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Food safety control systems for developing countries
REVIEWS Food safety control systems for developing countries Rosemary
C. Anyanwu” and David J. Jukes?
The problems facing developing countries who are seeking to create an effective food safety control system are reviewed. The importance of developing food control is stressed and the particular problems facing these countries are considered. The role of the international organisations is studied as the major source of help in improving control systems. The work of the Codex Alimentarius is described and is seen as an important contributor to the improvement of food control in developing countries. Keywords: Developing countries; Codex Alimentarius
UNSAFE FOOD SUPPLY - HEALTH AND ECONOMIC COSTS Introduction Food is a necessity and accounts for significant expenditure in households all over the world. It features prominently in both national and international commerce. Food affects our biological life as well as our material interest. The task of keeping our food supply steady and safe is therefore, an important issue concerning all. Food safety is a complex and diversified subject, involving the co-operation of scientists, industrialists, agriculturalists, businessmen, administrators and consumers. Different sectors of the national economy are also affected by food safety programmes. These include, the industrial, agricultural, commercial and health sectors (FAO/WHO, 1980) Food safety programmes have become increasingly necessary, due to technological advances in food and agricultural industries and to social changes introducing new food habits. In the past, food was consumed by those who produced it or by their immediate neighbours. Increased world population, urbanization, industrialization and migration have, however, introduced new safety problems into our food supply (Malik, 1980). In order to plan an effective food safety programme *National Institute for Medical Research, PMB 2013, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria tDepartment of Food Science and Technology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, UK 0956-7135/90/010017-10
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adequate consideration must be given to the factors that affect food safety control. The environment, climatic conditions, ecological factors and the level of the development of the nation must be considered. The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) have together listed certain characteristics peculiar to different areas at different stages of development (FAO/WHO, 1978). The three main situations are described as follows. Situation A. Lack of basic hygiene, including food hygiene; high morbidity and mortality; high illiteracy; lack of potable water; subsistence farming; no industrial development; no market economy. Situation B. Some basic hygienic practices and food hygiene practices; supply of potable water; medium morbidity and mortality; some literacy; some agricultural development; some industrial development. Situation C. Good basic hygienic practices and good food hygiene; plenty of potable water; low morbidity and mortality; most people literate; agriculture well developed; industry well developed; market economy well developed. Situations A and B are mostly encountered in developing countries and situation C is seen mostly in developed nations. Abdussalam (1980) has defined ‘developing countries’ as nations with a low standard of living for the majority of the population and having insufficient technical knowledge. He estimated that about 150 countries and territories are considered as ‘developing’ and about three quarters of mankind live in them. He further 17
Control systems in developing
countries:
R. C. Anyanwu
and D. J. Jukes
estimated that by 2000 AD, four fifths of the world population will be living in developing countries. One of the outstanding factors preventing effective food safety control in develping countries is the lack of information showing the true extent of food safety problems. There are many studies on the health and economic consequences of contaminated food in developed countries. These indicate that the consequences of contaminated food could be devastating for developing countries with limited resources. Some examples from both developed and developing countries are considered below.
Table 1 Reasons for detention of imports from developing countries by the US Government, January-March 1980
Reason for detention Mould Pathogenic micro-organism Aflatoxin Decomposed Filth (insects, rodents excreta, etc.) Pesticide residue Heavy metals Source: WHO
No. of lots detained
Value of detained goods (10-3x US$)
96 371 18 59 245
19 678 15 207 494 1 467 29 243
71 7
1 050 16
(1983)
Health problems A special study by WHO in 1981 reviewed the extent of foodbome illnesses in developing countries and found out that diarrhoeal diseases alone killed 13.6 per 1000 children under the age of five in Africa, Asia (excluding China) and Latin America. Another study estimated that out of the 2000 million people that travel each year as tourists, as many as half of them may suffer from diarrhoea (WHO, 1981). In five Latin American countries, contaminated food is known to be the leading cause of death (PAHO, 1982). The incidence of food poisoning in the UK rose from 6020 cases in 1972 to 15312 cases in 1984 (Hobbs and Roberts, 1987) and recent data indicates that it is still rising. Data from Canada also show that foodbome hazards caused illnesses in 7122 persons and the death of nine people in 1980 alone. An outbreak of listeriosis in Los Angeles, USA, in 1985 was responsible for 142 illnesses and 47 deaths (Hird, 1987). Various chemicals may be incorporated into food during processing and storage, intentionally and unintentionally, It is estimated that =4000 food additives are used around the world today, as food colours, flavours, sweeteners, vitamins and minerals, antimicrobials, mould inhibitors, antioxidants, emulsifiers, stabilizers and other purposes. Pesticides are similarly used for crop protection and preservation. Fertilizers are used for improving crop production and growth hormones are used for animal production (Haworth, 1983). Although these chemicals are continually being evaluated by international agencies for their safety, their toxicological hazards may not have been fully tested. They are potentially very harmful to human health when not properly used and when rigorous control and monitoring is lacking. Monosodium glutamate, a common food additive, is recorded annually in the USA to be the cause of some foodborne ill-health. It is popularly sold in developing countries (in 100% pure form) as a flavour enhancer. Outbreaks of chemical poisoning are less frequent and there is little documentation. Moreover, illnesses from chemical poisoning are not usually immediately apparent. The most outstanding and recent outbreak of chemical poisoning in food is the ‘toxic oil syndrome’ in Spain in 1981-82 involving >20000 cases and 350 deaths (Haworth, 1983). Another major outbreak of chemical poisoning in food occurred in Japan in 1955, when 128 infants died after consuming dried baby milk contaminated with arsenic, which was being used as a pesticide. Mycotoxins are known to be widely distributed in many countries of Africa and Asia. They are particularly associated with cereals, nuts and fruits. The warm 18
and humid climate in these countries favours the formation of mycotoxins and when food grains are incorrectly handled or stored after harvesting, dangerous mycotoxins can develop. One mycotoxin, aflatoxin, has been associated with fatal liver cancer in poultry (FAO, 1982). Economic impact Equally important is the effect of foodborne illnesses on the economic and financial situation of the world community. The joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety, in Geneva in 1983, observed that the economic impact of contaminated food was devastating to countries with limited resources. It was estimated that developing countries could be losing up to one third of the food they produced. They also lose foreign exchange as a result of rejected food exports to developed countries. In the USA alone, food imports from developing countries valued at ~$65 million were rejected for entry in one three-month period (see Table 1). Reasons for rejection included contamination with aflatoxin, high pesticide residues, contamination with Sufmonellu and decomposition. In Nigeria, the Food and Drug Administration destroyed contaminated food worth >f200000 in 1977 (Baptist, 1984). The FRG attributed a total loss of DM240 million to salmonellosis in 1977, and the USA estimated that the annual medical expenses due to food poisoning amounted to at least $480 million yearly (WHO, 1981). The economy of a nation can suffer greatly from loss of confidence from trading partners. After a typhoid outbreak in Aberdeen, UK in 1964, it was 10 years before normal business in corned beef resumed between Britain and South America. In Spain, the ‘toxic oil syndrome’ created a resistance to the purchase of Spanish oil in major foreign markets (Haworth, 1983). Thus it is possible that food manufacturers could go out of business as a result of contaminated products. Furthermore, victims of foodbome illnesses suffer from physical and emotional distress and the cost of treatment and loss of wages are a burden to the nation. Foodborne hazards are under-reported. It is believed that reported incidences represent ~10% of actual incidences in developed countries, and in developing countries the ratio of real and reported cases is believed to be as high as 1OO:l (Kaferstein and Sims, 1987). Existing data is, however, sufficient to indicate the importance of an effective food safety control system in developing countries. food Control - January 7990
Control systems in developing countries: Ft. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
1974, no new regulation had been given legal backing due to the slow legislative process. Some of the reasons noted as the cause of ineffective food legislation in developing countries find their origin in colonial experiences. Most developing countries were previously under the administrative control of developed countries and their food laws were adopted from those of the administrators. Such food laws were however introduced on an ad hoc basis to deal with specific problems of the administrators’ interest, particularly those dealing with export trade. While developed countries have in many instances updated and revised their food laws, many developing countries still operate the outdated food laws (Jukes, 1988; Malik, 1980). Food safety control administration
Figure 1 Elements of a national food control system (Codex, 1987)
CONSTRAINTS ON FOOD SAFETY CONTROL IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A review of food safety problems in developing countries is likely to assist policy makers in developing and implementing an effective food safety control service. Studies by international organisations have shown many common problems. Inadequacies are to be seen in food legislation, regulations, laboratory services, inspection services, monitoring services, administration of food control, manpower development and funding of food safety programmes. These constraints constitute very serious drawbacks when considered together with local factors affecting food safety in developing countries. Some of the most important elements involved in developing a national food control system are shown in Figure 1.
