discharges on scalp EEG in a patient with cortical dysplasia
2–7 Hz lasting more than 10 seconds (7/15 or 40%). The EEG abnormality observed in our patient is slightly different in that the rhythmic discharges consisted of a faster rhythm at 12–14 Hz preceded by a spike and wave onset and at times a transient electrodecremental state or desynchronization. In addition, the aforementioned authors found that out of the 10 patients with focal or lobar REDs, only two (20%) coincided with the distribution of interictal spiking, thereby showing that interictal sharp waves and spikes were more widespread than REDs. In our patient the interictal spikes and spike–wave complexes were always concordant with the FREDs. Kuzniecky et al. 9 investigated the use of ictal singlephoton emission computed tomography (SPECT) in two children with intractable epilepsy and found that ictal scalp EEGs failed to localize the epileptic focus and the interictal EEG data demonstrated widespread lateralized abnormalities. Although large areas of epileptogenesis was evident by scalp and subdural EEG studies, resection of the abnormal areas shown by SPECT was carried out. These authors concluded that ictal SPECT provides functional evidence for localized epileptogenesis in FCDs. The EEG findings in our patient are different from Kuzniecky et al.’s observation in that our tracing showed a very discrete, localized abnormality concordant with MRI findings. In children with extensive CD, two distinctive EEG abnormalities have been described by Quirk et al. 6 An EEG with very high amplitude rhythmic activity was found to have high specificity but low sensitivity (50% cases) for severe CD. These authors concluded that abnormal fast activity was not specific and was seen with very diverse pathologies. They added that EEG features of the majority of cases with localized CD were very variable. The abnormally fast rhythmic activity seen in our patient is unique and distinctive in that it coincided with the site of FCD lesion seen in MRI. The cellular mechanisms responsible for the trains of desynchronization or electrodecrement and fast rhythm seen on the scalp EEG of our patient appear to be complex. In a study comprising 15 CD patients, Mathern et al. 2 evaluated the electrophysiological and morphological mechanisms responsible for cellular hyperexcitability by sampling neocortical ‘most’ and ‘least’ epileptogenic areas based on neuroimaging and ECoG. The authors concluded that the abnormalities varied from hyperexcitability to hypoexcitability. Perhaps, these varying thresholds of excitation in these abnormal-appearing cells may be responsible for the electrodecremental, as well as fast, rhythms seen in our patient. It is known that cortical dysplastic tissue has a higher intrinsic ability to generate ictal-like discharges 3, 10 . These epileptiform discharges depend
333
Fig. 2: (a) T1W/Inversion recovery MRI scan in axial plane (Philips Gyroscan ACS-NT 1.5 T/TR 2500/TE 14/TI 300) showing cortical heterotopia and closed-lip schizencephaly on the right temporal-parietal region. (b) Note the closed-lip schizencephaly in the right trigone where there is frank communication between grey matter and ventricle (grey matter seen as a ‘nipple like’ projection in to the ventricle).
on excitatory amino acid receptor-mediated mechanisms 10 . Experimental studies have shown that dysplastic cortical lesions have recurrent excitation and decreased inhibitory activity, compared with adjacent non-dysplastic cortex 11 . Such dysfunction at the level of neuronal circuits may be responsible for the abnormal synchronization leading to prolonged trains of epileptic activity 1 . Given that ours is a single case report, it is difficult to derive any statistical conclusion concerning the sensitivity or specificity of this EEG pattern. However, we believe that prolonged, focal FREDs on surface EEG may be predictive of FCD and, as such, may be considered as a clue for
334
undertaking further studies with MRI for structural localization of the lesion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks to Ms Lena Eriksson of the Department of Clinical Neurophysiology for her valuable help in preparing the EEG figures.
REFERENCES 1. Gambardella, A., Palmini, A., Andermann, F. et al. Usefulness of focal rhythmic discharges on scalp EEG of patients with focal cortical and intractable epilepsy. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1996; 98: 243–249. 2. Mathern, G. W., Cepeda, C., Hurst, R. S., Flores-Hernandez, J., Mendoza, D. and Levine, M. S. Neurons recorded from pediatric epilepsy surgery patients with cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia 2000; 41 (Suppl. 6): S162–S167. 3. Mattia, D., Avoli, M. and Olivier, A. Seizure-like discharges recorded in human dysplastic neocortex maintained in vitro. Neurology 1995; 45: 1391–1395. 4. Palmini, A., Gambardella, A., Andermann, F. et al. Operative strategies for patients with cortical dysplastic lesions and intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994; 35 (Suppl. 6): S57–S61.
A. Kuruvilla and R. Flink 5. Raymond, A. A., Fish, D. R., Sisodiya, S. M., Alsanjari, N., Stevens, J. M. and Shorvon, S. D. Abnormalities of gyration, heterotopias, tuberous sclerosis, focal cortical dysplasia, microdysgenesis, dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour and dysgenesis of the archicortex in epilepsy. Clinical, EEG and neuroimaging features in 100 adult patients. Brain 1995; 118: 629–660. 6. Quirk, J. A., Kendall, B., Kingsley, D. P., Boyd, S. G. and Pitt, M. C. EEG features of cortical dysplasia in children. Neuropediatrics 1993; 24: 193–199. 7. Chassoux, F., Devaux, B., Landre, E. et al. Stereoelectroencephalography in focal cortical dysplasia: a 3D approach to delineating the dysplastic cortex. Brain 2000; 123: 1733–1751. 8. Brodtkorb, E., Anderson, K., Henriksen, O., Myhr, G. and Skullerud, K. Focal, continuous spikes suggest cortical developmental abnormalities. Clinical, MRI and neuropathological correlates. Acta Neurologica Scantinavica 1998; 98: 377–385. 9. Kuzniecky, R., Mountz, J. M., Wheatley, G. and Morawetz, R. Ictal single-photon emission computed tomography demonstrates localized epileptogenesis in cortical dysplasia. Annals of Neurology 1993; 34: 627–631. 10. Avoli, M., Bernasconi, A., Mattia, D., Olivier, A. and Hwa, G. G. Epileptiform discharges in the human dysplastic neocortex: in vitro physiology and pharmacology. Annals of Neurology 1999; 46: 816–826. 11. Ferrer, I., Pineda, M. and Tallada, M. Abnormal local-circuit neurons in epilepsia partialis continua associated with focal cortical dysplasia. Acta Neuropathology (Berlin) 1992; 83: 647–652.