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Food industry waste biorefineries: future energy, valuable recovery, and waste treatment
Food industry waste biorefineries: future energy, valuable recovery, and waste treatment
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Ankush, Khushboo and Kashyap Kumar Dubey Bioprocess Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, India
17.1
Introduction
The population is growing at a very fast rate, which indirectly increases the demand of energy, chemicals, food, and other important things required for survival. The increasing demand of the society is pushing the researchers to introduce novel techniques with low adverse effect on the environment. An alternative feedstock of renewable raw materials over the fossil-based raw material admires the scientists to create the concept of biorefinery. The process of biorefinery provides better output of the energy, chemicals, and other materials as compared to the conventional methods of refinery. Biomass and waste materials are utilized as raw materials by a series of sustainable technologies to produce valuable products with high economy (Gude and Martinez-Guerra, 2017). The paradigm of biorefinery defines the great hub of scientists from various field of science, such as biochemistry, biology, economics, environmental sciences, and chemical engineering to invent a bio-based framework to utilize renewable resources. Generally, food crops are consumed as basic material for the production of biofuels and other materials which point out various deficiencies and issues for their utilization in a bioeconomy (Cherubini, 2010; Luque et al., 2008). Introduction of a well-managed and integrated approach is in demand which utilizes by-products, waste, and other residues as raw materials to achieve the goal of high production ratio to the feedstock. At present, waste is a major issue of concern at global level, especially in the developing countries. There could be different types of waste based on origin, such as industrial, agricultural, and solid waste. The food-processing companies are responsible for 50% production of the total waste produced in countries which could be considered as preconsumer type of waste having 60% of the organic matter. According to McKinsey Global Institute report, food waste holds third rank among the 15 recognized resources for the production of economically beneficial products (Dobbs et al., 2011). However, in many cases the food wastes are used for landfilling, composting, animal feed, or as organic matter. But the present scenario of our society demands the introduction of advanced processes for the conversion of food waste in high value and commercial products to attain maximum profit Refining Biomass Residues for Sustainable Energy and Bioproducts. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818996-2.00017-X © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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along with lowering of food waste. Along with that the environmental ministry should organize workshops to awake the society about the utilization of food waste as resources instead of a problem. 38% of the total food waste is produced by manufacturing sector, while 42% is generated by household sectors, representing the rate of waste generation in food supply chain. At the management stage the household waste is a big issue with difficulties in collection, along with higher expenses in the dispose off. Employment of the food waste as resources would be beneficial for the industry along with the formation of new products and also provides growth opportunities to touch the heights of zero waste economy (Lin et al., 2013). The novel and advanced practices for the utilization of food waste as raw material and their engagement in the future bioeconomy are mainly highlighted in this contribution.
17.2
Food waste as resource
The terminated products of food-processing industries with low economic value that has not been utilized for other purposes come under the category of food waste. Industries are moving toward eco-friendly, cost-effective processes to make the use of food waste as raw material to produce market value products. Along with industry the regulations and standards of landfill directive in Europe also promote the use of food waste. Currently, animal feeding, composting, incineration, and land filling are the normal practices for the food-waste management. The present management strategies might be integrated with novel eco-friendly strategies that posse the ability to produce valuable and profitable products (Lin et al., 2013). This concept is the bottom line of waste-based biorefinery. In spite of huge benefits the other faces of food-waste utilization possess a number of drawbacks, such as heterogeneous and variable composition of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, high water content, along with low calorific value which are the main obstructions in the development of strong and persistence industrial processes (Poeschl et al., 2010). Manufacturing the cost-effective and valuable products from limited techniques, along with inadequate infrastructure, will be challenging for the large-scale employment of the industry. Proper and knowledge-based approaches are urgently required to unravel the ability of food waste to fulfill the demand of sustainable and valuable products along with effective waste management.
17.3
Generation of food waste
Not only at industrial level but at every stage of food supply, food waste is generated, that is, from farm to industry to market till end of life. Improved mechanization, failure of the equipment, and economic factors are the common factors responsible for the food-waste generation (Kantor et al., 1997). The entry of the
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food in the market also leads to the loss of food that is, food stuffs, such as meat and bread, are not properly packed along with imperfect way of disposal by the restaurants. Freshly utilized dairy products and other items which are liable to spoil are the major food losses in the retail market. Nearly, one-third of total fruits and vegetables is lost even before reaching to the consumers at the global level. Nearly 11.3 million tons of food waste is only produced by United Kingdom from the households and food supply chain. Along with that, 2.2 million tons of the byproducts generated from the manufacturing stage are utilized as animal feed. Retail and distribution sector significantly leads to the production of large amount of food waste, but the food and drinks sectors have the management system for the reuse of generated food waste. Comparatively, a high amount of carbon is present in food waste as that of other wastes which could be considered as the fastest growing household stream in upcoming future. In present situation, 61% of the food waste is undesirable, but the development of new management strategies may prove beneficial for the proper utilization of food waste. Normally, the population does not consider food waste as an environmental issue, emphasizing personal behavior in management of food waste. Instead of that, there is no ethical or social burden on the world population to think about the management of the food waste (Lin et al., 2013).
17.4
Framework for food-waste management
The waste framework directive (WFD) considers food waste as main environmental issue and designed some work plan to properly utilize and manage the food waste, such as biowaste collection separately from other wastes, and the utilization of biowaste as compost or digestate, along with the introduction of novel approaches for the production of valuable and ecological material from the food waste. The framework directive demands the volunteer states for the appliances of waste prevention programs at nation level. Analyses of these programs are performed after every 6 years and simultaneously the programs should be upgraded. These programs can be operated independently or incorporation with other plans or programs for waste management. Before merging with other programs, one should clearly analyze and understood the waste-prevention parameters of that program. Article 29(3) of WFD instructs the representative states to define some qualitative as well as quantitative standards for easy and proper monitoring of different waste-management programs. Article 29(5) helps the commission for designing the guidelines for member states on the basis of the best standards utilized for waste prevention (Directive 2009/28/ EC). The utilization of food waste as compost and for anaerobic digestion is considered as the best approach in the roadmap of biowaste management. An anaerobic digester may lead to the production of biofertilizer along with power and heat from the food as well as agricultural waste. A report conducted in United Kingdom defines the potential of 106 anaerobic digesters to process 5.1 million tons of food waste (Green Investment Bank, 2013). The European Parliament and Council
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Recycling composting Processing for reuse valorization
Environmental impact
Disposal landfill Energy recovery
Prevention
Figure 17.1 Waste processing hierarchy.
standardized the parameters for the manufacture and commercialization of new chemicals in EU. The Regulation, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Legislation instructs the producer for the registration of toxic chemical in case its production crosses the limit of 1 ton per year. REACH may put barrier on the new chemicals synthesis under the consideration of data assessing about hazard and risk associated with food waste. Approval of the novel products that are synthesized by food waste as a resource is the major problem in the commercialization of the synthesizing process for small-scale producers (Council of the European Union, 2006) (Fig. 17.1). There is no direct definition or explanation about the valorization process of food waste in WFD. Bioeconomy is a novel concept which is recently invented by the European Commission to point out the possible approaches related to the utilization of renewable biological material to produce ecological and economically beneficial products along with bioenergy. Investment in the area of research to promote unique ideas and skills, supportive and facilitating polices for the interaction and stockholders agreement, and improvement in the marketing of the product are the chief supportive pillars of bioeconomy. The main target of the EC is to utilize the concept of bioeconomy to solve the problems responsible for the depletion of natural resources and their adverse effect on the environment along with food scarcity (European Commission, 2009; Ravindran and Jaiswal, 2016).