Most developing countries lack co-ordination and coherence in their food safety control administration. Many government agencies can be involved in the administration of food safety control. As a result, food producers, distributors and consumers get conflicting information and effort is duplicated and wasted by the enforcement officers. Many developing countries have not as yet formulated clear-cut food safety control programmes.
Food laboratory services Laboratory services have often been found to be the weakest part of a food safety control system in developing countries. This has been attributed to inability to fund and maintain the costly and sophisticated equipment and manpower required for this service. Laboratory services are however one of the most important components of effective food safety control, without which enforcement efforts will be very difficult. The following problems are common to most developing countries: lack of proper laboratory infrastructure; lack of equipment and chemical reagents; lack of qualified scientists and technicians; lack of maintenance of existing facilities; insufficient funds to run laboratory services.
Food law and regulations Most existing food law has been based on conditions in developed countries (Abdussalam, 1983; Malik, 1980). Although the underlying principles of food safety control are universal (i.e. the protection of the consumer and promotion of fair trade), they need to be applied to suit individual national needs and resources. Many developing countries either lack basic food law or their existing laws are outdated and inadequate. Laws governing the safety of food can be fragmented and found in many different statutes and codes. This situation confuses not only the enforcement agents but also the producers and distributors of food. In some cases laws may not be enforced. There is a lack of regulations to cover general definitions, compositional standards, labelling, advertising, sampling, inspection, hygiene specifications and contaminant levels. Baptist (1984) noted that this problem exists in Nigeria. Since Nigeria enacted its first comprehensive food law in Food Control - January 1990
Food inspection service Laboratory and inspection services usually have to be co-ordinated. An effective service is achieved if this complementary nature is maintained. Food inspectors are considered as the ‘eyes and ears’ of a food control programme, while the laboratory service is the analytical brain. In developed countries, food inspectors are adequately and properly trained and usually have a comprehensive idea of food safety and related subjects. This is not the case in many developing countries where there is a general lack of trained personnel. The food inspectors in these areas are not adequately trained and may lack professional ethics. There is no organized method of sampling and there is a lack of cooperation and co-ordination between the food inspector and the laboratory service. There may be no proper record keeping. 19
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes Food contamination
monitoring
In many developed countries there is constant monitoring to assess the level and sources of contaminants in food. The resulting information provides a data base for regulations and standards. One reason why developing countries lack regulations and food standards for local application is because local information is unavailable. Manpower development, gathering
research and information
Many developing countries lack qualified personnel for food safety control and training facilities are not available. Trained personnel often leave the food control service due to frustrations arising from an uncoordinated food safety control system. Within some countries there can be the added complication of conflicts between ethnic or tribal groups. Information about food hazards, or a mechanism for collecting such information, is virtually non-existent in many developing countries. Such information is, however, important and necessary for policy making. Other types of research such as basic research concerning food composition of local foods and effects of processing techniques on food have not been given adequate attention. Thus data for food standardization is not available except for a few limited products already analysed by international programmes e.g. the Codex Alimentarius described below. Even in these cases, such data may have been developed from only limited knowledge. Funding
This is one of the principal problems restricting food safety control in developing countries. Funds are needed to improve infrastructure, purchase equipment, train personnel and monitor food contamination. The problem with funding can be due to the low priority and small budget given to food safety programmes. Poverty restricts availability of funding but in addition many governments have not fully realized the importance and national impact of food safety control. Abdussalam (1983) suggested ways of cutting the cost of running food safety programmes in countries with limited resources. These include the application of carefully planned strategies according to the needs and resources of the country, and a proper co-ordination of all food safety activities. Other specific and local problems
Recommendations and actions by international organizations on food safety have not always improved the situation in developing countries. Many other factors operating at local levels affect food safety control. Most of these factors relate to the general level of development of these countries and must be considered together with the more general factors described above. These factors can be summarized as follows: environmental conditions including lack of proper waste disposal, open sewage, polluted water supply, slums and unsanitary open-air markets; inadequate and unhygienic storage and transport facilities; inadequate 20
and irregular supply of electricity and potable water; behavioural and cultural factors leading to improper handling of food; general lack of awareness and demand for food quality; improper trading habits leading to hoarding and storage of unfit foods; lack of national appreciation of the impact of unsafe food on health and development and thus lack of political will to affect changes.
