Food behavior and related factors of Puerto Rican-American teenagers

Food Behavior and Related Factors of Puerto Rican-American Teenagers Roberta L. Duyff, Diva Sanjur and Helen Y. Nelson Food habits of Puerto Rican-American teenage girls appeared to be influenced by cultural and economic background, age, and nutrition knowledge.

Summary The food habits of Puerto Rican-American teenage girls were investigated to ascertain whether they were nutritionally adequate and examine dietary patterns within a sociocultural and cognitive context. Nutritional adequacy, dietary diversity, and frequency of consumption and their relation to nutrition knowledge and socioeconomic factors were assessed. Seventy-five girls from the Puerto Rican community i,n Chicago completed questionnaires and 3-day food records. Ethnic food patterns made significant contributions to the diet. Vitamin C intake was higher than hoted among most teenage populations i,n the U.S. Traditional patterns also provided substantial amounts of calcium and iron, and resulting intake matched U.S. teenage trends. Vitamin A levels were much lower owing to the typically low consumption of vegetables. Patterns typical of U.S. consumption also emerged. For instance, intake of low-nutriture , high-calorie snack foods was prevalent among the sample population. The diet was related to knowledge and socioeconomic variables. A greater knowledge of nutrition related to better diets. Older girls, those whose mothers did not work, and working teens also had more adequate food patterns.

Dietary patterns of Americans are widely divergent. Each pattern relates to a vast array of sociological and behavioral variables; each pattern is unique to its population group and ultimately to each individual. Nutritionists have noted that an understanding of sociocultural and behavioral influences on food habits is essential to the overall success of nutrition intervention programs (1, 2), specifically those oriented toward particular ethnic groups (3, 4). Dietary studies related to the food habits and nutrient intake of many segments of the Spanish-speaking population in the United States have been somewhat limited. The purposes of this study were twofold: 1. To e~aluate the diets of groups of Puerto Rican-American teenage girls, a significant minority subgroup in the U .S., by ascertaining their food patterns and dietary quality, and 2. To provide an approach to food habit study which related food patterns to socioeconomic variables, and nutrition knowledge variables. Immigrants bring their food habits to a country as far as resources and transportation permit (5); thus ethnic influences of the Puerto Rican culture may strongly affect dietary choice among the population. Limited research on the Puerto Rican diet in America suggests an influence when cultural food items are availa,ble (6-9). The U .S. food pattern has a strong impact on immigrants as well. Puerto Rican teenagers are influenced by the lifestyles of adolescents in America; patterns adapted by the latter group may lead to poor dietary quality. Although studies completed on diets of teens have shown the majority to have adequate intakes, a significant minority consume low levels of calcium, iron, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid (lO-13). Nutrient assessment combined with evaluation of eating patterns indicates that frequent, structured meals and snacking contribute to a positive diet (11,14-17). THE AUTHORS are, respectively, Nutrition Education Consultant, N ew England Dairy and Food Council, 1034 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215; Associate Professor, Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850; and Associate Professor, CommuhityService Education, Cornell University. Vol. 7, No.3 , July-September, 1975

An individual and his food patterns are molded by his ecological .and socioeconomic environment. Age and / or educational level (12-14, 18), family size (19), ethnicity (7, 16. 20), occupational differentiation of parents (12, 15,21), and employment status of teen (12) have been related to ·food behavior and resultant intake. Although the urge to satisfy hunger is fundamental, food patterns are influenced ,by cognitive (i.e., knowledge) variables as well. Knowledge of nutrition has related to positive food behavior in some U.S. studies (11, 15, 17,22). Which, if any, of these variables plays a role in the dietary habits of the Puerto Rican teenager? Three Instruments to Gather Data A sample of 75 girls age 15 to 19 was drawn from participants in a summer educational program 1 developed specifically for the Spanish-speaking. In order to account for differences in the results other than sex, it was decided to study girls only. This is a methodological technique employed in field investigation to "control" variability. Research was carried out in Chicago which has one of the largest communities of Puerto Ricans in the U.S. All of the girls had parents who were born in Puerto Rico, and many were born there or had resided there themselves. For the characteristics measured. the study group paralleled the Puerto Rican population on the mainland (23). The study population was self-selected in that they had chosen to enter the program where the research was done. "Purposive" sampling techniques using judgment and strategy in choosing individuals characterized by the operational definitions was done. Three instruments were developed to gather data. A 3-day food record provided food intake data. Diets were evaluated by calculating the amounts of selected nutrients; diversity of the diet and frequency of eating were also ascertained. Selected socioeconomic variables were measured using a questionnaire. Knowledge of nutrition was evaluated with a m ultiple-choice test which covered several nutrient content areas, and an index was obtained from the number of correct responses. The instruments were pretested with a group of Puerto Rican-American teenage girls from Rochester, N.Y., that had similar social characteristics as the test population. The pretest gave evidence of the reliability of the instruments for use in the final data collection. A 0.82 reliability coefficient was found for the nutrition knowledge test. Three sets of variables were studied. They included: 1. Food variables: nutritional adequacy-amounts of vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron consumed were calculated from a 3-day food record and related to the RDAs; dietary diversity-average number of different food items eaten by the respondent per day; frequency of consumption-number of periods during the day when food was consumed. 'The 12.week summer program was sponsored by ASPIRA, a Puerto Rican action agency organized in four cities in the U.S. and Puerto Rico. Its purpose is to orient Puerto Rican youth t()ward. professional and technical fields, to. help them acquire .strong cultural identities. and to develop leadership potential within the Spanish community. Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION / 99