17.5
Concept of biorefinery
The animals and plants are the original sources of the food for human population. On that basis, food waste can be of two types, that is, plant-derived waste and animal-derived food waste with subcategories, including fruits, vegetables, oil crops, dairy products, seafood, etc. (Galanakis, 2012). 63% of the food waste is represented by plant-derived waste as compared to animal-derived waste
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(Pfaltzgraff et al., 2013). The food waste generated from plant products is rich in carbohydrates, lipids, minerals, proteins, and many other phytochemical compounds. That’s why scientists should introduce some techniques to recover these compounds or for their conversion in high-value products. The complex structure of the constituents present in food waste requires multidisciplinary techniques for their valorization (Tuck et al., 2012) (Fig. 17.2). At present, an integrated concept on the basis of biorefinery has been developed for the production of various products via food waste processing. Biorefinery talks about the integration of multidisciplinary techniques including various fields, such as agriculture, chemistry, engineering, and microbiology, for the processing of biomass in an eco-friendly manner to separate the building blocks of the food waste, such as carbohydrates, proteins, oil, and lipid (Cherubini et al., 2007). The concept of biorefinery possesses a number of advantages over conventional methods of processing. Biorefinery processing utilizes full feedstock with the generation of a very little amount of waste along with the production of diversified products with great benefits. Along with that the biorefinery processing has the potential to produce biogas to provide energy to the self-system. The process of biorefinery involves three phases related to type of biomass, what are the targeted products along with the techniques utilized. Phase I is usually firm, which follows the policy of one process to treat one type of biomass to form one targeted product. The process of dry grind bioethanol production is the best example of phase I, where corn is milled followed by saccharification and then fermented for product formation (Kwiatkowski et al., 2006). Phase II biorefinery is little
Figure 17.2 Valuable products that can be manufactured from food waste.
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flexible with more product formation to maintain the economic status of biorefinery. The wet milling process of corn produces a wide range of products, such as lactic acid, corn syrup, and corn oil. Phase I possesses no such potential to maintain the same level of profit. Phase III biorefinery is much more flexible than the other two phases of biorefinery. Along with the production of various valuable products, this phase has the potential to utilize different varieties of feedstock and processing approaches. This phase is advantageous for the processing of food waste with utilization of multidisciplinary techniques. The potential to utilize variety of the feedstock is the master stroke of this phase, which ensures continuous supply of material for the process at every time to improve the economical benefits. Biomass possesses complex chemical components with different physical properties, which decide the final product formation and techniques come into play. That’s why it is necessary to maintain the database related to physical properties along with chemical components for the growth of biorefinery based on food waste. It is beneficial to utilize a combination of feedstocks for the production of biofuels and biomaterials. According to the requirement of the final product from the biorefinery, there are two types of approaches for the product substitution, that is, direct and indirect. The approach of direct product substitution explains the already existence of the final product in market and that product needs to be manufactured through a novel process. There is no difficulty in the acceptance of the product in the market as the product already possesses a market value (Clark et al., 2006). For the acceptance and high market value of indirect product the cost of indirect product should be low along with the property of better performance as compared to existing product. Instead of forming final product, the intermediate chemicals may also be act as master piece to form new compounds via coupling with existing chemicals for their value addition (FitzPatrick et al., 2010). Production of butanol from food wastes through anaerobic fermentation is a better example of intermediate chemical as it is widely used for the production of acrylate and acetate (Huang et al., 2015). During biorefinery processing, mechanical treatment, such as pressing, milling, and pelletization, of the waste is the first step to reduce the size of particles for better mass transfer, enzymatic hydrolysis along with biological degradation of biomass. That treatment has no effect on the composition of the biomass (Menon and Rao, 2012). Chemical treatments, such as transesterification, hydrolysis, oxidation, and hydrogenation, come into play to alter the composition of biomass (Cherubini, 2010), for example, the process of transesterification leads to the production of biodiesel by utilizing vegetable oils. Some complex compounds, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, are enzymatically hydrolyzed into their basic components, such as glucose, xylose, which act as beneficial components for biofuel production, such as ethanol and butanol. A huge amount of plant-derived food waste is generated annually because of concern farming field activities and food processing. With a high stability and a great amount of waste generated from agricultural field, such as wheat and rice straw, along with corn stover are the most promising feedstocks for biorefineries on industrial scale (Kamm and Kamm, 2004). Beverage industry is the second most
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producer of food waste in the form of grape and apple pomace, which are rich in high-value compounds, such as essential oils and vitamins (Martinez et al., 2016, Yates et al., 2017). A huge amount of cellulose present in plant-derived food waste is the best to produce valuable products, such as biofuels, organic acids, and other nanocellulose products. Xylose, xylite, and furfural are the most profitable products synthesized from lignin (Kamm and Kamm, 2004). Proteins present in waste generated by plants along with essential amino acids can be added in food to improve the functional properties. Oreopoulou and Tzia (2007) described the utilization of soy protein to improve the cheese, soy milk, and whipped toppings. Some phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, possess health benefits related to lowering the cholesterol and lipid oxidation (O’Shea et al., 2012). Along with health benefits the antioxidant compounds present in food waste can increase the longevity of food and also delay the spoilage of food (Oreopoulou and Tzia, 2007). Vegetable oils can be employed for the synthesis of sugar-based detergents, such as alkyl polyglucosides, with less toxic properties as compared to traditional detergents (Foley et al., 2011). All these benefits of plant-derived waste push the researchers to think in direction of extraction, purification, and synthesis of useful chemicals, materials from food waste. The development of biorefinery based on plant-derived waste is at the initial stage. That’s why there should be defined policies to support the research and growth in the field of biorefinery. At present, the carbon pricing and mandatory quota is the most essential policy factor to provoke biorefineries (Hellsmark and So¨derholm, 2017).