INTERNATIONAL FOOD SAFETY
ORGANISATIONS
AND
Introduction
There are two principle international organizations which are involved in the development of food safety systems. These are the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, and the World Health Organization (WHO). Whilst in certain aspects they operate separately, on many aspects relating to food control joint work is undertaken. Their major collaboration is through the Codex Alimentarius Commission which aims to implement the joint FAOWHO Food Standards Programme. The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) held its first session in June 1963 in Rome. Codex has been responsible for most of the international work on food standards. In addition they have established a number of joint expert committees. The following organizations are also involved in international food safety control although to a lesser extent: International Standardization Organisation (ISO); International Dairy Federation (IDF); International Organisation of Consumer Union (IOCU); General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO); International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF). The FAO and WHO have not sought to replace these organizations but seek to ensure that work is co-ordinated and not duplicated. Discussion of the specific tasks of these other organizations is beyond the scope of this review. Food and Agricultural Organisation
FAO is a specialized autonomous agency of the United Nations. It was established in October 1945 and currently consists of 147 member nations who pledge themselves to: ‘1. Raise the level of nutrition and standards of living of the people under their respective jurisdiction. 2. Secure improvements of the production and distribution of all food and agricultural products. 3. Improve the condition of rural populations; and thus contribute to an expanding world economy and ensure humanity’s freedom from want’ (FAO, 1985). FAO has its headquarters in Rome and has regional offices in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and Latin America. There is also a liaison office at the United Nations in New York. FAO has a Food Quality and Consumer Protection Programme, which is implemented by the Food Quality and Standards Service. Codex Alimentarius Commission is part of this service. The programme on food quality and consumer protection is designed to accomplish the following: improve quality and safety of food; Food Control - January 1990
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
protect consumers against commercial fraud; promote fair trade practices; increase trade opportunities; improve national economies through trade; improve food supply and food security; improve health levels. To accomplish these objectives, the Food Quality and Standards Service provides advisory and technical services to member nations in the following areas: drafting and updating of comprehensive food laws and/ or regulations; planning for a national infrastructure for food control; improvement of food inspection and analyses; food contamination monitoring; organization of training programmes for food control personnel; evaluation of food additives; food protection in the urban, village and household levels; elaboration of world-wide food standards. FAO collects, analyses and disseminates information on food safety control and provides opportunities for member governments to meet and discuss food and agricultural problems. Numerous publications have been made in the area of food safety control. In 1975 FAO published a model ‘Outline of Food Law’ which described the structure, principles and main provisions of a modern food law (Gerard, 1975). This publication has been of invaluable assistance to developing countries who are in the process of establishing or updating their national food laws. A general guideline for developing an effective national food control system has also been developed (FAOMrHO, 1976). Food consumption patterns have been reviewed in different parts of the world (FAO, 1986a) and are helpful in planning food safety control programmes. Evaluation of food additives and pesticide residues (FAOWHO, 1985; FAO, 1986b) have assisted many countries. FAO also monitors chemical contaminants in food, including mycotoxins (FAO, 1982). The guidelines on good manufacturing/production practices have been used by different food operators from farm to industry (FAO, 1983; FAO, 1986~; FAO, 1979a; FAO, 1979b). There have also been publications on urbanization and food control (FAOIWHO, 1987) and on control of street vending in Asia (FAO, 1986d). FAO assists individual member nations in evaluating their control systems. A typical consultancy service would normally have the following pattern. A survey of the existing food control system which may include: existing food law; ministries, agencies and individuals responsible for the administration of food safety control; laboratory facilities; inspection facilities. its availability, training required and method of operation; food establishments; institutions that could be useful in food safety control. Determination of priority areas for food control, followed by recommendations for short term/long term solutions.
World Health Organisation
WHO is also a specialized autonomous agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1948 and has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The major objective is to ensure the ‘attainment by all people, of the highest level of health’. The WHO constitution directs it to assist governments in strengthening their health services, improving sanitation and nutrition and to work in close collaboration with other UN specialized agencies (Paxton, 1988). Food Control - January 1990
In 1984 there were 166 member nations and one associate member of WHO. Health and related activities in member nations are carried out through regional offices which has been established in Brazzaville (for Africa), New Delhi (for Southeast Asia). Copenhagen (for Europe), Alexandria (for Eastern Mediterranean). Manila (for Western Pacific), and Washington (for the Americas). The regional offices define problems and solutions for the region. WHO’s food safety unit (FOS) is concerned mainly with protection of consumers’ health, and this mostly involves the prevention of microbiological and chemical contamination of food. It works very closely with the FAO on matters of food safety, especially through the joint programme on food standards. WHO has assisted many developing countries in strengthening their food safety control. The health legislation unit of WHO, takes care of food legislation as it affects human health and well-being. The Veterinary Public Health Unit (VPH) is concerned with zoonoses and related aspects of public health. WHO also provides technical and advisory services. In general terms, while FAO’s services concentrate on food production and control infrastructure, WHO’s services are directed towards the improvement of hygiene and the prevention of foodborne illnesses. Recently WHO has embarked on a global strategy for ‘Health for all by the year 2000’ (WHO, 1977). This programme considers food safety an essential component that contributes significantly to disease prevention and promotion of health. In connection with the programme, WHO is developing a guide for people concerned with food safety in the ‘Health for all’ scheme operating under the primary health care system. It has also undertaken studies on rural commercial food processing using the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach to improve safety controls. WHO has been involved in organizing some important meetings to review food safety. These are often held jointly with FAO and the following examples indicate the importance of this work. In June 1983 a joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety discussed the role of food safety in health and development. The committee recognized that foodborne illness is widespread and not limited by national boundaries or socioeconomic development, but that control of foodbome illnesses depended on the effectiveness of national food control systems (WHO, 1984a). Another joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation in December 1986 discussed the protection of food for the urban consumers. It was recognized that food distribution in the urban areas of most developing countries presented health hazards to consumers. Recommendations were made which would reduce contamination, adulteration and loss of food in these areas (FAO/ WHO, 1987). A WHO round table conference on meat hygiene in developing countries concluded that developing countries needed urgent assistance from international organizations to provide a safe meat supply through hygienic programmes based on adequate legislation (WHO, 1985). Guidelines have been given by WHO on small slaughterhouses and meat hygiene for developing countries (WHO, 1984b). 21
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and 0. J. Jukes
In a FAO/WHO consultation on food safety evaluation in October 1984 a concept was developed for evaluating food safety programmes with a view to making them more effective. This concept involves the ‘application of relevant criteria’ to define national needs, priorities and resources available for food safety programmes, and it has been recommended to governments for adoption (WHO, 1989). A consultation exercise on health education in food safety was held in April/May 1987. Its advice included aspects of the integration of food safety into the primary health care system to achieve maximum benefits for developing countries. Separate meetings have been held to discuss salmonellosis control (September 1987) and listeriosis (February 1988) (WHO, 1988).
The main objectives of the CAC are as follows. (1) Protecting the health of the consumers and ensuring fair practices in food trade; (2) promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations; (3) determining priorities and initiating and guiding the preparation of draft standards through and with the aid of appropriate organizations; (4) finalizing standards elaborated under (3) above and after acceptance by governments, publishing them in a Codex Alimentarius either as regional or world-wide together with international standards standards, already finalized by other bodies under (2) above, whenever this is practicable; (5) amending published standards after appropriate survey in the light of developments (Codex, 1986). Codex develops standards for all principal foods, whether processed, semi-processed or raw. In establishing standards, Codex considers the hygiene, nutritional quality, microbiological norms, food additives, pesticide residues and other contaminants. Labelling and presentation, sampling and analysis, and advisory information such as codes of practice and guidelines are also considered. The Codex Alimentarius Commission is made up of an Executive Committee, an FAO/WHO secretariat, and 28 subsidiary bodies (see Figure 2). The Executive Committee consists of a Chairman and Vice Chairman and six other members elected by the Commission at
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme - Codex Alimentarius Commission The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is jointly sponsored by FAO and WHO and is responsible for most work on international food safety control and standardization. Established in 1962, its membership is open to all members and associate members of FAO and/or WHO. Codex membership has risen from 30 countries in its early days to 134 countries in 1988. Codex has its headquarters in Rome within the FAO Food Quality and Standards Division.
