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Folk medicinal use of some animal products in Central Sudan
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279 – 282 www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm
Short communication
Folk medicinal use of some animal products in Central Sudan H.H. El-Kamali Department of Biology, Omdurman Islamic Uni6ersity, PO Box 382, Omdurman, Sudan Received 29 November 1997; accepted 4 March 1999
1. Introduction Sudan is the largest country in Africa. It covers an area of about one million square miles. The centre of the country which is the most populated is occupied by different ethnic groups. For the majority of the people in the Sudan, traditional medicine, in fact, remains the main or only source of health care. Sudanese Traditional Medicine (STM) begins at the house-hold level, where family members possess a great deal of information on the diagnosis and traetment of common ailments. STM is characterized by a unique combination of knowledge and practices of Arabic, Islamic and African health care (ElHamidi, 1970; Abdalla, 1994; El-Kamali and Khalid, 1996; El-Kamali and El-Khalifa, 1997). STM is practised by different local medicinal men. Each of these local medicinal practitioners has his own distinct field of practise and treatment. The treatments given by these local medicinal practitioners throughout the Central Sudan include various drugs. These drugs can be divided into three categories: (a) drugs of vegetable origin; (b) drugs of animal origin; or (c) mineral or soil substances or chemical compounds or synthetic products.
Animal products represent one of the components of the traditional medicine in Sudan. The present communication is concerned with the documentation of the most commonly used animal product preparations in Central Sudan.
2. Methodology Information of folk medicinal use of animal products in Central Sudan was obtained through interviews with traditional healers and herbalists, during the period from April 1995 to July 1997. The area from which data were derived (750 km2), centred around 15°43%N latitude and 32°41%E longitude. Literature (Grolier, 1983) was consulted to verify the taxonomical identity of certain animals.
3. Results The animals are listed below in alphabetical order by their scientific names, followed by family. English (E) and local names (L), brief notes on the therapeutic uses and methods of preparation are also given.
0378-8741/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 8 7 4 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 2 0 9 - 9
280
H.H. El-Kamali / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279–282
3.1. Apis mellifera L. Sudanensis (Apidae), honey bees (E), Nahl el assal (L)
3.7. Crocodylus niloticus (Crocodylidae), Crocodile (E), Timsah (L)
Honey is a remarkable liquid prepared by bees from the nectar of many plants. It is a useful nutrient and sweetener. It has a long tradition of use as a demulcent in cough, appetizer, stomach tonic; for liver disorders and gastrointestinal disorders, gastric ulcers and also healing wounds.
An infusion prepared from the dung is dropped on the eyes to improve eyesight.
3.2. Camelus dromedarius (Camelidae), Camel (E), Gamal (L) The urine placed in a copper container is dropped on eyes to improve eyesight. The fresh dung is applied externally on the infected parts to relieve arthritis.
3.3. Canis familiaris (Canidae), Dog (E), El-Kalib (L) The urine is applied externally on skin to treat warts.
3.4. Capra hircus (Bo6idae), Goat (E), Maeiz (L) The powder of the burned wool is used externally as vulnerary. The powdered burned horn is used to clean teeth and also kept in the mouth to treat gum disease and to relieve toothaches. The cloven hoof ash mixed with vinegar is used to treat skin diseases.
3.5. Chamaeleo lambertoni (Chamaeleonidae), Chamelon (E), Hirba’a (L) Licking of complications.
abdomen
in
cases
of
body
3.8. Dendrocynga bicolor (Anatidae), Ducks (E), Butt(L) Ducks fat is smeared on the body to relieve pains.
3.9. Gallus domesticus (Phasianidae), Domestic fowl, (Chicken) (E), Dojaj (L) Chicken meats are eaten as a nutritive, stimulant and aphrodisiac. Egg yolk is used treat coughs, sore throats and externally is used as an astringent. Egg albumen (white) is applied to soothe inflamed eyes.
3.10. Homo sapiens (Homodinae), Human/Women (E), Mara’a (L) Women’s milk is dropped on the eyes to treat conjunctivitis and mixed with powdered resin of Olibanum (Boswellia carterii Birdw.: Burseraceae) applied on eyes to treat eye redness. The spittle (saliva) is used in cases of wounds and cuts.