17.6
Organic waste from industrial and agricultural residues
The increasing population, industrialization, and urbanization are the most obvious factors for the increase in waste production. Food and paper manufacturing industries are the top most industries that produce the waste which can be utilized as natural resources for the production of profitable goods. Synthesis of commercial food products, juices, noodles, chips, and many other food items results in the production of organic waste (Kim et al., 2011). A simple pretreatment process would be suitable for the utilization of organic waste with proper composition. Traditionally, the food waste is utilized for animal feed. But a number of researches described that the industrial food waste with antiseptic and artificial additives is not suitable for the animal feed. At present, the industrial food waste is the best suited raw material for biorefineries as the composition of that waste is similar to first-generation biomass. Microbes can utilize the food waste for the production of valuable products after pretreatment. The pretreatment of organic waste is much simpler in comparison to lignocellulosic waste as the commercial enzymes or organism can easily digest organic waste (Barnard et al., 2010). The durability of industrial food waste is an important factor for its utilization as feedstock for the bioconversion process and for the economical
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benefits. The concept about the formation of multiple products from one organic waste is fully applicable on the bioconversion of food waste residues. The metabolic pathway of microorganism decides the products formation. Waste orange peels might be processed for the production of a various valuable products, such as ´ ngel Siles Lo´pez ethanol, industrial enzymes, methane, and other essential oils (A et al., 2010). Industrial food waste is composed with a great amount of nutrients, which acts as attractive feedstock for microbes to perform better activities. Higher the living standards of urban peoples, higher would be the production of catering waste. Along with carbohydrate, some amount of lipid is also present in the catering waste which is a potential inhibitor of hydrolysis of fermentable sugars. Oil isolation from catering waste is the important goal of the pretreatment process. An industrial scale application of catering waste is not so feasible as the composition of lipids and carbohydrates is unstable and also the complexity of pretreatments results in the cost increment of the whole process (Yang et al., 2015).
17.7
Valuable and economical by-products of fruit industry
At present, the synthetic compounds utilized in the food as well as pharmaceutical industry are replaced by phytochemicals to support the positive concern of human health. Phytochemicals are the treasure of bioactive compounds with a great fortune for human health. However, a large amount of waste, such as peels, seeds, and oilseeds, are produced during the processing of fruits and vegetables. Throwing or dumping of these waste materials is a big issue as this waste is susceptible to microbial impairment along with legal restrictions. The economically limited process of drying, maintenance, and transport of fruit industry waste results the utilization of waste as fertilizer in the agricultural field. Thus the new aspects about the utilization of these wastes for the production of food additives with a huge amount of nutrients have attracted the researchers along with economical benefits (Ðilas et al., 2009). A number of compounds, such as sugars, organic acids, minerals, and dietary fibers, along with phenolic compounds are released from the food industry as byproduct. Lignins, lignans, tannins, simple phenolic, and phenolic acids derivatives represent the diversified group of phenolic compounds (Dewick, 2002). These phenolic compounds possess strong antioxidant properties along with antitumoral, antimutagenic, and cardioprotective abilities (Nijveldt et al., 2001; Van Acker et al., 1998). Apple pomace is produced as a by-product during the processing of fruit for juice production, where pomace represents 25% 35% of the fruit (Schieber et al., 2003). The recovery of pectin from apple pomace is considered to the best suitable approach for both economical and ecological benefits. At present, apple pectin possesses high gelling properties as compared to citurs pectin. But the brown hue of apple pectin limits its utilization in light-color foods. The major extent of
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polyphenols also remains in the waste after juice production. Catechinscatechins, hydroxycinnanates, phloretin glycosides, procyanidins, and many other compounds are majorly isolated from the waste of fruit production (Schieber et al., 2001a; ´ Cetkovi´ c et al., 2008). A number of in vitro model systems have been developed to check out the antioxidant properties of polyphenols present in apple pomace. Lu and Foo (2000) utilized β-carotene/linoleic acid system to examine the 2, 2-Diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), superoxide ion radical, and antioxidant properties of polyphenols, such as epicatechin and its dimer, trimer, tetramer, and chlorogenic acid. The phenolic components and flavonoids of apple extract exhibit the antiproliferative properties and lead to the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation like colon cancer in vitro (Veeriah et al., 2006). Grapes, world’s largest fruit crop, are usually utilized for the production of juice, jams, and raisins with 80% utilization in wine production (Louli et al., 2004; Schieber et al., 2001b). The composition of the waste produced during wine production considerably depends on the variety of grape and technology utilized. However, approximately 5 9 million tons of waste produced every year from wine industry with increased demand of oxygen to degrade sugars, tannins, polyphenols, pectins, lipids, etc. along with adverse effect on flora and fauna of the surroundings. All these consequences demand the better ways for the utilization of winery waste instead of animal feed or fertilizer only. The phenolic compounds of grapes possess the antioxidative properties as they lead to the inhibition of LDL oxidation. Therefore grape pomace could be utilized as food ingredients with high amount of phenolic compounds. Grape seed oil is also a treasure of fatty acid, which contents mainly linoleic acid (Kamel et al., 1985). A number of high-value products, such as ethanol, tartrates, citric acid, hydrocolloids, and dietary fibers, have been regained from grape pomace (Yi et al., 2009; Maier et al., 2009). A large amount of phenolic compounds could be extracted from the grape pomace via enzymatic treatment (Iacopini et al., 2008). The yield anthocyanin, the most valuable product of grape pomace, can be improved by increasing the shelf life of grape pomace via gamma irradiation (Ayed et al., 1999). Catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epigallocatechin represent the major constituents of the tannins present in grape skin (Ðilas et al., 2009). The great antioxidant potency of phenolic extracts of grape seeds enhances their scope of the commercialization as these extracts can be utilized as to increase the shelf life of food.
17.8
Steroidal alkaloids from potato peel waste
Potato-processing industries generate a wide amount, that is, 70 140 t of potato peels as by-product during the production of crisps (Chang, 2011). These potato peels are either used for animal feed or directly discarded in the environment, where these are highly sensitive to microbial spoilage (Schieber and Saldan˜a, 2009). Potato peels are a treasure of steroidal alkaloids having toxic properties to restrict the growth of bacteria, fungi, and also rich source of carbohydrates,
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proteins, vitamins, antioxidative polyphenols (Wijngaard et al., 2012a,b; Friedman, 2006; Fewell and Roddick, 1993). Extraction of steroidal alkaloids from potato peels may be one way to reduce the disposal problem along with a better option for new pharmaceutical industry based on plants. A number of studies talk about the health benefits of steroidal alkaloids, such as anticancer and antiinflammatory effects, according the conditions of application (Friedman, 2006; Kenny et al., 2013). Some strategies, such as chemical modifications, should be applied on steroidal alkaloids to improve their bioactivities along with decrease in cytotoxic effect on normal dividing cells. Proper extraction techniques should be there to retrieve a sufficient amount of alkaloids for chemical modification. Some techniques, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, solvent extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction, are suitable for secondary metabolites extraction from plants (Glisic et al., 2011; Vinatoru, 2001; Wijngaard, et al., 2012a,b). Out of these, ultrasound-assisted extraction is inexpensive, ecological, and less time consuming (Virot et al., 2010). Cavity induced by ultrasound and glycoalkaloids present inside the cell leads to disruption of cell wall responsible for the release of intracellular components (Balachandran et al., 2006). For the better results through ultrasound-extraction technique some parameters, such as time, temperature, and amplitude of ultrasound, need to be optimized. But the optimization of all these parameters for better extraction is costly and time consuming. However, there is a statistical technique termed as response surface methodology to identify the required optimum conditions for a particular response (Hossain et al., 2014).