El
Joint FAO/WHO Committee of Government Experts on the Code of Principles concerning Milk and Milk Products
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Fire
22
2 Organisational
structure
of the Codex
Alimentarius
Quick frozen foods
Cereals. pulses and legumes
-
Commission
Food Control - January 1990
; , I
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
sessions drawn from the different geographic regions covered by Codex. Full plenary sessions of the Commission are held every two years whilst the Executive Committee acts for the Commission between sessions. The subsidiary bodies are divided into three broad categories: food commodity committees (sugars, fats and oils, etc.): general subject committees (additives, labelling, etc.): regional co-ordinating committees (Africa, Asia, etc.). Implementation of the food standards programme is achieved largely through the expertise contained in the subsidiary bodies and with technical information also provided by international non-governmental groups of experts. Certain subsidiary bodies have been very influential in propagating the objectives of Codex. Of particular importance are the Regional Co-ordinating Committees. There are four of these serving Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America and the Caribbean. They aim to define the problems and needs of the countries in the region, to stimulate the strengthening of food control; and to develop regional standards and promote mutual exchange of information on food control. The regional committees have held many sessions since their inauguration. They have helped to up-grade food control in their regions through the following services: drafting and updating of food law and regulations; planning for national infrastructure for food control; improvement of food inspection, analyses and facilities for control; food contamination monitoring programmes; upgrading of food supplies and industrial practice through recommendations and education; improvement of food trade through improved standards; improvement in nutritional status. In addition there are the main technical subsidiary bodies. These include the following. Food Additives and Contaminants Committee
This body establishes and endorses permitted levels for food additives and contaminants in food and animal feed; prepares priority lists for toxicological testing by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA); specifies the identity and purity of food additives and their method of evaluation; and elaborates standards and codes for food additives and irradiation of foods. Many countries, lacking their own experts, rely on these evaluations and tests as the basis for their own national legislation. The Food Additives and Contaminants Committee has developed a general standard for irradiated foods and a code of practice for the safe bperation of radiation facilities (in collaboration with the International Atomic Energy Agency). Pesticide residues
This body establishes limits for pesticide residues in food and animal feed moving in international trade. It also prepares priority lists of pesticides for evaluation by the Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues (JMPR). Food Hygiene
This body has developed many codes of practice for hygienic handling of different food items. These codes have been particularly helpful to developing countries Food Control - January 1990
step
Governments etc.
Subsidiary body
Comminion
regular
1
Step 2
Draft Standard’
I
step 3
Consideration and comments
step 4
step 5
Adoption as ‘Draft Standard
I I Consideration and comments
Step 6
I
step 7
step 8
Adoption as ‘Codex Standard
I
Figure 3 Schematic diagram showing procedure for the adoption of Codex standards
in upgrading food manufacturing and distribution and in educating food operators for proper food handling. Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses
This body studies all nutritional problems in relation to special groups. For example it has developed an advisory list of vitamin compounds and mineral salts for use in foods for infants. It also develops standards for foods for special dietary uses. Examples are the standards for gluten-free foods and foods of lowsodium content. Since its creation over 25 years ago. Codex has elaborated and published standards for >200 commodities, 35 codes of hygiene and technological practice and an extensive series of maximum pesticide residue limits (~2000). Although much of the detailed work is carried out by the subsidiary bodies, before a standard is adopted there is an extensive procedure of consultation involving many specified steps (see Figure 3). Codex consults widely and negotiates with member governments and interested international organizations. This enables all governments to consider how they may be economically or socially affected by such a standard. On adoption of any standard, governments are also invited to accept the standard in various specified ways taking into account their respective constitutional procedures. These ways can be summarized as follows. 23
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
Full Acceptance
Only allows free distribution of products complying with the Codex standard unless there are health matters not properly covered by Codex.
encouraged to discuss deviations before an agreement is reached (McGowan, 1981).
DISCUSSION Target Acceptance
Will accept the Codex standard at a later date but, in the meantime, will allow for a free distribution of products that comply with the Codex standard, unless there are health matters not properly covered by Codex . Acceptance with specified deviations
Accepts a Codex standard with some deviations, but provides written reasons for such deviations. May still allow products to be imported which conform to the standard. Acceptance of a Codex standard can be withdrawn or modified by a country, but the maximum possible time should be allowed to enable Codex to inform other Members. A summary of the acceptances has been published (Codex, 1989). Many countries have notified their acceptance of Codex Standards but these are mostly developing countries. Canada has accepted many standards with specified deviations and the USA, while allowing free distribution of some products complying with Codex description, has not formally accepted any standard. The USA feels that it does not need to adopt a Codex standard to reap the benefits of the Codex programme. It also believes that its approach of allowing free distribution is proving very effective in its dealings with its trading partners (Kimbrell, 1982). The European Community (EC) countries, acting as a group, communicated a similar reason to Codex for non-acceptance. They reasoned that acceptance in any form would necessitate a very complex and lengthy decision process that would create long delays. It also believes that EC standards approximate to those of Codex and formal acceptance would make little difference (Codex, 1985). Other member countries would like to see both the USA and the EC formally accept Codex standards. The WHO Executive Board at its 69th session in January 1982, expressed concern at the way some countries and economic groups were creating more technical barriers to international food trade. Some observers have also suggested that developed countries should step-up acceptances of Codex standards (Mathey, 1981). Their reluctance in formally accepting these standards is difficult to understand, especially since these countries are actively involved in the elaboration of standards and even host and sponsor the committees responsible for the standards. Codex has been criticized by the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) for allowing acceptance of standards with specified deviations. It has argued that allowing for specified deviations amounts to allowing technical barriers to trade and reduces the effectiveness of Codex. GATT has suggested a ‘Code of Good Practices’ to change the way governments accept Codex standards. Instead of allowing for deviations, it has suggested that govemements should be
24