3.11. Hyaena hyaena (Hyaenidae), Striped Hyaena (E), Mourfaiin (L) Hyaena fat is smeared on the chest to relieve pains and also applied on the affected parts to relieve arthritis and gout.
3.12. Loxodonta africana (Elephantidae), Elephant (E), Fil (L) The powdered ivory is applied to treat whitlow.
3.6. Columbia domestica (Columbidae), Pigeon (E), El-Hamam (L)
3.13. Moschus moschiferus (Cer6idae), Musk-deer (E), AL-ail (L)
The meat is eaten as a nutrient, stimulant and aphrodisiac and also to treat numbness and tremor.
Musk is a brownish wax-like secretion from a gland on the abdomen of musk deer. Musk is used extensively in the manufacture of Sudanese
H.H. El-Kamali / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279–282
perfumes. The body is massaged with Dilka to relieve pains. Dilka is also used as a cosmetic which is spread over the body. On removal, the skin appears smooth and moisturised (Dilka the traditional Sudanese recipe, is composed of a set of materials such as millet flour, Taleh wood, Sandal-wood, musk, Mahleb and dried grape fruit rind).
3.14. Oryctolagus cuniculus (Leporidae), Rabbit (E), Arnb (L)
281
3.20. Struthio camelus (Struthionidae), Ostrich (E), Naam (L) Ostrich fat is smeared on the affected parts as a nerve relaxant and also used in cases of broken bones and paralysis.
3.21. Upupa epops (Upupidae) Hoopoe, Hoopoo (E), Hud-hud (L) As fumigation, Hoopoe is used in cases of psychiatric disorders.
The fresh blood is used externally for swellings, vitiligo and chloasma. The meat is eaten as a laxative, diuretic and for kidney stones.
3.22. Varanus niloticus (Varanidae), Alligator (E), Waral (L)
3.15. O6is aries (Bo6idae), Domestic sheep (E), Kharouf (L)
Alligator fat is applied externally to relieve backache. The powdered dung is used to improve eyesight and to treat warts.
The fresh brain is smeared on gingiva in cases of teeth appearance.
3.23. Vi6erra ci6etta (Vi6erridae), Ci6et (E), Zabada (L)
3.16. Panthera leo (Felidae), Lion (E), Assad (L)
Al-Zubada is the secretion obtained from glands near the external reproductive organs of the Civets after being kept in captivity. AlZubada is applied on the external reproductive organs in the treatment of female sterility.
Lion fat is smeared on the chest to relieve pain.
3.17. Panthera pardus (Felidae), Tiger (E), Nimr (L) Tiger fat is applied externally in cases of paralysis.
3.18. Physeter catodon (Physeteridae), Sperm whale (E), El-Hoot (L) Ambergrisis is found in the stomach and intestine of the sperm whale. It appears to be a secretion caused by irritation of the gut wall by squid beaks in the food. It is usually used as a blood tonic.
3.19. Python sebae (Boidae) Python (E), Assalaa (L) Python fat is applied externally to relieve backache.
4. Discusssion and conclusions The present study identified 23 animal species, belonging to 20 families, whose products were used in traditional medicine in Central Sudan for the treatment of various ailments. A literature survey indicates that the chemical constituents and pharmacological actions of some animal products are already known to some extent. From some considered species viz. Moschus moschiferus, Vi6erra ci6etta, Apis mellifera and Struthio camelus their active constituents and pharmacological actions have been identified (Crane, 1975; Grolier, 1983; Farouk et al., 1988; El-Tom, 1995). The medicinal use of honey has been reported by several workers describing its clinical application in the treatment of wounds, ulcers and burns
282
H.H. El-Kamali / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279–282
(Farouk et al., 1988; Nazrul-Islam et al., 1993). Honey has been reported as an antibacterial agent against pathogenic bacteria including resistant strains of shigella. This property may be attributed to the presence of a flavone pinocembrin in most of honey of different origin (Nazrul-Islam et al., 1993). Prophet Mohamed has limited the principal methods of treatment to three, the administration of honey, cupping and the actual cautery (Al-Safi, 1970). Camelus dromedarius dung is a succussful remedy to relieve arthritis, this property may be attributed to the active constituents present in herbs on which the camels feed. Seven species of animals which products are most prevalent used regularly by the majority of the people in the study area to treat certain ailments are, Apis mellifera (honey), Gallus domesticus (egg yolk and albumen), Homo sapiens (womens milk), Moschus moschiferus (musk), O6is aries (fresh brain), Struthio camelus (ostrich fat) and Vi6erra ci6etta (Al-Zubada). The real effectiveness of these animal products is certainly often bound up with the rituals during which they are administered. Chemical and pharmacological screening of all considered animal products is essential to isolate bioactive agents and to detect the mechanisms involved thereof.
