Food manufacture and processing for safety: the challenge ahead

SHORTREVIEW

Food manufacture and processing for safety: the challenge ahead M. van Schothorst Changes in the production of primary agricultural products, in food manufacturing, and in eating habits have been at the root of a number of new food safety concerns. The HACCP system provides a means to address and prevent some of the problems which emerge as a consequence of these changes. However, if the new challenges are to be met effectively, the consumer also must take certain responsibilities. In addition, changes in the perception of food safety may be needed. Keywords:

food safety: HACCP;

eating habits; consumer

information

INTRODUCTION ‘Food manufacture and processing for safety, the title which challenge ahead’, is a very provocative forces us to analyse what food safety means to us. At the same time, it raises certain questions in our mind. After all, the concern about food safety is nothing new. Wars have been lost due to intoxications. Cholera epidemics linked with the consumption of contaminated foods have reduced populations throughout the ages. Brucellosis, tuberculosis, trichinosis, etc. are not new diseases. Why then do we talk about ‘the challenge ahead’? The reason is that the food industry must constantly fight against complacency. In the face of social change and scientific and technological development, the problems related to the manufacturing of safe food become increasingly complex. Also there is a greater awareness of potential hazards. This paper will summarize the factors that have led to shifts in food safety concerns, and will discuss the impact of these concerns on the food industry.

CAUSES OF EMERGING CONCERNS

FOOD

SAFETY

Scientific advances Modern

science,

paradoxically,

Quality Assurance Department,

has

us

to

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helped

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understand and resolve many difficulties associated with the production of safe food, while at the same time it has drawn our attention to problems of which we were previously unaware. A lot has been learned about the behaviour of various types of microorganisms. Some of them are very useful; for example, through fermentation, the safety, nutritional quality and shelf life of certain foods may be improved. Other microorganisms are potentially hazardous, because they can produce toxins under certain conditions or grow in the intestinal tract and produce infections. Control of such microorganisms, either by killing them with heat or other forms of energy, or by limiting their multiplication by lowering the temperature or the available water in their environment, has also been developed. Scientific research has been responsible for the development of new methods of preserving food, such as irradiation, and has identified certain chemicals, such as nitrites, as being useful in the prevention of food poisoning. In addition, toxicological evaluations have given us the means to develop foods with longer shelf lives and better nutritional and organoleptical qualities without endangering the safety of the product. Data gathered during the past 30 years indicate that industrially prepared foods cause only a minor percentage of foodborne diseases (Bryan, 1988). However, modern science has also brought us new and more sophisticated methods of chemical and microbiological analysis, toxicological examinations and epidemiological investigation. Consequently, everincreasing lists of toxicants, mutagens, carcinogens, 0956-7135/91/040220-04

0

1991 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd

Food manufacture and processing for safety: M. van Schothorst

allergens, natural toxins, pathogens or potential pathogens are established. These can sometimes be detected in primary agricultural products, raw materials, ingredients, packaging materials, and in the environment in which we live and produce food. Improved mass communication facilitates the spread of these findings worldwide, even if their significance for our health is not clear (Segal, 1990). It is not surprising that one gets the impression that in any food, something which is perceived as being ‘hazardous’ can be found, and that eating is a risky business.

Changes

in production

Much scientific research has concentrated on developing new ways of producing food. Changes in the production of primary agricultural products, fish and seafood have been a necessary response to our need to feed an ever-increasing population. These changes have been a source of many problems. For example, some of the protein-rich feed components used by the so-called bio-industries were imported from all over the world by western countries. They were found to carry not only Salmonella but also mycotoxins, and were directly responsible for outbreaks of salmonellosis related to red meat and poultry and the presence of aflatoxin M in milk. Crowding of animals at the farm has created excellent possibilities for the spread of salmonellae, campylobacter and other microorganisms, which can cause foodborne disease. Modern slaughtering techniques, which allow large numbers of animals to be processed in a short period of time, have also increased the possibilities for the contamination of meat. This, combined with an increased consumption of undercooked poultry and red meat, is directly related to the emergence of the ‘Salmonella problem’ (van Schothorst, 1986). Finally, the high yield of good quality field crops is not possible without the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Changes from extensive to intensive farming practices have created concerns about nitrates in vegetables, hormones in meat and alar on apples, to give just a few examples.