The problems of food control in developing countries and an outline of the major work being undertaken on an international basis to alleviate these problems has been generally reviewed. The creation of adequate food safety control systems in developing countries is dependent upon many factors. Whilst lack of funds is a major factor, it has been pointed out that a lack of awareness can limit the effort being directed into food control. Estimates of the problems caused by inadequate food control are hard to find. In a joint FAO/WHO expert consultation on food safety convened in Geneva in June 1983, human health and development were linked to food safety (WHO, 1984a). The Expert Committee on Food Safety observed that many developing countries have a very high incidence of foodbome illnesses and a high percentage of food losses. It also noted that incidences could be one hundred times higher than that observed, because there are no mechanisms for assessing the true extent of the problem. It is estimated that developing countries are losing up to one third of the food produced and that diarrhoeal diseases kill on average 13.6 children (under 5 years old) per 1000 in these countries (Abdussalam, 1983). International organizations like FAO, WHO and Codex have been helping developing countries to establish or strengthen existing food safety control programmes. Studies undertaken by these organizations in developing countries have highlighted many problems and constraints which limit effective food safety control (FAOAVI-IO, 1987; WHO, 1984a; Abdussalam, 1983; Malik 1980). Poverty is seen to be the most limiting factor, but it is believed that, if the other constraints are taken care of a reasonable level of food safety control could be achieved (Abdussalam, 1980). Benefits of a food safety programme Although different countries will benefit in different ways, it is likely that the implementation of a food safety programme would benefit many developing countries. A FAOAVHO consultation on Food Control Strategy in Geneva in December 1977 recognized the benefits of a properly co-ordinated food safety control programme. These benefits can be summarized as follows: assured protection of the health of the consumer; reduced food losses; minimization of food adulteration and fraud; promotion of food exports, quality and volume, to increase foreign exchange; assured minimum standards of composition, quality and safety of foods whether imported or produced for domestic consumption; control of chemicals and microbiological contaminants of foods; promotion of the food industry through improved food processing techniques and proper use of food additives; consumers receive adequate information, including food labelling, to enable informed choice and better food acceptance; protection of
Food Control - January 1990
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
national food supplies and assure food security; better nutritional status of all levels of populations through availability of safer and better quality foods; prevention of dumping of contaminated or sub-standard foods (FAO/WHO, 1978). A food safety programme therefore has two major functions. Firstly, protection of the consumers’ health and economic interests and protection of the honest trader, and secondly, promotion of trade in food both at national and international levels. International efforts
Member nations of FAO and WHO have adopted a goal of providing safe, wholesome and sufficient food for all by 2000 AD. One of the approaches to achieving this target includes a recommendation to governments to review and analyse their national needs. This would enable an indentification of problems related to unsafe food and water and enable the development of national policies and effective programmes for food safety control (WHO, 1984a). The major international effort which helps developing countries is that involving the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The work of the Codex has been outlined above and details given as to the development of food standards. However, the impact of Codex Alimentarius Commission goes beyond its work on food standardization. There are other less obvious impacts and benefits from Codex. For instance, the Commission has brought people from all over the world to work together in an environment almost devoid of political constraints towards a common goal. Scientists, businessmen and women, regulators and consumers, are provided an international forum to interact and exchange ideas with one another. The recommendations of the Commission are thus a product of considerable scientific, technical and legal exchange between Codex and representatives of governments and international non-governmental organizations. Developed countries as well as the developing ones have benefited economically from Codex work. Differences in national legislation and regulation which cause technical barriers in food trade are gradually giving way to Codex international food standards. Developing countries have improved their national economy by using Codex standards to improve their food supply. They have also been able to prevent commercial fraud and health hazard from ‘food dumping’ from developed countries. The Codex Code of Ethics for International Trade in Food has been useful in this aspect. Codex is saving a lot of money for most of its member governments, who now rely on Codex work on additives and pesticide residues in food, which is given free to member states. It is increasingly being used by governments for guidance on matters of public health and trade interests in food. To benefit more from the work of Codex however, developing countries need to be more aware of the benefits of an effective food safety control system and therefore to give it a proper priority in their national planning.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research upon which this paper is based is funded Food Control - January 1990
the European Community. The authors wish to acknowledge the help given by FAO and WHO to Miss Anyanwu during her visit to Rome and Geneva during the research for this paper.
by
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foodbome diseases in developAll. Proceedings of 1st World and Intoxications, FAO/WHO Berlin
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M. (1983) The practical application of food safety criteria in developing countries. Food Nun. 9, 24-32
Baptist, G.O. (1984) Government regulations of food in Nigeria. Nigerian Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. 2 (I), 123-126 Codex (1986) Codex Alimentarius Commission Manual 6th Ed. FAO.
Rome Codex (1987) Report on Views of FAO’s Committee on Agriculture on Paper Prepared for the Committee Concerning the Role of Food Quality and Standards in Food Security, Trade and Health
ALINORM 87/10, Codex, Rome Codex (1989) Summary of Acceptances Part 1: Codex Worldwide and Regional Standards, Revision 4, FAO, Rome FAO (1979a) Report on the FAOIUNDP
Technical Consultation among Developing Countries of Asia and the Pacific on Food Controls, Needs and Means ESN-Mist 7911, FAO, Rome
FAO (1979b) Women in Food Production, Food Handling and Nutrition FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 8. FAO, Rome FAO (1982) Mycotoxin Surveillance FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 21. FAO, Rome FAO (1983) Post-Harvest Losses in Quality of Grains FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 29, FAO, Rome FAO (1985) FAO: The First 40 Years, 1945-1985 FAO, Rome FAO (1986a) Review of Food Consumption Surveys - 1985 FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 35, FAO, Rome FAO (1986b) Pesticide Residues in Food - 1985 FAO, Rome FAO (1986~) Guidelines for Can Manufacturers and Food Canners FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 36, FAO, Rome FAO (1986d) Report on the Regional Workshop on Street Foods in Asia FAO, Rome FAOiWHO (1976) Guidelines for Devloping an Effective National Food Control Svstem FAO Food Control Ser. No. 1. FAO/ WHO, Rome . FAO/WHO (1978) Report of the FAOIWHO Consultation on Food Control Strategy HCSt78.1, WHO, Geneva FAO/WHO (1980) Safe Food for All Proceedings of 1st World Congress - Foodborne Infections and Intoxications, FAOlWHO Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Berlin FAOlWHO (1985) Food Additives Data System FAO, Rome FAO/WHO (1987) Report of the Joint FAOIWHO Expert Consultation on Food Protection for Urban Consumers FAO, Gerard,
Rome
A (1975) An Outline of Food Law FAO Legislative Studies
No.7, FAO, Rome Haworth, J. (1983) Global Review of Information on the Extent of Ill Health Associated with Chemically Contaminated Foods WHO
EFPIFOSIECIWP 83.13, WHO, Geneva Hird, D.W. (1987) Review of evidence of zoonotic listeriosis. Food Prot. 50 (5) 429-433 Hobbs, B.C. and Roberts, D. (1987) Food Poisoning Hygiene 5th Edn, Edward Arnold, London
and Food
Jukes, D.J. (1988) Developing a food control system - the Tanzanian experience. Food Policy 13 (3) 293-304 F and Sims, J. (1987) Food safety: a worldwide public health issue. World Health March 1987, p. 3-4
Kaferstein,
Kimbrell, E.F. (1982) Codex Alimentarius food standards and their relevance to US standards Food Technology 36 (6), 93-95 Malik, R.K. (1980) The organisation of food control systems. In: Safe Food For All Proceedings of 1st World Congress - Foodbome
Infections and Intoxications, Medicine. Berlin
FAOWHO
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Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
M&they, E. (1981) The Codex Alimentarius - expectations and reality. In: Crkkr of Food Acceptance Eds Solms, J. and Hall, R.L., Foster-Verlag, Switzerland McGowan, G. (1981) The Formulation European News Agency, Brussels
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Legislation
PAHO (1982) Sanitary Control of Food Pan America Health Organisation Scientific Publication No. 421, PAHO, Washington Paxton, J. (1988) The Stateman’s Year Rook - 1988 Macmillan, London WHO (1977) World Health Assembly Resolution WHA 30.43, WHO Official Records No. 240, WHO, Geneva WHO (1981) Report of the WHOIWAVFH
Round Table Conference on the Present Status of the Salmonella Problem WHO, Geneva
26
WHO (1983) Economic consequences Food Nutr. 9 (2). 43-48
of contaminated food in trade.