2. Nutrition knowledge variables: nutrition knowledgewhat the teenager knew about nutrition as ascertained by an objective test. 3. Socioeconomic variables: age-subject from 15 to 19 years of age; birthplace-place of birth ,as Puerto Rico, Chicago, or elsewhere; residence.-.number of years of Puerto Rican or U.S. residence; family size-number of adults and ohildren living in the householdinduding the toon; occupational differentiation of parents-type of job presently engaged in by male and/ or female heads of household ranked separately by sex; employment of teen-Dotation if teen was presently employed; educational attainment-year in school completed/presently enrolled in: sources of nutrition information-three sources as perceived by teen as most important fOor nutrition information. Calculations of the average calcium, iron, vitamin A, and vitamin C consumption and of dietary diversity were made following the methodology described by Schorr (12). Composition tables from the U.S. and Latin America were the references for food values (24-27). Frequency of eating was scored by dividing the day into 2-hour segments and adding the number of periods in which food was eaten. For overall analysis, hand tabulations were used to calculate data in preparation~or the computer. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (28) was the programming reference. Statistical methods employed in the study were: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, Kendall Tau Beta Correlation Coefficients, Kendall rank order correlations, and Table I Sociocultural Characteristics of Teens

% frequency

Characteristic Age Fifteen years Sixteen years Seventeen years Eighteen years Nineteen years

7.0 23.0 30.0 30.0 10.0 Mean = 16.2 years

Family size 2-5 members 6-9 members 10 or more members Mean = 6.6 members Length of teens' residence in Puerto Rico More than 3 years 3 yea rs or less No residence Mean = 6.2 years Grade level in school completed/enrolled i,n First year in high school Second year in high school Third year in high school Fourth year in high school Beyond high school Father's occupation Professional, managerial Clerical and sa les Services . Skilled la bor Semi-skilled labor Unskilled labor Not applicable Do not know n=75 100 / Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

Table 2 Mean Intake of Calcium, Iron, Vitamin A, and Ascorbic Acid Nutrient

Mean intake

Standard deviation

746 mg 9.4mg 29431.U. 64.1 mg

374 mg 3.0 mg 3561.U. 33.0 mg

RDA (1974)

Calcium Iron Vitami,nA Ascorbic acid

1300 mg 18.0 mg 40001.U. 45.0 mg n=75

Cross Tabulations. They have been described in a previous publication (12). Influence Factors The characteristics of the sample are presented in Table I. Demographic data suggested that the teenagers were affected by their ethnic background. Their own residence in Puerto Rico and the influence from their parents, all but one of whom had been born in Puerto Rico, were key factors. Sixty percent of the teens had resided on the island, and 47% were born there. The mean length of their residence in Puerto Rico was 6.2 years. The circulatory migration pattern typical of this population was evidenced by the girls' frequent travel be" tween the U.S. and Puerto Rico. The teens' average age was 16.2 years with a range from 15 to 19. They were attending high school; their grade levels in school were closely related to their ages. Census data (23) note that younger Puerto Ricans in America are better educated than older immigrants. The average size of the family was 6.6 members. Seventy percent reported that fathers were employed, while 23 % had working mothers. Few had parents who were both employed. A higher participation of males in the labor market is typical. During the summer, only 9% of the teens were employed. Calcium