Acknowledgements The author is thankful to Dr Zuhair Nur el Daiem, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sci-
.
ence, University of Khartoum, for his collaboration in the classification of some reported animals.
References Abdalla, W.M., 1994. The role of traditional medicine in childhood health. University of Khartoum, Faculty of economic and Social studies. Al-Safi, A., 1970. Native Medicine in the Sudan: Sources, Conception and Methods, Salmabi Prizes Competition Series No. 1. Sudan research Unit, Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum, p. 40. Crane, E., 1975. Biological properties of honey. In: Cane, E (Ed.), Honey: a Comprehensive Survey. Heineman in Cooperation with International Bee Research Assosiation, London. El-Kamali, H.H., El-Khalifa, K.F., 1997. Treatment of malaria through herbal drugs in Central Sudan. Fitoterapia 6, 527 – 528. El-Kamali, H.H., Khalid, S.A., 1996. The most common herbal remedies in Central Sudan. Fitoterapia 4, 301 – 306. El-Hamidi, A., 1970. Drug plants of the Sudan Republic in native medicine. Planta Medica 3, 279 – 280. El-Tom, S.E.M., 1995. Studies on Ostrich oil, The 6th NAPRECA Symposium On Natural Products Research and Development. Makere University, Kampala, Uganda. Farouk, A., Hassan, T., Kashif, H., et al., 1988. Studies on Sudanese bee honey:laboratory and clinical evaluation. Int. J. Crude. Drug Res. 26, 161 – 168. Grolier Encyclopedia, Cayne, Bernard S., 1983. Animal World. Grolier International, USA. Nazrul-Islam, S.K., Ferdous, A.J., Hassan, C.M., Hassan, M., Sultana, S., 1993. Screening of honey for its antibacterial properties against pathogenic bacteria including resistant strains of shigella. Fitoterapia 2, 176 – 178.
Short communication
Folk medicinal use of some animal products in Central Sudan H.H. El-Kamali Department of Biology, Omdurman Islamic Uni6ersity, PO Box 382, Omdurman, Sudan Received 29 November 1997; accepted 4 March 1999
1. Introduction Sudan is the largest country in Africa. It covers an area of about one million square miles. The centre of the country which is the most populated is occupied by different ethnic groups. For the majority of the people in the Sudan, traditional medicine, in fact, remains the main or only source of health care. Sudanese Traditional Medicine (STM) begins at the house-hold level, where family members possess a great deal of information on the diagnosis and traetment of common ailments. STM is characterized by a unique combination of knowledge and practices of Arabic, Islamic and African health care (ElHamidi, 1970; Abdalla, 1994; El-Kamali and Khalid, 1996; El-Kamali and El-Khalifa, 1997). STM is practised by different local medicinal men. Each of these local medicinal practitioners has his own distinct field of practise and treatment. The treatments given by these local medicinal practitioners throughout the Central Sudan include various drugs. These drugs can be divided into three categories: (a) drugs of vegetable origin; (b) drugs of animal origin; or (c) mineral or soil substances or chemical compounds or synthetic products.
Animal products represent one of the components of the traditional medicine in Sudan. The present communication is concerned with the documentation of the most commonly used animal product preparations in Central Sudan.
2. Methodology Information of folk medicinal use of animal products in Central Sudan was obtained through interviews with traditional healers and herbalists, during the period from April 1995 to July 1997. The area from which data were derived (750 km2), centred around 15°43%N latitude and 32°41%E longitude. Literature (Grolier, 1983) was consulted to verify the taxonomical identity of certain animals.
3. Results The animals are listed below in alphabetical order by their scientific names, followed by family. English (E) and local names (L), brief notes on the therapeutic uses and methods of preparation are also given.