17.9
Bioethanol production from sugarcane bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse, a rich source of lignocellulosic material, is a suitable industrial waste for the development of biorefinery to produce fuels, chemicals, and other materials for economical and environmental benefits. Similar to other lignocellulosic materials, bagasse also possesses cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are difficult to separate as individual components. Therefore the production of bioethanol involves four major steps, that is, pretreatment, to access cellulose; hydrolysis, to release monomeric sugars with enzyme addition or acid catalyst; fermentation, for ethanol production; and finally distillation approach, to recover product (Margeot et al., 2009). Pretreatment process needs to be improved for efficient and cost-effective conversion of biomass in fermentable sugars (Mosier et al., 2005). In pretreatment, lime and alkaline hydrogen peroxide are the two suitable chemicals in this direction and provide better results under moderate temperature and pressure conditions (Fuentes et al., 2011). Raw material for ethanol production leads to the generation of a great amount of solid and liquid residuals. The liquid residuals are having a high concentration of pentoses, soluble and insoluble lignin, and also an effluent named vinasse after the product recovery, whereas lignin and hemicelluloses are the components of solid residuals (Fig. 17.3) (Rabelo et al., 2011).
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Lignocellulosic waste Pretreatment Liquid fraction
Solid fraction Enzymatic hydrolysis
Lignin
Anaerobic treatment
Liquid fraction
Solid fraction
Fermentation Biogas
Energy
Fertilizer
Distillation Second generation biofuels
Figure 17.3 Combined processes for the generation of second generation products.
The utilization of the waste, produced during ethanol production form bagaase, can be ecologically and economically suitable with is great challenges. At present, the existing microorganisms utilize the pentoses from the liquid residuals to produce ethanol, but at low concentration (Kaparaju et al., 2009). There are some approaches to reuse vinasse, such as thermal concentration, land application, utilization for animal feed, and recycling to form partially dilute molasses (Andrade et al., 2009). These wastes can be utilized for the production of biogas to remove the organic matter from effluents. And further, the effluent produced during biogas formation can be used as fertilizer for farming land (Liu et al., 2006). Lignin present in liquid residue could be employed to precipitation followed by heat and energy production (Sassner et al., 2008).
17.10
Conclusion and future perspective
The design of biorefineries, various steps, and features should be measured and examined carefully before the commercialization of integrated processes. Issues related to feedstock selection, transportation, stability, and social acceptance should be figured out in near future. In the case of plant-derived food waste the researchers are mainly attracted by cereal or oil crops waste instead of fruits and vegetables wastes. The high-value compounds extracted from these wastes may act as effective components of food, cosmetic, and many pharmaceutical compounds, thus deserve their recovery. Utilization of different types of feedstocks will be promising solution about the
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problem of feedstock stability and supply during whole year, which indirectly improve the economical status of valorization of food waste. Along with production of biofuels, some other biochemicals should also be focused. The government and industry should make efforts to focus on the production of several bio-based chemicals instead of single production (Schieb and Philp, 2014). The integrated biorefinery models are not so developed as compared to single-product approaches. The researchers mainly target the economical and environmental problems related to biorefinery, while there is an urgent need of consideration of social aspects as well (Rathore et al., 2016). Normally, the biorefineries are mainly implemented in European countries as compared to developing countries. Countries, such as India, are far back in the matter of biorefineries research even they are rich in plantderived waste (Ouda et al., 2016; Nizami et al., 2016). The present condition demands the specific studies about the conversion technologies and processes for economical benefits and bright future (Jin et al., 2018).
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O’Shea, N., Arendt, E.K., Gallagher, E., 2012. Dietary fibre and phytochemical characteristics of fruit and vegetable by-products and their recent applications as novel ingredients in food products. Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 16, 1 10. Ouda, O.K.M., Raza, S.A., Nizami, A.S., Rehan, M., Al-Waked, R., Korres, N.E., 2016. Waste to energy potential: a case study of Saudi Arabia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 61, 328 340. Pfaltzgraff, L.A., Cooper, E.C., Budarin, V., Clark, J.H., 2013. Food waste biomass: a resource for high-value chemicals. Green Chem. 15 (2), 307 314. Poeschl, M., Ward, S., Owende, P., 2010. Prospects for expanded utilization of biogas in Germany. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (7), 1782 1797. Rabelo, S.C., Carrere, H., Maciel Filho, R., Costa, A.C., 2011. Production of bioethanol, methane and heat from sugarcane bagasse in a biorefinery concept. Bioresour. Technol. 102 (17), 7887 7895. Rathore, D., Nizami, A.S., Singh, A., Pant, D., 2016. Key issues in estimating energy and greenhouse gas savings of biofuels: challenges and perspectives. Biofuel Res. J. 3 (2), 380 393. Ravindran, R., Jaiswal, A.K., 2016. Exploitation of food industry waste for high-value products. Trends Biotechnol. 34 (1), 58 69. Sassner, P., Ma˚rtensson, C.G., Galbe, M., Zacchi, G., 2008. Steam pretreatment of H2SO4impregnated Salix for the production of bioethanol. Bioresour. Technol. 99 (1), 137 145. Schieb, P.A., Philp, J.C., 2014. Biorefining policy needs to come of age. Trends Biotechnol. 32 (10), 496 500. Schieber, A., Saldan˜a, M.D.A., 2009. Potato peels: a source of nutritionally and pharmacologically interesting compounds—a review. Food 3 (2), 23 29. Schieber, A., Keller, P., Carle, R., 2001a. Determination of phenolic acids and flavonoids of apple and pear by high-performance liquid chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 910 (2), 265 273. Schieber, A., Stintzing, F.C., Carle, R., 2001b. By-products of plant food processing as a source of functional compounds—recent developments. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 12 (11), 401 413. Schieber, A., Hilt, P., Streker, P., Endreß, H.U., Rentschler, C., Carle, R., 2003. A new process for the combined recovery of pectin and phenolic compounds from apple pomace. Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 4 (1), 99 107. Tuck, C.O., Pe´rez, E., Horva´th, I.T., Sheldon, R.A., Poliakoff, M., 2012. Valorization of biomass: deriving more value from waste. Science 337 (6095), 695 699. Van Acker, S.A., van Balen, G.P., van den Berg, D.J., Bast, A., van der Vijgh, W.J., 1998. Influence of iron chelation on the antioxidant activity of flavonoids. Biochem. Pharm. 56 (8), 935 943. Veeriah, S., Kautenburger, T., Habermann, N., Sauer, J., Dietrich, H., Will, F., et al., 2006. Apple flavonoids inhibit growth of HT29 human colon cancer cells and modulate expression of genes involved in the biotransformation of xenobiotics. Mol. Carcinog. 45 (3), 164 174. Vinatoru, M., 2001. An overview of the ultrasonically assisted extraction of bioactive principles from herbs. Ultrason. Sonochem. 8 (3), 303 313. Virot, M., Tomao, V., Le Bourvellec, C., Renard, C.M., Chemat, F., 2010. Towards the industrial production of antioxidants from food processing by-products with ultrasoundassisted extraction. Ultrason. Sonochem. 17 (6), 1066 1074.