Changes

in eating habits

Changes in patterns of food consumption are also directly related to shifting food safety concerns. It has always been known that the prevalence of foodborne disease is related to eating habits, and that changes in these habits can lead to the appearance of new problems, but this relationship has been clarified only within the past 15 to 20 years. For example, in Holland, Anisakiasis or herring worm disease has been linked with the consumption of raw fish. After mandatory freezing of herring, the number of cases dropped significantly (van Knapen, 1988). The same disease occurred in Japan, where raw fish is an important part of the diet. In most other countries, the disease was hardly known, until sushi, a Japanese delicacy which is made of raw fish, was introduced (McKerrow et al., 1988) Japan provides us with another interesting example of the relationship between eating habits and foodborne disease. After the war, the main animal protein Food Control - October 1991

source in Japan was fish. Consequently,

Vibrio para-

haemoliticus, a marine microorganism,

was one of the most important causes of foodborne disease. Later, the Japanese started to eat more meat which they imported, as did many European countries, from Latin America. The increased meat consumption was correlated with an increase in salmonellosis cases. On the positive side, changes in eating habits may also prevent certain hazards. Consumption of raw milk has caused a relatively large number of cases of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis in the UK (Barrett, 1989). Mandatory pasteurization introduced in Scotland in 1983 changed the prevalence of these milk-borne diseases dramatically in this country (Sharp, 1987). Unfortunately, some ‘health orientated’ people in the USA, believing that raw is equivalent to fresh, have advocated replacing pasteurized milk with raw milk; the consequence has been the reappearance of these diseases.

Changes

in food preparation

Shifts in the focus of food safety concerns are related not only to the changes in the choice of foods but also to changes in the way it is prepared. All statistics available on outbreaks of foodborne diseases describe mistakes in food preparation and handling as the most important causative factor (Roberts, 1990). For example, in any situation where a large quantity of food has to be prepared in advance under conditions that are less than ideal, problems can occur. This is why food poisoning outbreaks often occur during scientific symposia, at wedding parties and on pleasure cruises. They also occur in canteens, hospitals, homes for the elderly and small catering establishments. A good illustration of this was a food poisoning outbreak in London, where Japanese businessmen, who preferred to maintain their eating habits, bought their lunches from an entrepreneurial Japanese cook who prepared the food the night before and distributed it during the morning hours. His customers soon felt the painful consequences of the fact that the lunches had not been refrigerated between preparation and distribution (Robinson et al., 1989). Food does not have to be prepared in large quantities to be mishandled. The busy consumer who keeps a reserve of food in a refrigerator that is not cold enough, or who does not take the time to properly reheat the meal, may also become the victim of gastrointestinal distress. The increased use of microwave ovens may perhaps increase this risk.

The changing

consumer

To this point, this presentation has explained our shifting food safety concerns in terms of the food itself, and its production and handling. However, to understand these concerns properly, attention must be focussed on the consumer, and his changing needs and demands. First, demographic changes are related to the emergence of certain foodborne diseases. Microorganisms such as Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio vulnificus and Aeromas hydrophilia have caused foodborne diseases 221

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mainly in individuals who are more ‘at risk’, for example, because of underlying diseases, immunosuppression or advanced age, than others (van Schothorst and Cox, 1989). It is reasonable to expect that in the future, the percentage of people ‘at risk’ will increase rather than decrease. The challenge of how to feed these people is one that should not be taken lightly. Population mobility, either through mass tourism or immigration, is another factor which has led to numerous outbreaks of foodborne disease. These outbreaks are linked partially to changes in eating habits. In addition, people who move to another country but attempt to continue their traditional eating habits may have problems if they have to substitute local ingredients for the ones they used in their native country. The cases of trichinosis, which occurred in South East Asian people living in the USA, who ate local sausages which they had prepared in the fashion to which they were accustomed, i.e. with minimal cooking, is a case in point, (Anonymous, 1991). Another example is the outbreak of Wisteria monocytogenes among Hispanics in the USA who ate a Mexicantype cheese (Linnan et al., 1988). Consumer lifestyles are changing, and this makes the food safety problem increasingly complex. Consumer studies carried out in Germany, Australia and the US all lead to the same conclusions. On one side, there will be more leisure time, and more money will be spent on pleasure foods. More variety, ethnic foods, and more daring combinations of foods will be demanded by the consumer of the future. He will also be more concerned with health aspects and freshness. On the other side, the number of working women, single-parent families and single-person households has increased. The result is that a large percentage of consumers find themselves increasingly pressed for time. Convenience becomes an important consideration. In addition, a greater percentage of meals are taken outside of the home. In short, it is difficult to address the needs of the average consumer because his wishes are often contradictory. He may enjoy filling his leisure time on weekends by experimenting with exotic recipes, while during the week, after a busy day at the office, he will grab for a low calorie health food snack because he has no time to prepare a meal. This means that he will want to keep a variety of foods in his refrigerator, so he can take whatever suits his mood at a given time. Normally, a home refrigerator is not managed on a ‘first-in, firstout’ basis, and food is often stored long past its expiration date. Thus, he wants his food that he can keep for a long period, but at the same time, he believes that foods that are ‘fresh’ and ‘natural’ are safer than industrially manufactured foods having a certain shelf life. Finally, consumer attitudes towards food producers and manufacturers are changing. The subject of food safety cannot be treated in a purely scientific or objective way, because it is closely linked with consumers’ attitudes and their perception of certain facts or their refusal to accept certain realities. The average consumer perceives the safety of foods as an unconditional attribute. The food he buys must not endanger his health, regardless of how he handles and prepares it, because ‘Veterinary inspectors and food control laboratories have inspected and examined whatever is on the market and as a taxpayer one should be 222