0378-8741/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 8 7 4 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 2 0 9 - 9
280
H.H. El-Kamali / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279–282
3.1. Apis mellifera L. Sudanensis (Apidae), honey bees (E), Nahl el assal (L)
3.7. Crocodylus niloticus (Crocodylidae), Crocodile (E), Timsah (L)
Honey is a remarkable liquid prepared by bees from the nectar of many plants. It is a useful nutrient and sweetener. It has a long tradition of use as a demulcent in cough, appetizer, stomach tonic; for liver disorders and gastrointestinal disorders, gastric ulcers and also healing wounds.
An infusion prepared from the dung is dropped on the eyes to improve eyesight.
3.2. Camelus dromedarius (Camelidae), Camel (E), Gamal (L) The urine placed in a copper container is dropped on eyes to improve eyesight. The fresh dung is applied externally on the infected parts to relieve arthritis.
3.3. Canis familiaris (Canidae), Dog (E), El-Kalib (L) The urine is applied externally on skin to treat warts.
3.4. Capra hircus (Bo6idae), Goat (E), Maeiz (L) The powder of the burned wool is used externally as vulnerary. The powdered burned horn is used to clean teeth and also kept in the mouth to treat gum disease and to relieve toothaches. The cloven hoof ash mixed with vinegar is used to treat skin diseases.
3.5. Chamaeleo lambertoni (Chamaeleonidae), Chamelon (E), Hirba’a (L) Licking of complications.
abdomen
in
cases
of
body
3.8. Dendrocynga bicolor (Anatidae), Ducks (E), Butt(L) Ducks fat is smeared on the body to relieve pains.
3.9. Gallus domesticus (Phasianidae), Domestic fowl, (Chicken) (E), Dojaj (L) Chicken meats are eaten as a nutritive, stimulant and aphrodisiac. Egg yolk is used treat coughs, sore throats and externally is used as an astringent. Egg albumen (white) is applied to soothe inflamed eyes.
3.10. Homo sapiens (Homodinae), Human/Women (E), Mara’a (L) Women’s milk is dropped on the eyes to treat conjunctivitis and mixed with powdered resin of Olibanum (Boswellia carterii Birdw.: Burseraceae) applied on eyes to treat eye redness. The spittle (saliva) is used in cases of wounds and cuts.
3.11. Hyaena hyaena (Hyaenidae), Striped Hyaena (E), Mourfaiin (L) Hyaena fat is smeared on the chest to relieve pains and also applied on the affected parts to relieve arthritis and gout.
3.12. Loxodonta africana (Elephantidae), Elephant (E), Fil (L) The powdered ivory is applied to treat whitlow.
3.6. Columbia domestica (Columbidae), Pigeon (E), El-Hamam (L)
3.13. Moschus moschiferus (Cer6idae), Musk-deer (E), AL-ail (L)
The meat is eaten as a nutrient, stimulant and aphrodisiac and also to treat numbness and tremor.
Musk is a brownish wax-like secretion from a gland on the abdomen of musk deer. Musk is used extensively in the manufacture of Sudanese
H.H. El-Kamali / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279–282
perfumes. The body is massaged with Dilka to relieve pains. Dilka is also used as a cosmetic which is spread over the body. On removal, the skin appears smooth and moisturised (Dilka the traditional Sudanese recipe, is composed of a set of materials such as millet flour, Taleh wood, Sandal-wood, musk, Mahleb and dried grape fruit rind).
3.14. Oryctolagus cuniculus (Leporidae), Rabbit (E), Arnb (L)
281
3.20. Struthio camelus (Struthionidae), Ostrich (E), Naam (L) Ostrich fat is smeared on the affected parts as a nerve relaxant and also used in cases of broken bones and paralysis.
3.21. Upupa epops (Upupidae) Hoopoe, Hoopoo (E), Hud-hud (L) As fumigation, Hoopoe is used in cases of psychiatric disorders.
The fresh blood is used externally for swellings, vitiligo and chloasma. The meat is eaten as a laxative, diuretic and for kidney stones.
3.22. Varanus niloticus (Varanidae), Alligator (E), Waral (L)
3.15. O6is aries (Bo6idae), Domestic sheep (E), Kharouf (L)
Alligator fat is applied externally to relieve backache. The powdered dung is used to improve eyesight and to treat warts.
The fresh brain is smeared on gingiva in cases of teeth appearance.
3.23. Vi6erra ci6etta (Vi6erridae), Ci6et (E), Zabada (L)
3.16. Panthera leo (Felidae), Lion (E), Assad (L)
Al-Zubada is the secretion obtained from glands near the external reproductive organs of the Civets after being kept in captivity. AlZubada is applied on the external reproductive organs in the treatment of female sterility.