Iron

Vitamin A

Ascorbic Acid

80% 43.0 45.0 12.0

29.0 31.0 40.0

3.0 26.0 21.0 46.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 7.0 12.0 13.0 29.0 27.0 7.0

~ Consumed 1-33 percent of the ~ Recommended Dietary Allowance

Bll!ISS!I Consumed 34-66 percent of the

IfISm Recommended Dietary Allowance rmConsumed 67-99 percent of the

Ld Recommended Dietary Allowance

ttI Consumed 100 p~rcent or more of the •,.,.,.,.,.,', ', Recommended Dietary Allowance Fig.I-Percentage of teens receivi,ng various proportions of their recommended dietary allowance for calcium, iron, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid. Vol. 7, No.3, July-September, 1975

Statistics, showing mean nutrient intake (see Table 2) and percent of teens with inadequate levels of nutrient intake (see Fig. 1), revealed that a large proportion of the population consumed lower than adequate levels of the nutrients mea" sured (using the 1974 Recommended Dietary Allowance as a basis for evaluation). A significant percentage were below the two-thirds of RDA level of vitamin A (62%), iron (80%), and calcium (69%) intake; however, 82% of the teens' diets were adequate in vitamin C. Iron, calcium, and ascorbic acid levels followed trends noted in other U.S. studies (10-13), but vitamin A intake was significantly lower than reported in other U.S. teenage studies (10-12). Among the population in Puerto Rico, calcium, iron, and vitamin A are deficient nutrients also, and ascorbic acid is more deficient among urban than rural populations (29). Recently dietary diversity was defined as an indicator of nutritional quality (12); a more diverse diet could likely be a more adequate diet. The mean diversity per day among the Puerto Rican teens was low, 12.5 items, and more adequate diets were more diverse. Less variety in the food patterns of this group does reflect the ethnic pattern (4). Teens ate frequently throughout the day. Not only were typical mealtimes popular, but frequent mini-meals were eaten as was evidenced by the fact that 6.6% ate 2 or 3 times a day, 30.7% ate 4 times a day, 33.3% ate 5 times a day, 24.0% ate 6 times a day, and 5.3% ate 7 to 8 times a day. In addition, 72 % ate before 9 a.m. Although early morning intake did not always contribute significant amounts of nutrients, a majority of the teens began the day with at least something to eat. Consumption patterns reflected both U.S. and Puerto Rican influences. Table 3 summarizes the food consumed by the greatest percentage of the population over a 3-day period. Milk intake was higher than noted in island studies (29-31); however, it was not sufficient to meet the daily calcium allowance. The mean daily intake was only 9.8 ounces. Ethnic customs contributed positively to intake of dairy products. For instance, teens often combined quantities of milk in coffee and cocoa (see Table 4). A milk consumption study of Puerto Rican homemakers and preschoolers (7) showed similar habits. Consumption of meat and other protein sources was adequate. Chiliken, a Puerto Rican preference, was popular among the highest percentage of teens, 63 % . Although studies have indicated a high ingestion of fish-particularly codfishamong Puerto Ricans (6, 25), consumption was very low here possibly due to geographic location of the study. Higher prices and. decreased availability in the U.S. and now on the island (29, 32) maybe reflected. Beans were important in the diet. The mean daily intake was 0.4 cups, and 67 % of the teens consumed them during the three-day period. The diet included a variety of typical legumes, e.g., frijoles (cowpeas), garbanzos (chick peas),gandules (pigeon peas), and habichuelas coloradas (kidney beans). In contrast to other work (7), eggs were not consumed in large quantity. Evidence of vegetable consumption was low but suggestive of the typically low intake among islanders (31). More fruit was consumed than vegetables. Although many tropical fruits are not available or are relatively expensive in the U.S., fruits which are easily purchased, e.g., oranges, peaches, bananas, and apples, were popular. Some of these fruits are consumed in Puerto Rico as well butirregularly (29-31). Of the breads and cereals, rice was the most popular and was consumed by 96% of the teens during the 3-day period; average consumption was 0.6 cups per day. Their rice, most likely purch~sed in large quantities, may not have been enriched since ihis was not required by law in Chicago as it was in Puerto Rico. Other cereal products were consumed frequently. Vol. 7, No.3, July·September, 1975