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Wijngaard, H., Hossain, M.B., Rai, D.K., Brunton, N., 2012a. Techniques to extract bioactive compounds from food by-products of plant origin. Food Res. Int. 46 (2), 505 513. Wijngaard, H.H., Ballay, M., Brunton, N., 2012b. The optimisation of extraction of antioxidants from potato peel by pressurised liquids. Food Chem. 133 (4), 1123 1130. Yang, X., Choi, H.S., Park, C., Kim, S.W., 2015. Current states and prospects of organic waste utilization for biorefineries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 49, 335 349. Yates, M., Gomez, M.R., Martin-Luengo, M.A., Iban˜ez, V.Z., Serrano, A.M.M., 2017. Multivalorization of apple pomace towards materials and chemicals. Waste to wealth. J. Cleaner Prod. 143, 847 853. Yi, C., Shi, J., Kramer, J., Xue, S., Jiang, Y., Zhang, M., et al., 2009. Fatty acid composition and phenolic antioxidants of winemaking pomace powder. Food Chem. 114 (2), 570 576.
Further reading Kader, A.A., 2004, June. Increasing food availability by reducing postharvest losses of fresh produce. In: V International Postharvest Symposium 682. pp. 2169 2176. Ma, Y., Ye, X., Hao, Y., Xu, G., Xu, G., Liu, D., 2008. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of hesperidin from Penggan (Citrus reticulata) peel. Ultrason. Sonochem. 15 (3), 227 232. European Union, 2009. Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. Off. J. Eur. Union 5, 2009.
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Ankush, Khushboo and Kashyap Kumar Dubey Bioprocess Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, India
17.1
Introduction
The population is growing at a very fast rate, which indirectly increases the demand of energy, chemicals, food, and other important things required for survival. The increasing demand of the society is pushing the researchers to introduce novel techniques with low adverse effect on the environment. An alternative feedstock of renewable raw materials over the fossil-based raw material admires the scientists to create the concept of biorefinery. The process of biorefinery provides better output of the energy, chemicals, and other materials as compared to the conventional methods of refinery. Biomass and waste materials are utilized as raw materials by a series of sustainable technologies to produce valuable products with high economy (Gude and Martinez-Guerra, 2017). The paradigm of biorefinery defines the great hub of scientists from various field of science, such as biochemistry, biology, economics, environmental sciences, and chemical engineering to invent a bio-based framework to utilize renewable resources. Generally, food crops are consumed as basic material for the production of biofuels and other materials which point out various deficiencies and issues for their utilization in a bioeconomy (Cherubini, 2010; Luque et al., 2008). Introduction of a well-managed and integrated approach is in demand which utilizes by-products, waste, and other residues as raw materials to achieve the goal of high production ratio to the feedstock. At present, waste is a major issue of concern at global level, especially in the developing countries. There could be different types of waste based on origin, such as industrial, agricultural, and solid waste. The food-processing companies are responsible for 50% production of the total waste produced in countries which could be considered as preconsumer type of waste having 60% of the organic matter. According to McKinsey Global Institute report, food waste holds third rank among the 15 recognized resources for the production of economically beneficial products (Dobbs et al., 2011). However, in many cases the food wastes are used for landfilling, composting, animal feed, or as organic matter. But the present scenario of our society demands the introduction of advanced processes for the conversion of food waste in high value and commercial products to attain maximum profit Refining Biomass Residues for Sustainable Energy and Bioproducts. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818996-2.00017-X © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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along with lowering of food waste. Along with that the environmental ministry should organize workshops to awake the society about the utilization of food waste as resources instead of a problem. 38% of the total food waste is produced by manufacturing sector, while 42% is generated by household sectors, representing the rate of waste generation in food supply chain. At the management stage the household waste is a big issue with difficulties in collection, along with higher expenses in the dispose off. Employment of the food waste as resources would be beneficial for the industry along with the formation of new products and also provides growth opportunities to touch the heights of zero waste economy (Lin et al., 2013). The novel and advanced practices for the utilization of food waste as raw material and their engagement in the future bioeconomy are mainly highlighted in this contribution.
17.2
Food waste as resource
The terminated products of food-processing industries with low economic value that has not been utilized for other purposes come under the category of food waste. Industries are moving toward eco-friendly, cost-effective processes to make the use of food waste as raw material to produce market value products. Along with industry the regulations and standards of landfill directive in Europe also promote the use of food waste. Currently, animal feeding, composting, incineration, and land filling are the normal practices for the food-waste management. The present management strategies might be integrated with novel eco-friendly strategies that posse the ability to produce valuable and profitable products (Lin et al., 2013). This concept is the bottom line of waste-based biorefinery. In spite of huge benefits the other faces of food-waste utilization possess a number of drawbacks, such as heterogeneous and variable composition of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, high water content, along with low calorific value which are the main obstructions in the development of strong and persistence industrial processes (Poeschl et al., 2010). Manufacturing the cost-effective and valuable products from limited techniques, along with inadequate infrastructure, will be challenging for the large-scale employment of the industry. Proper and knowledge-based approaches are urgently required to unravel the ability of food waste to fulfill the demand of sustainable and valuable products along with effective waste management.
17.3
Generation of food waste
Not only at industrial level but at every stage of food supply, food waste is generated, that is, from farm to industry to market till end of life. Improved mechanization, failure of the equipment, and economic factors are the common factors responsible for the food-waste generation (Kantor et al., 1997). The entry of the
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food in the market also leads to the loss of food that is, food stuffs, such as meat and bread, are not properly packed along with imperfect way of disposal by the restaurants. Freshly utilized dairy products and other items which are liable to spoil are the major food losses in the retail market. Nearly, one-third of total fruits and vegetables is lost even before reaching to the consumers at the global level. Nearly 11.3 million tons of food waste is only produced by United Kingdom from the households and food supply chain. Along with that, 2.2 million tons of the byproducts generated from the manufacturing stage are utilized as animal feed. Retail and distribution sector significantly leads to the production of large amount of food waste, but the food and drinks sectors have the management system for the reuse of generated food waste. Comparatively, a high amount of carbon is present in food waste as that of other wastes which could be considered as the fastest growing household stream in upcoming future. In present situation, 61% of the food waste is undesirable, but the development of new management strategies may prove beneficial for the proper utilization of food waste. Normally, the population does not consider food waste as an environmental issue, emphasizing personal behavior in management of food waste. Instead of that, there is no ethical or social burden on the world population to think about the management of the food waste (Lin et al., 2013).