WHO (1984a) The Role of Food Safety in Health and Developmenr WHO Technical Report Series No. 705, WHO. Geneva WHO (1984b) Guidelines Hygiene for Developing
on Small Slaughterhouses and Mear Countries VPH183.42 and 56, WHO,
Geneva WHO (1985) Report of Round Table Conference on Meat Hygiene in Developing Countries; VPW85.60, WHO. Geneva WHO (1988) Conrrol of Foodborne Listeriosis WHOIEHEIFOS188.5. WHO, Geneva WHO (1989) Principles on Evaluation of Programmes to Ensure Food Safety WHO, Geneva
Food Control - January 1990
C. Anyanwu” and David J. Jukes?
The problems facing developing countries who are seeking to create an effective food safety control system are reviewed. The importance of developing food control is stressed and the particular problems facing these countries are considered. The role of the international organisations is studied as the major source of help in improving control systems. The work of the Codex Alimentarius is described and is seen as an important contributor to the improvement of food control in developing countries. Keywords: Developing countries; Codex Alimentarius
UNSAFE FOOD SUPPLY - HEALTH AND ECONOMIC COSTS Introduction Food is a necessity and accounts for significant expenditure in households all over the world. It features prominently in both national and international commerce. Food affects our biological life as well as our material interest. The task of keeping our food supply steady and safe is therefore, an important issue concerning all. Food safety is a complex and diversified subject, involving the co-operation of scientists, industrialists, agriculturalists, businessmen, administrators and consumers. Different sectors of the national economy are also affected by food safety programmes. These include, the industrial, agricultural, commercial and health sectors (FAO/WHO, 1980) Food safety programmes have become increasingly necessary, due to technological advances in food and agricultural industries and to social changes introducing new food habits. In the past, food was consumed by those who produced it or by their immediate neighbours. Increased world population, urbanization, industrialization and migration have, however, introduced new safety problems into our food supply (Malik, 1980). In order to plan an effective food safety programme *National Institute for Medical Research, PMB 2013, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria tDepartment of Food Science and Technology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, UK 0956-7135/90/010017-10
$03.00
0
1990 Butterworth
8 Co. (Publishers)
Ltd
adequate consideration must be given to the factors that affect food safety control. The environment, climatic conditions, ecological factors and the level of the development of the nation must be considered. The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) have together listed certain characteristics peculiar to different areas at different stages of development (FAO/WHO, 1978). The three main situations are described as follows. Situation A. Lack of basic hygiene, including food hygiene; high morbidity and mortality; high illiteracy; lack of potable water; subsistence farming; no industrial development; no market economy. Situation B. Some basic hygienic practices and food hygiene practices; supply of potable water; medium morbidity and mortality; some literacy; some agricultural development; some industrial development. Situation C. Good basic hygienic practices and good food hygiene; plenty of potable water; low morbidity and mortality; most people literate; agriculture well developed; industry well developed; market economy well developed. Situations A and B are mostly encountered in developing countries and situation C is seen mostly in developed nations. Abdussalam (1980) has defined ‘developing countries’ as nations with a low standard of living for the majority of the population and having insufficient technical knowledge. He estimated that about 150 countries and territories are considered as ‘developing’ and about three quarters of mankind live in them. He further 17
Control systems in developing
countries:
R. C. Anyanwu
and D. J. Jukes
estimated that by 2000 AD, four fifths of the world population will be living in developing countries. One of the outstanding factors preventing effective food safety control in develping countries is the lack of information showing the true extent of food safety problems. There are many studies on the health and economic consequences of contaminated food in developed countries. These indicate that the consequences of contaminated food could be devastating for developing countries with limited resources. Some examples from both developed and developing countries are considered below.
Table 1 Reasons for detention of imports from developing countries by the US Government, January-March 1980
Reason for detention Mould Pathogenic micro-organism Aflatoxin Decomposed Filth (insects, rodents excreta, etc.) Pesticide residue Heavy metals Source: WHO
No. of lots detained
Value of detained goods (10-3x US$)
96 371 18 59 245
19 678 15 207 494 1 467 29 243
71 7
1 050 16
(1983)
Health problems A special study by WHO in 1981 reviewed the extent of foodbome illnesses in developing countries and found out that diarrhoeal diseases alone killed 13.6 per 1000 children under the age of five in Africa, Asia (excluding China) and Latin America. Another study estimated that out of the 2000 million people that travel each year as tourists, as many as half of them may suffer from diarrhoea (WHO, 1981). In five Latin American countries, contaminated food is known to be the leading cause of death (PAHO, 1982). The incidence of food poisoning in the UK rose from 6020 cases in 1972 to 15312 cases in 1984 (Hobbs and Roberts, 1987) and recent data indicates that it is still rising. Data from Canada also show that foodbome hazards caused illnesses in 7122 persons and the death of nine people in 1980 alone. An outbreak of listeriosis in Los Angeles, USA, in 1985 was responsible for 142 illnesses and 47 deaths (Hird, 1987). Various chemicals may be incorporated into food during processing and storage, intentionally and unintentionally, It is estimated that =4000 food additives are used around the world today, as food colours, flavours, sweeteners, vitamins and minerals, antimicrobials, mould inhibitors, antioxidants, emulsifiers, stabilizers and other purposes. Pesticides are similarly used for crop protection and preservation. Fertilizers are used for improving crop production and growth hormones are used for animal production (Haworth, 1983). Although these chemicals are continually being evaluated by international agencies for their safety, their toxicological hazards may not have been fully tested. They are potentially very harmful to human health when not properly used and when rigorous control and monitoring is lacking. Monosodium glutamate, a common food additive, is recorded annually in the USA to be the cause of some foodborne ill-health. It is popularly sold in developing countries (in 100% pure form) as a flavour enhancer. Outbreaks of chemical poisoning are less frequent and there is little documentation. Moreover, illnesses from chemical poisoning are not usually immediately apparent. The most outstanding and recent outbreak of chemical poisoning in food is the ‘toxic oil syndrome’ in Spain in 1981-82 involving >20000 cases and 350 deaths (Haworth, 1983). Another major outbreak of chemical poisoning in food occurred in Japan in 1955, when 128 infants died after consuming dried baby milk contaminated with arsenic, which was being used as a pesticide. Mycotoxins are known to be widely distributed in many countries of Africa and Asia. They are particularly associated with cereals, nuts and fruits. The warm 18
and humid climate in these countries favours the formation of mycotoxins and when food grains are incorrectly handled or stored after harvesting, dangerous mycotoxins can develop. One mycotoxin, aflatoxin, has been associated with fatal liver cancer in poultry (FAO, 1982). Economic impact Equally important is the effect of foodborne illnesses on the economic and financial situation of the world community. The joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety, in Geneva in 1983, observed that the economic impact of contaminated food was devastating to countries with limited resources. It was estimated that developing countries could be losing up to one third of the food they produced. They also lose foreign exchange as a result of rejected food exports to developed countries. In the USA alone, food imports from developing countries valued at ~$65 million were rejected for entry in one three-month period (see Table 1). Reasons for rejection included contamination with aflatoxin, high pesticide residues, contamination with Sufmonellu and decomposition. In Nigeria, the Food and Drug Administration destroyed contaminated food worth >f200000 in 1977 (Baptist, 1984). The FRG attributed a total loss of DM240 million to salmonellosis in 1977, and the USA estimated that the annual medical expenses due to food poisoning amounted to at least $480 million yearly (WHO, 1981). The economy of a nation can suffer greatly from loss of confidence from trading partners. After a typhoid outbreak in Aberdeen, UK in 1964, it was 10 years before normal business in corned beef resumed between Britain and South America. In Spain, the ‘toxic oil syndrome’ created a resistance to the purchase of Spanish oil in major foreign markets (Haworth, 1983). Thus it is possible that food manufacturers could go out of business as a result of contaminated products. Furthermore, victims of foodbome illnesses suffer from physical and emotional distress and the cost of treatment and loss of wages are a burden to the nation. Foodborne hazards are under-reported. It is believed that reported incidences represent ~10% of actual incidences in developed countries, and in developing countries the ratio of real and reported cases is believed to be as high as 1OO:l (Kaferstein and Sims, 1987). Existing data is, however, sufficient to indicate the importance of an effective food safety control system in developing countries. food Control - January 7990