Intake of
Table 3 Distribution of Teens' Consumption of Specific Food Items Foods Foods consumed by 50 to 100% of the sample Milk Rice Cola Bread Sofrito* Butter/margarine Legumes Coffee Chicken Ham Orange Orange juice Cheese Foods consumed by 25 to 49% of the sample Beef (not including hamburgers) Peach Coron chips Potato chips Candy Lettuce French fried potatoes Banana Hamburger Ice cream (not including bars, cones, sandwiches) Doughnut Cookies Tomato Bologna Pork Cocoa Ice cream bars, cones, sandwiches Lemon pop Soup Eggs Foods consumed by 10 to 24% of the sample Salami Crackers Cake Milkshake Chocolate milk Fruit punch Orange pop Spaghetti Pizza Potatoes (not includi,ng French fried potatoes) Hot dog (not including other sausages) Onions Plantain Sausage Hot cereal

96 96 92 87 80 77 77 64 64 59

56 53 52 49 48 44 40

40 40

37 37 35 35 33

32 32 29 29

29 28

28 27 25

23 23 23 21 16 15 15 15 15 15 13 12 10 10 , 10

·Sofrito-a sauce made of tomato sauce, onion, garlic, green pepper, black pepper, salt pork and fat; used as a base for stewed rice, beans, and meat. Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION / 101

Table 4 . Va'ried Ways. in Which Milk-Was Consumed Per Person Consumption pattern

% frequency

Fluid milk only Milk alone and in coffee Milk alone and i.n cocoa Milk alone and combination of milk in cereal, cocoa, and coffee Combination of milk in cereal,cocoa, and coffee Milk alone and in cereal Milk in coffee only No milk consumed

32.0 24.0

14.7 10.6 8.0 5.3 2.7 2.7 100.0

Implications for Nutrition Education

n=75

Nutrition Knowledge Based on the test, the teens did not know a great deal about nutrition principles. The spread of scores, however, was ample for correlation. A relationship was noted between nutrition knowledge and several food intake variables. Higher intake of vitamin A and vitamin C and greater dietary' diversity were all significantly and positively related to better scores. This supports other research which has shown a relationship between food intake and knowledge of nutriti()n (15, 21,22). Students ranked those sources of nutrition . information which were most influential to them (see Table 5). Although the data cannot measure the real degree of influence, they do suggest where the teen notes her conscious attempts to learn about nutrition. In correlational analysis, age was the most significant demographic factor related to diet. Older teens had higher intakes of vitamin A, calcium, and iron but had less varied diets than younger girls. Other recent research among Colombian youth (33) has noted that age was associated in the same direction .liound here (i.e., the older the youth, the better the diet). Ethnicity, when measured by birthplace and by residence in Chicago and Puerto Rico, had some relation to the adequacy' of food intake. Those living longer in Chicago had lower iron intakes, perhaps related to less diversity or smaller quantities of meat dishes or lower intake of beans. Teens born on the island tended to consume less milk. Since all parents but one were born there, the degree of their influence could not be measured; however, ethnicity was evidenced through specific traditional food items consu~~d. . Family size had almost no associatIon. to food lDtake as

Table 5 Percent of Teens Mentioning Various Sources of Nutrition Information Source of nutrition information Mother or other relative Home economics class Professional person (doctor, nurse) Friends Health class Printed material (bulletin, book) Advertising (radio, television) Elementary school Other n=75

102 I Journal of NUTRITION EDUCATION

noted by other teenage and Puerto Rican dietary studies (7, 15). In terms of parental occupation, mother's employment bore the strongest relation to the teen's diet. Girls with working mothers ingested less vitamin C and iron, and they ate fewer times per day. A higher level in the occupational scale exhibited by the parents was associated with frequent consumption of soft drinks, perhaps indicating that more money was available for snacks. Working teens had slightly more adequate diets. Their vitamin A and iron intake was higher, and they tended to eat more often. Perhaps the added income enabled them to consume more food thus adding nutrients. Lastly, teens educational attainment bore no relationship to dietary intake.