17.4
Framework for food-waste management
The waste framework directive (WFD) considers food waste as main environmental issue and designed some work plan to properly utilize and manage the food waste, such as biowaste collection separately from other wastes, and the utilization of biowaste as compost or digestate, along with the introduction of novel approaches for the production of valuable and ecological material from the food waste. The framework directive demands the volunteer states for the appliances of waste prevention programs at nation level. Analyses of these programs are performed after every 6 years and simultaneously the programs should be upgraded. These programs can be operated independently or incorporation with other plans or programs for waste management. Before merging with other programs, one should clearly analyze and understood the waste-prevention parameters of that program. Article 29(3) of WFD instructs the representative states to define some qualitative as well as quantitative standards for easy and proper monitoring of different waste-management programs. Article 29(5) helps the commission for designing the guidelines for member states on the basis of the best standards utilized for waste prevention (Directive 2009/28/ EC). The utilization of food waste as compost and for anaerobic digestion is considered as the best approach in the roadmap of biowaste management. An anaerobic digester may lead to the production of biofertilizer along with power and heat from the food as well as agricultural waste. A report conducted in United Kingdom defines the potential of 106 anaerobic digesters to process 5.1 million tons of food waste (Green Investment Bank, 2013). The European Parliament and Council
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Recycling composting Processing for reuse valorization
Environmental impact
Disposal landfill Energy recovery
Prevention
Figure 17.1 Waste processing hierarchy.
standardized the parameters for the manufacture and commercialization of new chemicals in EU. The Regulation, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Legislation instructs the producer for the registration of toxic chemical in case its production crosses the limit of 1 ton per year. REACH may put barrier on the new chemicals synthesis under the consideration of data assessing about hazard and risk associated with food waste. Approval of the novel products that are synthesized by food waste as a resource is the major problem in the commercialization of the synthesizing process for small-scale producers (Council of the European Union, 2006) (Fig. 17.1). There is no direct definition or explanation about the valorization process of food waste in WFD. Bioeconomy is a novel concept which is recently invented by the European Commission to point out the possible approaches related to the utilization of renewable biological material to produce ecological and economically beneficial products along with bioenergy. Investment in the area of research to promote unique ideas and skills, supportive and facilitating polices for the interaction and stockholders agreement, and improvement in the marketing of the product are the chief supportive pillars of bioeconomy. The main target of the EC is to utilize the concept of bioeconomy to solve the problems responsible for the depletion of natural resources and their adverse effect on the environment along with food scarcity (European Commission, 2009; Ravindran and Jaiswal, 2016).
17.5
Concept of biorefinery
The animals and plants are the original sources of the food for human population. On that basis, food waste can be of two types, that is, plant-derived waste and animal-derived food waste with subcategories, including fruits, vegetables, oil crops, dairy products, seafood, etc. (Galanakis, 2012). 63% of the food waste is represented by plant-derived waste as compared to animal-derived waste
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(Pfaltzgraff et al., 2013). The food waste generated from plant products is rich in carbohydrates, lipids, minerals, proteins, and many other phytochemical compounds. That’s why scientists should introduce some techniques to recover these compounds or for their conversion in high-value products. The complex structure of the constituents present in food waste requires multidisciplinary techniques for their valorization (Tuck et al., 2012) (Fig. 17.2). At present, an integrated concept on the basis of biorefinery has been developed for the production of various products via food waste processing. Biorefinery talks about the integration of multidisciplinary techniques including various fields, such as agriculture, chemistry, engineering, and microbiology, for the processing of biomass in an eco-friendly manner to separate the building blocks of the food waste, such as carbohydrates, proteins, oil, and lipid (Cherubini et al., 2007). The concept of biorefinery possesses a number of advantages over conventional methods of processing. Biorefinery processing utilizes full feedstock with the generation of a very little amount of waste along with the production of diversified products with great benefits. Along with that the biorefinery processing has the potential to produce biogas to provide energy to the self-system. The process of biorefinery involves three phases related to type of biomass, what are the targeted products along with the techniques utilized. Phase I is usually firm, which follows the policy of one process to treat one type of biomass to form one targeted product. The process of dry grind bioethanol production is the best example of phase I, where corn is milled followed by saccharification and then fermented for product formation (Kwiatkowski et al., 2006). Phase II biorefinery is little
Figure 17.2 Valuable products that can be manufactured from food waste.