Control systems in developing countries: Ft. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
1974, no new regulation had been given legal backing due to the slow legislative process. Some of the reasons noted as the cause of ineffective food legislation in developing countries find their origin in colonial experiences. Most developing countries were previously under the administrative control of developed countries and their food laws were adopted from those of the administrators. Such food laws were however introduced on an ad hoc basis to deal with specific problems of the administrators’ interest, particularly those dealing with export trade. While developed countries have in many instances updated and revised their food laws, many developing countries still operate the outdated food laws (Jukes, 1988; Malik, 1980). Food safety control administration
Figure 1 Elements of a national food control system (Codex, 1987)
CONSTRAINTS ON FOOD SAFETY CONTROL IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A review of food safety problems in developing countries is likely to assist policy makers in developing and implementing an effective food safety control service. Studies by international organisations have shown many common problems. Inadequacies are to be seen in food legislation, regulations, laboratory services, inspection services, monitoring services, administration of food control, manpower development and funding of food safety programmes. These constraints constitute very serious drawbacks when considered together with local factors affecting food safety in developing countries. Some of the most important elements involved in developing a national food control system are shown in Figure 1.
Most developing countries lack co-ordination and coherence in their food safety control administration. Many government agencies can be involved in the administration of food safety control. As a result, food producers, distributors and consumers get conflicting information and effort is duplicated and wasted by the enforcement officers. Many developing countries have not as yet formulated clear-cut food safety control programmes.
Food laboratory services Laboratory services have often been found to be the weakest part of a food safety control system in developing countries. This has been attributed to inability to fund and maintain the costly and sophisticated equipment and manpower required for this service. Laboratory services are however one of the most important components of effective food safety control, without which enforcement efforts will be very difficult. The following problems are common to most developing countries: lack of proper laboratory infrastructure; lack of equipment and chemical reagents; lack of qualified scientists and technicians; lack of maintenance of existing facilities; insufficient funds to run laboratory services.
Food law and regulations Most existing food law has been based on conditions in developed countries (Abdussalam, 1983; Malik, 1980). Although the underlying principles of food safety control are universal (i.e. the protection of the consumer and promotion of fair trade), they need to be applied to suit individual national needs and resources. Many developing countries either lack basic food law or their existing laws are outdated and inadequate. Laws governing the safety of food can be fragmented and found in many different statutes and codes. This situation confuses not only the enforcement agents but also the producers and distributors of food. In some cases laws may not be enforced. There is a lack of regulations to cover general definitions, compositional standards, labelling, advertising, sampling, inspection, hygiene specifications and contaminant levels. Baptist (1984) noted that this problem exists in Nigeria. Since Nigeria enacted its first comprehensive food law in Food Control - January 1990
Food inspection service Laboratory and inspection services usually have to be co-ordinated. An effective service is achieved if this complementary nature is maintained. Food inspectors are considered as the ‘eyes and ears’ of a food control programme, while the laboratory service is the analytical brain. In developed countries, food inspectors are adequately and properly trained and usually have a comprehensive idea of food safety and related subjects. This is not the case in many developing countries where there is a general lack of trained personnel. The food inspectors in these areas are not adequately trained and may lack professional ethics. There is no organized method of sampling and there is a lack of cooperation and co-ordination between the food inspector and the laboratory service. There may be no proper record keeping. 19
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes Food contamination
monitoring
In many developed countries there is constant monitoring to assess the level and sources of contaminants in food. The resulting information provides a data base for regulations and standards. One reason why developing countries lack regulations and food standards for local application is because local information is unavailable. Manpower development, gathering
research and information
Many developing countries lack qualified personnel for food safety control and training facilities are not available. Trained personnel often leave the food control service due to frustrations arising from an uncoordinated food safety control system. Within some countries there can be the added complication of conflicts between ethnic or tribal groups. Information about food hazards, or a mechanism for collecting such information, is virtually non-existent in many developing countries. Such information is, however, important and necessary for policy making. Other types of research such as basic research concerning food composition of local foods and effects of processing techniques on food have not been given adequate attention. Thus data for food standardization is not available except for a few limited products already analysed by international programmes e.g. the Codex Alimentarius described below. Even in these cases, such data may have been developed from only limited knowledge. Funding
This is one of the principal problems restricting food safety control in developing countries. Funds are needed to improve infrastructure, purchase equipment, train personnel and monitor food contamination. The problem with funding can be due to the low priority and small budget given to food safety programmes. Poverty restricts availability of funding but in addition many governments have not fully realized the importance and national impact of food safety control. Abdussalam (1983) suggested ways of cutting the cost of running food safety programmes in countries with limited resources. These include the application of carefully planned strategies according to the needs and resources of the country, and a proper co-ordination of all food safety activities. Other specific and local problems
Recommendations and actions by international organizations on food safety have not always improved the situation in developing countries. Many other factors operating at local levels affect food safety control. Most of these factors relate to the general level of development of these countries and must be considered together with the more general factors described above. These factors can be summarized as follows: environmental conditions including lack of proper waste disposal, open sewage, polluted water supply, slums and unsanitary open-air markets; inadequate and unhygienic storage and transport facilities; inadequate 20
and irregular supply of electricity and potable water; behavioural and cultural factors leading to improper handling of food; general lack of awareness and demand for food quality; improper trading habits leading to hoarding and storage of unfit foods; lack of national appreciation of the impact of unsafe food on health and development and thus lack of political will to affect changes.