% 92.0 50.6 43.4 36.6 29.3 13.4

12.0 8.0 6.7

Findings point to the necessity for nutrition intervention programs designed to improve the q~ali~y of diets of .Puerto Rican teenagers. Basic to programmmg IS un.d~rstandlDg ~he factors which influence food habits. NutntlOn educatron which considers variables affecting food choice can better guide dietary improvement. Diets of Puerto Rican-Americans have many strengths which should be emphasized in nutrition education. A significant percentage were deficient in their dietary intake of specific nutrients; nevertheless their dietary patterns made strong contributions in certain nutrients. For instance, vitamin C intake was high when compared with findings referred to earlier. Milk consumption was higher than on the island, and ingestion of beans contributed to reasonably high levels of iron. Certainly these culturally determined food patterns supply sources of many nutrients and are · positive dietary components on which to build. In light of this study, increased intake of vegetables, dairy products, and foods high in iron should be advised. Dietary influences came from the U.S. and the island. Contacts within the mainstream of American society strongly affected the teens' food choice. Perhaps as acculturation occurs, typical dietary patterns and problems rel~ting to .~m~ri­ can diets are more in evidence; still, the ' ethmc condlttomng of home continues and may add to or subtract from dietary adequacy. Nutrition educators need to recognize patterns in both types of diets which contribute to adequacy. Healthful food habits from home should be encouraged while introducing those food patterns in the U.S. which constitute a sound diet. . Variety and frequency in eating playa role in better diets. Teens need to be encouraged to eat many different foods if diets are to supply sufficient amounts of nutrients for their needs. Frequent eating can certainly play a significant and positive role in the teens' diet when food is wisely chosen. Guidance in choice is the role of the nutrition educator. Knowledge of nutrition was related to good food patterns among the study sample. Since nutrition education in the present study seemed to have some effect, more learning experiences with this and other groups m~~ lead to a bet~er fed nation. For these educational opportumtIes to be meamngful, they must take into account the cultural background of the target population. Those involved i?- teaching at. al~ levels ~an be the vehicles for nutrition educatIon through Its mtegratton into a broader curriculum. Certainly educators outside the classroom, e.g., mother, relatives, friends, medical personnel, and advertisers, can also play a significant role if they are prepared to carry .the nutrition message in the ethnic "language." If the teen has not acquired a sound knowledge o{ principles of nutrition in earlier training, these concepts must be developed and valued as tools for choosing food to meet the nutritional demands of adolescence and adulthood. Vol. 7, No.3, July-September, 1975

In examining the factors surrounding the diet of the Puerto Rican teenage girl, several variables were related to food patterns. As she grows older and has a job, her diet improves. The working mother with a busy schedule is less apt to provide a nutritionally adequate diet for her teenager. Again nutrition education during adolescence may be carried into adulthood and then on to the teen's own family. The young girl may consume a more adequate diet as she grows older; during her maturation, educators should guide her in strengthening food patterns. Understanding ethnic food habits and the forces affecting them are critical elements to the succes~ of nutrition intervention programs. Dietary modification where inadequacies exist, rather than change in food habits, is the key to acceptance of intervention and ultimately to the nutrition educator's goalan individual's ability and desire to make wise food choices! REFERENCES 1. Aldrich, R.A, Nutrition and human .development, J. Am. Dietel. Assn., 46:453, 1965. 2. Freedman, R.L., Nutrition and anthropology: each can help each other, Community Nutr. Inst. Week. Rep., 4:3, 1974. 3. Babcock, C.I., Attitudes and the use of food, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 38:546, 1962. 4. Sanjur, D., Puerto Rican Food Habits: A Sociocultural Approach, Notebook, Cornell University, 1970. 5. Queen, G.S., Culture, economics, and food habits, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 33: 1044, 1957. 6. Standard, AL., Puerto Rican Food Habits, mimeo, Neighborhood Maternity Center, Bronx, N.Y., 1970. 7. Sanjur, D., Romero, E. and Kira, M., Milk consumption patterns of Puerto Rican preschool children in rural New York, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 24: 1320, 1971. 8. Sanjur, D., Romero, E. and Nevill, G., A Community Study of Food Habits Among Families Participating in the East Harlem Nutrition Education Program, Research report, Cornell University, 1972. 9. Tribbett, W.I. Ascorbic Acid Analysis of Puerto Rican Fruits and Vegetables, Master's thesis, Cornell University, 1972. 10. Clark, R., A scorecard on how we Americans are eating, in The Yearbook of Agriculture 1969: Food for Us All, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1969, pp. 266-272. 11. Hampton, M.e., Huenemann, R.L., Shapiro, L.R. and Mitchell, B:W., Caloric .and nutrient intakes of teenagers, J. Am. Dietet. Assn.,5(): 385, 1967. 12. Schorr, 'B.C, Sanjur, D. and Erickson, E.e., Teenage food habits: a multidimensional analysis, J. Am. Dietel. Assn., 61 :415, 1972. 13. Wharton, M.A., Nutritive intake of adolescents, J. Am. Dietel. Assn., 42: 306, 1963. 14. Edwards, C.H., Hogan, G., Spohr, S. and Guilford County Nutrition Committee, Nutrition survey of 6200 teenage youth, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 45:543,1964. 15. Hodges, R.F. and Krehl, W.A, Nutritional status of teens in Iowa, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 17:200, 1963.