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flexible with more product formation to maintain the economic status of biorefinery. The wet milling process of corn produces a wide range of products, such as lactic acid, corn syrup, and corn oil. Phase I possesses no such potential to maintain the same level of profit. Phase III biorefinery is much more flexible than the other two phases of biorefinery. Along with the production of various valuable products, this phase has the potential to utilize different varieties of feedstock and processing approaches. This phase is advantageous for the processing of food waste with utilization of multidisciplinary techniques. The potential to utilize variety of the feedstock is the master stroke of this phase, which ensures continuous supply of material for the process at every time to improve the economical benefits. Biomass possesses complex chemical components with different physical properties, which decide the final product formation and techniques come into play. That’s why it is necessary to maintain the database related to physical properties along with chemical components for the growth of biorefinery based on food waste. It is beneficial to utilize a combination of feedstocks for the production of biofuels and biomaterials. According to the requirement of the final product from the biorefinery, there are two types of approaches for the product substitution, that is, direct and indirect. The approach of direct product substitution explains the already existence of the final product in market and that product needs to be manufactured through a novel process. There is no difficulty in the acceptance of the product in the market as the product already possesses a market value (Clark et al., 2006). For the acceptance and high market value of indirect product the cost of indirect product should be low along with the property of better performance as compared to existing product. Instead of forming final product, the intermediate chemicals may also be act as master piece to form new compounds via coupling with existing chemicals for their value addition (FitzPatrick et al., 2010). Production of butanol from food wastes through anaerobic fermentation is a better example of intermediate chemical as it is widely used for the production of acrylate and acetate (Huang et al., 2015). During biorefinery processing, mechanical treatment, such as pressing, milling, and pelletization, of the waste is the first step to reduce the size of particles for better mass transfer, enzymatic hydrolysis along with biological degradation of biomass. That treatment has no effect on the composition of the biomass (Menon and Rao, 2012). Chemical treatments, such as transesterification, hydrolysis, oxidation, and hydrogenation, come into play to alter the composition of biomass (Cherubini, 2010), for example, the process of transesterification leads to the production of biodiesel by utilizing vegetable oils. Some complex compounds, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, are enzymatically hydrolyzed into their basic components, such as glucose, xylose, which act as beneficial components for biofuel production, such as ethanol and butanol. A huge amount of plant-derived food waste is generated annually because of concern farming field activities and food processing. With a high stability and a great amount of waste generated from agricultural field, such as wheat and rice straw, along with corn stover are the most promising feedstocks for biorefineries on industrial scale (Kamm and Kamm, 2004). Beverage industry is the second most
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producer of food waste in the form of grape and apple pomace, which are rich in high-value compounds, such as essential oils and vitamins (Martinez et al., 2016, Yates et al., 2017). A huge amount of cellulose present in plant-derived food waste is the best to produce valuable products, such as biofuels, organic acids, and other nanocellulose products. Xylose, xylite, and furfural are the most profitable products synthesized from lignin (Kamm and Kamm, 2004). Proteins present in waste generated by plants along with essential amino acids can be added in food to improve the functional properties. Oreopoulou and Tzia (2007) described the utilization of soy protein to improve the cheese, soy milk, and whipped toppings. Some phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, possess health benefits related to lowering the cholesterol and lipid oxidation (O’Shea et al., 2012). Along with health benefits the antioxidant compounds present in food waste can increase the longevity of food and also delay the spoilage of food (Oreopoulou and Tzia, 2007). Vegetable oils can be employed for the synthesis of sugar-based detergents, such as alkyl polyglucosides, with less toxic properties as compared to traditional detergents (Foley et al., 2011). All these benefits of plant-derived waste push the researchers to think in direction of extraction, purification, and synthesis of useful chemicals, materials from food waste. The development of biorefinery based on plant-derived waste is at the initial stage. That’s why there should be defined policies to support the research and growth in the field of biorefinery. At present, the carbon pricing and mandatory quota is the most essential policy factor to provoke biorefineries (Hellsmark and So¨derholm, 2017).
17.6
Organic waste from industrial and agricultural residues
The increasing population, industrialization, and urbanization are the most obvious factors for the increase in waste production. Food and paper manufacturing industries are the top most industries that produce the waste which can be utilized as natural resources for the production of profitable goods. Synthesis of commercial food products, juices, noodles, chips, and many other food items results in the production of organic waste (Kim et al., 2011). A simple pretreatment process would be suitable for the utilization of organic waste with proper composition. Traditionally, the food waste is utilized for animal feed. But a number of researches described that the industrial food waste with antiseptic and artificial additives is not suitable for the animal feed. At present, the industrial food waste is the best suited raw material for biorefineries as the composition of that waste is similar to first-generation biomass. Microbes can utilize the food waste for the production of valuable products after pretreatment. The pretreatment of organic waste is much simpler in comparison to lignocellulosic waste as the commercial enzymes or organism can easily digest organic waste (Barnard et al., 2010). The durability of industrial food waste is an important factor for its utilization as feedstock for the bioconversion process and for the economical
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benefits. The concept about the formation of multiple products from one organic waste is fully applicable on the bioconversion of food waste residues. The metabolic pathway of microorganism decides the products formation. Waste orange peels might be processed for the production of a various valuable products, such as ´ ngel Siles Lo´pez ethanol, industrial enzymes, methane, and other essential oils (A et al., 2010). Industrial food waste is composed with a great amount of nutrients, which acts as attractive feedstock for microbes to perform better activities. Higher the living standards of urban peoples, higher would be the production of catering waste. Along with carbohydrate, some amount of lipid is also present in the catering waste which is a potential inhibitor of hydrolysis of fermentable sugars. Oil isolation from catering waste is the important goal of the pretreatment process. An industrial scale application of catering waste is not so feasible as the composition of lipids and carbohydrates is unstable and also the complexity of pretreatments results in the cost increment of the whole process (Yang et al., 2015).
17.7
Valuable and economical by-products of fruit industry
At present, the synthetic compounds utilized in the food as well as pharmaceutical industry are replaced by phytochemicals to support the positive concern of human health. Phytochemicals are the treasure of bioactive compounds with a great fortune for human health. However, a large amount of waste, such as peels, seeds, and oilseeds, are produced during the processing of fruits and vegetables. Throwing or dumping of these waste materials is a big issue as this waste is susceptible to microbial impairment along with legal restrictions. The economically limited process of drying, maintenance, and transport of fruit industry waste results the utilization of waste as fertilizer in the agricultural field. Thus the new aspects about the utilization of these wastes for the production of food additives with a huge amount of nutrients have attracted the researchers along with economical benefits (Ðilas et al., 2009). A number of compounds, such as sugars, organic acids, minerals, and dietary fibers, along with phenolic compounds are released from the food industry as byproduct. Lignins, lignans, tannins, simple phenolic, and phenolic acids derivatives represent the diversified group of phenolic compounds (Dewick, 2002). These phenolic compounds possess strong antioxidant properties along with antitumoral, antimutagenic, and cardioprotective abilities (Nijveldt et al., 2001; Van Acker et al., 1998). Apple pomace is produced as a by-product during the processing of fruit for juice production, where pomace represents 25% 35% of the fruit (Schieber et al., 2003). The recovery of pectin from apple pomace is considered to the best suitable approach for both economical and ecological benefits. At present, apple pectin possesses high gelling properties as compared to citurs pectin. But the brown hue of apple pectin limits its utilization in light-color foods. The major extent of
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polyphenols also remains in the waste after juice production. Catechinscatechins, hydroxycinnanates, phloretin glycosides, procyanidins, and many other compounds are majorly isolated from the waste of fruit production (Schieber et al., 2001a; ´ Cetkovi´ c et al., 2008). A number of in vitro model systems have been developed to check out the antioxidant properties of polyphenols present in apple pomace. Lu and Foo (2000) utilized β-carotene/linoleic acid system to examine the 2, 2-Diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), superoxide ion radical, and antioxidant properties of polyphenols, such as epicatechin and its dimer, trimer, tetramer, and chlorogenic acid. The phenolic components and flavonoids of apple extract exhibit the antiproliferative properties and lead to the inhibition of tumor cell proliferation like colon cancer in vitro (Veeriah et al., 2006). Grapes, world’s largest fruit crop, are usually utilized for the production of juice, jams, and raisins with 80% utilization in wine production (Louli et al., 2004; Schieber et al., 2001b). The composition of the waste produced during wine production considerably depends on the variety of grape and technology utilized. However, approximately 5 9 million tons of waste produced every year from wine industry with increased demand of oxygen to degrade sugars, tannins, polyphenols, pectins, lipids, etc. along with adverse effect on flora and fauna of the surroundings. All these consequences demand the better ways for the utilization of winery waste instead of animal feed or fertilizer only. The phenolic compounds of grapes possess the antioxidative properties as they lead to the inhibition of LDL oxidation. Therefore grape pomace could be utilized as food ingredients with high amount of phenolic compounds. Grape seed oil is also a treasure of fatty acid, which contents mainly linoleic acid (Kamel et al., 1985). A number of high-value products, such as ethanol, tartrates, citric acid, hydrocolloids, and dietary fibers, have been regained from grape pomace (Yi et al., 2009; Maier et al., 2009). A large amount of phenolic compounds could be extracted from the grape pomace via enzymatic treatment (Iacopini et al., 2008). The yield anthocyanin, the most valuable product of grape pomace, can be improved by increasing the shelf life of grape pomace via gamma irradiation (Ayed et al., 1999). Catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epigallocatechin represent the major constituents of the tannins present in grape skin (Ðilas et al., 2009). The great antioxidant potency of phenolic extracts of grape seeds enhances their scope of the commercialization as these extracts can be utilized as to increase the shelf life of food.