Lion fat is smeared on the chest to relieve pain.
3.17. Panthera pardus (Felidae), Tiger (E), Nimr (L) Tiger fat is applied externally in cases of paralysis.
3.18. Physeter catodon (Physeteridae), Sperm whale (E), El-Hoot (L) Ambergrisis is found in the stomach and intestine of the sperm whale. It appears to be a secretion caused by irritation of the gut wall by squid beaks in the food. It is usually used as a blood tonic.
3.19. Python sebae (Boidae) Python (E), Assalaa (L) Python fat is applied externally to relieve backache.
4. Discusssion and conclusions The present study identified 23 animal species, belonging to 20 families, whose products were used in traditional medicine in Central Sudan for the treatment of various ailments. A literature survey indicates that the chemical constituents and pharmacological actions of some animal products are already known to some extent. From some considered species viz. Moschus moschiferus, Vi6erra ci6etta, Apis mellifera and Struthio camelus their active constituents and pharmacological actions have been identified (Crane, 1975; Grolier, 1983; Farouk et al., 1988; El-Tom, 1995). The medicinal use of honey has been reported by several workers describing its clinical application in the treatment of wounds, ulcers and burns
282
H.H. El-Kamali / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72 (2000) 279–282
(Farouk et al., 1988; Nazrul-Islam et al., 1993). Honey has been reported as an antibacterial agent against pathogenic bacteria including resistant strains of shigella. This property may be attributed to the presence of a flavone pinocembrin in most of honey of different origin (Nazrul-Islam et al., 1993). Prophet Mohamed has limited the principal methods of treatment to three, the administration of honey, cupping and the actual cautery (Al-Safi, 1970). Camelus dromedarius dung is a succussful remedy to relieve arthritis, this property may be attributed to the active constituents present in herbs on which the camels feed. Seven species of animals which products are most prevalent used regularly by the majority of the people in the study area to treat certain ailments are, Apis mellifera (honey), Gallus domesticus (egg yolk and albumen), Homo sapiens (womens milk), Moschus moschiferus (musk), O6is aries (fresh brain), Struthio camelus (ostrich fat) and Vi6erra ci6etta (Al-Zubada). The real effectiveness of these animal products is certainly often bound up with the rituals during which they are administered. Chemical and pharmacological screening of all considered animal products is essential to isolate bioactive agents and to detect the mechanisms involved thereof.
Acknowledgements The author is thankful to Dr Zuhair Nur el Daiem, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sci-
.
ence, University of Khartoum, for his collaboration in the classification of some reported animals.
References Abdalla, W.M., 1994. The role of traditional medicine in childhood health. University of Khartoum, Faculty of economic and Social studies. Al-Safi, A., 1970. Native Medicine in the Sudan: Sources, Conception and Methods, Salmabi Prizes Competition Series No. 1. Sudan research Unit, Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum, p. 40. Crane, E., 1975. Biological properties of honey. In: Cane, E (Ed.), Honey: a Comprehensive Survey. Heineman in Cooperation with International Bee Research Assosiation, London. El-Kamali, H.H., El-Khalifa, K.F., 1997. Treatment of malaria through herbal drugs in Central Sudan. Fitoterapia 6, 527 – 528. El-Kamali, H.H., Khalid, S.A., 1996. The most common herbal remedies in Central Sudan. Fitoterapia 4, 301 – 306. El-Hamidi, A., 1970. Drug plants of the Sudan Republic in native medicine. Planta Medica 3, 279 – 280. El-Tom, S.E.M., 1995. Studies on Ostrich oil, The 6th NAPRECA Symposium On Natural Products Research and Development. Makere University, Kampala, Uganda. Farouk, A., Hassan, T., Kashif, H., et al., 1988. Studies on Sudanese bee honey:laboratory and clinical evaluation. Int. J. Crude. Drug Res. 26, 161 – 168. Grolier Encyclopedia, Cayne, Bernard S., 1983. Animal World. Grolier International, USA. Nazrul-Islam, S.K., Ferdous, A.J., Hassan, C.M., Hassan, M., Sultana, S., 1993. Screening of honey for its antibacterial properties against pathogenic bacteria including resistant strains of shigella. Fitoterapia 2, 176 – 178.