Fewer Households, Changes in Age Groups by 1980s What kind of audiences will nutrition educators be dealing with in the future? According to Herbert Zeltner, vicepresident of a marketing research organization in New York City, by 1985 the proportion of under-25s will drop below the 40% mark for the first time in U.S. history. Zeltner's data and conclusions were based on information from government sources, universities, Vol. 7, No.3, July-September, 1975

16. Huenemann, R.L.,Shapiro, L.R., Hampton, M.C. and Mitchell, B.W., Food and eating practices of teenagers, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 53: 17, 1968. 17. Thomas, IA.and Call, D.L., Eating between meals-a nutrition problem among teens?, Nutr. Rev., 31:137, 1973. 18. Everson, G.L., Bases for concern over teenage diets, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 36:17,1960. 19. Covan, B., Go, F., Konicek, R. ,and Runge, R., A study of adolescent food habits in rural, suburban, and urban commllnities, Prog. Educ., 31 :244, 1954. 20. Lantz, E.M. and Wood, P., Nutrition of New Mexican Spanish Americans and 'Anglo' adolescents. I. Food habits and nutrient intakes, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 34: 138, 1958. 21. Hinton, M.S., Eppright, E.W., Chadderton, H ..and Wolins, L., Eating behavior and dietary intake of girls 12 to 14 years old, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 43:223, 1963. 22. Whitehead, IE., How nutrition education can affect adolescent food choices, J. Am. Dietet. Assn., 37:348, 1969. 23. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Selected characteristics of persons and families of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and other Spanish origin: March, 1972, Current Population Rep., Series P-20, N238, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1972c. 24. Church, C.G. and Church, H.N., Food Values of Portions Commonly Used, 11th ed., I. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1970. 25. Roberts, L., de Fogelman, R.P., de Riguei"o, L.C. and Torres, RM., Tabla de Composicion de Los Alimentos Mas Usados en Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico, San Iuan, P.R. 26. Watt, B.K. and Merrill, AL., Composition of Foods: Raw, Processed, and Prepared, Handbook Number 8, U.S. Department of AgricuLture, Government Printing Office, W\lshington, D.C., 1963. 27. Wu Leung, W., Tabla deComposicion de Alimentos ParaUso en America Latina, 2nd ed., Institute of Nutrition of Central America (Guatemala City, C.A. ) and the Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md., 1961. 28. Nie, N.H., Bent, D.H. and Hill, C.H., Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1963, pp. 115-128, 143-156. 29. Fernandez, N.A, Burgos, I.C., Roberts, L.I. and Asenjo, C.P., Nutritional status in a Puerto Rican slum area, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 21 :646, 1968. 30. Fernandez, N.A, Burgos, I.e., Asenjo, C.F. and Rosa, I., A Nutrition Survey of Five Rural Puerto Rican Communities, mimeo, Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Iuan,P.R, 1968. 31. Fernandez, N.A, Burgos, I.C.,. Asenjo, C.F. and Rosa, I., Nutritional status of the Puerto Rican population. Master sample survey. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 24:952, 1971. 32. Ariza, I.A,Collazo, H.D. and Sanchez, E., The Contribution of University Programs to the Diagnosis of the lsland Nutritional Status, Food Balance Sheet-Puerto Rico 1967-1968, Talk given at IXth International Congress of Nutrition, Mexico City, September 1972. 33. Walter, I.P., Two poverties equal one hunger, J. Nutr. Educ.• 5:2, 1973.

financial community and business press. The decline in the birth rate has not stopped yet, but demographers expect that it will "bottom out" some time in the next decade simply because there will be many more women of child bearing age. Level of education is expected to rise. H is estimated that more than 30% of the adult population will have some college experience by 1985, compared with less than 20% in 1965. The interest in vocational and specific careeroriented training is expected to increase. Women will be increasingly impor-

tant in the working force. Almost four out of 10 workers will be female by the mid-1980s. A great increase is expected among working married women, aged 35-44, with increasing acceptance of day care for preschool and early school age children. The increasing interest in preschool nutrition teaching in day care centers (see Program Ideas in this issue; pp. 116-117) reflects the opportunities available for early nutrition education. Source: Zeltner, H., Sees over-25 set rising, households shrinking in 1980s, Advertising Age, front cover, July 14, 1975. Jo.urnal of NUTRITION EDUCATION! Ul3