17.8
Steroidal alkaloids from potato peel waste
Potato-processing industries generate a wide amount, that is, 70 140 t of potato peels as by-product during the production of crisps (Chang, 2011). These potato peels are either used for animal feed or directly discarded in the environment, where these are highly sensitive to microbial spoilage (Schieber and Saldan˜a, 2009). Potato peels are a treasure of steroidal alkaloids having toxic properties to restrict the growth of bacteria, fungi, and also rich source of carbohydrates,
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proteins, vitamins, antioxidative polyphenols (Wijngaard et al., 2012a,b; Friedman, 2006; Fewell and Roddick, 1993). Extraction of steroidal alkaloids from potato peels may be one way to reduce the disposal problem along with a better option for new pharmaceutical industry based on plants. A number of studies talk about the health benefits of steroidal alkaloids, such as anticancer and antiinflammatory effects, according the conditions of application (Friedman, 2006; Kenny et al., 2013). Some strategies, such as chemical modifications, should be applied on steroidal alkaloids to improve their bioactivities along with decrease in cytotoxic effect on normal dividing cells. Proper extraction techniques should be there to retrieve a sufficient amount of alkaloids for chemical modification. Some techniques, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, solvent extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction, are suitable for secondary metabolites extraction from plants (Glisic et al., 2011; Vinatoru, 2001; Wijngaard, et al., 2012a,b). Out of these, ultrasound-assisted extraction is inexpensive, ecological, and less time consuming (Virot et al., 2010). Cavity induced by ultrasound and glycoalkaloids present inside the cell leads to disruption of cell wall responsible for the release of intracellular components (Balachandran et al., 2006). For the better results through ultrasound-extraction technique some parameters, such as time, temperature, and amplitude of ultrasound, need to be optimized. But the optimization of all these parameters for better extraction is costly and time consuming. However, there is a statistical technique termed as response surface methodology to identify the required optimum conditions for a particular response (Hossain et al., 2014).
17.9
Bioethanol production from sugarcane bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse, a rich source of lignocellulosic material, is a suitable industrial waste for the development of biorefinery to produce fuels, chemicals, and other materials for economical and environmental benefits. Similar to other lignocellulosic materials, bagasse also possesses cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are difficult to separate as individual components. Therefore the production of bioethanol involves four major steps, that is, pretreatment, to access cellulose; hydrolysis, to release monomeric sugars with enzyme addition or acid catalyst; fermentation, for ethanol production; and finally distillation approach, to recover product (Margeot et al., 2009). Pretreatment process needs to be improved for efficient and cost-effective conversion of biomass in fermentable sugars (Mosier et al., 2005). In pretreatment, lime and alkaline hydrogen peroxide are the two suitable chemicals in this direction and provide better results under moderate temperature and pressure conditions (Fuentes et al., 2011). Raw material for ethanol production leads to the generation of a great amount of solid and liquid residuals. The liquid residuals are having a high concentration of pentoses, soluble and insoluble lignin, and also an effluent named vinasse after the product recovery, whereas lignin and hemicelluloses are the components of solid residuals (Fig. 17.3) (Rabelo et al., 2011).
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Lignocellulosic waste Pretreatment Liquid fraction
Solid fraction Enzymatic hydrolysis
Lignin
Anaerobic treatment
Liquid fraction
Solid fraction
Fermentation Biogas
Energy
Fertilizer
Distillation Second generation biofuels
Figure 17.3 Combined processes for the generation of second generation products.
The utilization of the waste, produced during ethanol production form bagaase, can be ecologically and economically suitable with is great challenges. At present, the existing microorganisms utilize the pentoses from the liquid residuals to produce ethanol, but at low concentration (Kaparaju et al., 2009). There are some approaches to reuse vinasse, such as thermal concentration, land application, utilization for animal feed, and recycling to form partially dilute molasses (Andrade et al., 2009). These wastes can be utilized for the production of biogas to remove the organic matter from effluents. And further, the effluent produced during biogas formation can be used as fertilizer for farming land (Liu et al., 2006). Lignin present in liquid residue could be employed to precipitation followed by heat and energy production (Sassner et al., 2008).
17.10
Conclusion and future perspective
The design of biorefineries, various steps, and features should be measured and examined carefully before the commercialization of integrated processes. Issues related to feedstock selection, transportation, stability, and social acceptance should be figured out in near future. In the case of plant-derived food waste the researchers are mainly attracted by cereal or oil crops waste instead of fruits and vegetables wastes. The high-value compounds extracted from these wastes may act as effective components of food, cosmetic, and many pharmaceutical compounds, thus deserve their recovery. Utilization of different types of feedstocks will be promising solution about the
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problem of feedstock stability and supply during whole year, which indirectly improve the economical status of valorization of food waste. Along with production of biofuels, some other biochemicals should also be focused. The government and industry should make efforts to focus on the production of several bio-based chemicals instead of single production (Schieb and Philp, 2014). The integrated biorefinery models are not so developed as compared to single-product approaches. The researchers mainly target the economical and environmental problems related to biorefinery, while there is an urgent need of consideration of social aspects as well (Rathore et al., 2016). Normally, the biorefineries are mainly implemented in European countries as compared to developing countries. Countries, such as India, are far back in the matter of biorefineries research even they are rich in plantderived waste (Ouda et al., 2016; Nizami et al., 2016). The present condition demands the specific studies about the conversion technologies and processes for economical benefits and bright future (Jin et al., 2018).
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Further reading Kader, A.A., 2004, June. Increasing food availability by reducing postharvest losses of fresh produce. In: V International Postharvest Symposium 682. pp. 2169 2176. Ma, Y., Ye, X., Hao, Y., Xu, G., Xu, G., Liu, D., 2008. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of hesperidin from Penggan (Citrus reticulata) peel. Ultrason. Sonochem. 15 (3), 227 232. European Union, 2009. Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. Off. J. Eur. Union 5, 2009.