protected is not to the fact industrially based on

by these agencies’. The purpose of this paper discuss this misconception, but to underline that many concerns about the safety of prepared foods are not realistic and are not scientific evidence.

CONSEQUENCES FOR FOOD MANUFACTURERS To summarize the material that has been presented, the food industry has three main areas to consider when dealing with the problem of food safety: changes in food production, changes in food consumption (eating habits and food preparation) and changes in the consumer. The food industry is faced with what seems to be an insurmountable challenge: to manufacture products that will be safe under virtually any conditions. In fact, some hazards have been dealt with successbotulinum in meat and fully; for example, Clostridium vegetables, and Salmonella in milk and meat. At the same time, recent experience has also shown that when good manufacturing practices (GMP) are not followed, problems may occur (Lecos, 1986, O’Mahony et al., 1990). Several recent cases of botulism and an outbreak of salmonellosis due to ‘pasteurized’ milk illustrate this point. Prevention of contamination during manufacturing requires constant vigilance. Most food lines are not closed systems and even closed ones need to be opened occasionally for cleaning, maintenance, repair, etc. The hygienic design of many lines and equipment should be improved in order to prevent build-up of residues and growth of undesirable microorganisms (van Schothorst, 1990). Furthermore, changes in where and how raw materials and ingredients are produced may introduce new hazards and the food industry must remain constantly alert to deal with them. One of the most popular control systems used by the food industry to accomplish this is the so-called Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System (ICMSF, 1988). To summarize, potential hazards in raw materials should be eliminated or kept under control. During processing, no new hazards should be added. The whole hazard analysis should be carried out in light of the expected consumer use. In short, safety should be built in to the process at the drawing board to be built in during stage, and should continue processing, because food safety cannot be arrived at by end-product analysis. However, the possibilities to eliminate or reduce hazards during manufacturing are limited. Many processes such as drying, chilling or freezing do not kill microorganisms. Moreover, many of the real or perceived chemical hazards that may be present in raw materials and ingredients will not be eliminated during normal processing. Many ‘cleaning’ techniques have only a limited effect in eliminating or reducing the level of a contaminant. Thus, it is necessary to establish controls at the production stage of the raw materials. Since safety cannot be ‘inspected into’ raw materials, the suppliers must have agreed upon practices to assure the absence of known hazards in raw materials, ingredients and packaging materials. Finding solutions to problems that result from changes in consumer demands and expectations is more Food Control - October 199 1

Food manufacture

complicated. As was described above, many consumers believe the less processing a food receives, the healthier it is. This belief has influenced food manufacturing during recent years. Reduction of time and temperature combinations (less cooking), less salting, less drying, shorter fermentation and maturation times, less acidification, chilling rather than freezing are realities in many industries. Clearly, these changes may introduce new hazards because the safety margins are becoming smaller. At the same time, the consumer does not always respect the principal food hygiene rules, such as separating raw and cooked foods, or carefully following the instructions for preparation. The demand for variety also complicates manufacturing. The safest and easiest way to produce food is to have one product produced on an isolated line. If a great variety of foods are produced on several lines in a single factory, it is more difficult to keep everything under control. How to deal with the expectations of the consumers of the future may be one of the major challenges for the food industry. Hazard analysis, or even better, hazard anticipation, should prevent problems before they occur. If potential and real hazards cannot be dealt with properly, the industry should explain to the consumer why certain demands cannot be met.

CONCLUSION

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October 1991

for safety: M. van Schothorst

However, information is not enough. It is time that everyone in the food chain, including the end-product user, accepts his responsibility because no single link in the food chain can assure food safety without the cooperation of the others. Achieving this is a great challenge, but one that we have to face. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author wishes to thank Mrs Susan Jongeneel her help in the preparation of this manuscript.

for

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