INTERNATIONAL FOOD SAFETY
ORGANISATIONS
AND
Introduction
There are two principle international organizations which are involved in the development of food safety systems. These are the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, and the World Health Organization (WHO). Whilst in certain aspects they operate separately, on many aspects relating to food control joint work is undertaken. Their major collaboration is through the Codex Alimentarius Commission which aims to implement the joint FAOWHO Food Standards Programme. The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) held its first session in June 1963 in Rome. Codex has been responsible for most of the international work on food standards. In addition they have established a number of joint expert committees. The following organizations are also involved in international food safety control although to a lesser extent: International Standardization Organisation (ISO); International Dairy Federation (IDF); International Organisation of Consumer Union (IOCU); General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO); International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF). The FAO and WHO have not sought to replace these organizations but seek to ensure that work is co-ordinated and not duplicated. Discussion of the specific tasks of these other organizations is beyond the scope of this review. Food and Agricultural Organisation
FAO is a specialized autonomous agency of the United Nations. It was established in October 1945 and currently consists of 147 member nations who pledge themselves to: ‘1. Raise the level of nutrition and standards of living of the people under their respective jurisdiction. 2. Secure improvements of the production and distribution of all food and agricultural products. 3. Improve the condition of rural populations; and thus contribute to an expanding world economy and ensure humanity’s freedom from want’ (FAO, 1985). FAO has its headquarters in Rome and has regional offices in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and Latin America. There is also a liaison office at the United Nations in New York. FAO has a Food Quality and Consumer Protection Programme, which is implemented by the Food Quality and Standards Service. Codex Alimentarius Commission is part of this service. The programme on food quality and consumer protection is designed to accomplish the following: improve quality and safety of food; Food Control - January 1990
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
protect consumers against commercial fraud; promote fair trade practices; increase trade opportunities; improve national economies through trade; improve food supply and food security; improve health levels. To accomplish these objectives, the Food Quality and Standards Service provides advisory and technical services to member nations in the following areas: drafting and updating of comprehensive food laws and/ or regulations; planning for a national infrastructure for food control; improvement of food inspection and analyses; food contamination monitoring; organization of training programmes for food control personnel; evaluation of food additives; food protection in the urban, village and household levels; elaboration of world-wide food standards. FAO collects, analyses and disseminates information on food safety control and provides opportunities for member governments to meet and discuss food and agricultural problems. Numerous publications have been made in the area of food safety control. In 1975 FAO published a model ‘Outline of Food Law’ which described the structure, principles and main provisions of a modern food law (Gerard, 1975). This publication has been of invaluable assistance to developing countries who are in the process of establishing or updating their national food laws. A general guideline for developing an effective national food control system has also been developed (FAOMrHO, 1976). Food consumption patterns have been reviewed in different parts of the world (FAO, 1986a) and are helpful in planning food safety control programmes. Evaluation of food additives and pesticide residues (FAOWHO, 1985; FAO, 1986b) have assisted many countries. FAO also monitors chemical contaminants in food, including mycotoxins (FAO, 1982). The guidelines on good manufacturing/production practices have been used by different food operators from farm to industry (FAO, 1983; FAO, 1986~; FAO, 1979a; FAO, 1979b). There have also been publications on urbanization and food control (FAOIWHO, 1987) and on control of street vending in Asia (FAO, 1986d). FAO assists individual member nations in evaluating their control systems. A typical consultancy service would normally have the following pattern. A survey of the existing food control system which may include: existing food law; ministries, agencies and individuals responsible for the administration of food safety control; laboratory facilities; inspection facilities. its availability, training required and method of operation; food establishments; institutions that could be useful in food safety control. Determination of priority areas for food control, followed by recommendations for short term/long term solutions.
World Health Organisation
WHO is also a specialized autonomous agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1948 and has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The major objective is to ensure the ‘attainment by all people, of the highest level of health’. The WHO constitution directs it to assist governments in strengthening their health services, improving sanitation and nutrition and to work in close collaboration with other UN specialized agencies (Paxton, 1988). Food Control - January 1990
In 1984 there were 166 member nations and one associate member of WHO. Health and related activities in member nations are carried out through regional offices which has been established in Brazzaville (for Africa), New Delhi (for Southeast Asia). Copenhagen (for Europe), Alexandria (for Eastern Mediterranean). Manila (for Western Pacific), and Washington (for the Americas). The regional offices define problems and solutions for the region. WHO’s food safety unit (FOS) is concerned mainly with protection of consumers’ health, and this mostly involves the prevention of microbiological and chemical contamination of food. It works very closely with the FAO on matters of food safety, especially through the joint programme on food standards. WHO has assisted many developing countries in strengthening their food safety control. The health legislation unit of WHO, takes care of food legislation as it affects human health and well-being. The Veterinary Public Health Unit (VPH) is concerned with zoonoses and related aspects of public health. WHO also provides technical and advisory services. In general terms, while FAO’s services concentrate on food production and control infrastructure, WHO’s services are directed towards the improvement of hygiene and the prevention of foodborne illnesses. Recently WHO has embarked on a global strategy for ‘Health for all by the year 2000’ (WHO, 1977). This programme considers food safety an essential component that contributes significantly to disease prevention and promotion of health. In connection with the programme, WHO is developing a guide for people concerned with food safety in the ‘Health for all’ scheme operating under the primary health care system. It has also undertaken studies on rural commercial food processing using the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach to improve safety controls. WHO has been involved in organizing some important meetings to review food safety. These are often held jointly with FAO and the following examples indicate the importance of this work. In June 1983 a joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety discussed the role of food safety in health and development. The committee recognized that foodborne illness is widespread and not limited by national boundaries or socioeconomic development, but that control of foodbome illnesses depended on the effectiveness of national food control systems (WHO, 1984a). Another joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation in December 1986 discussed the protection of food for the urban consumers. It was recognized that food distribution in the urban areas of most developing countries presented health hazards to consumers. Recommendations were made which would reduce contamination, adulteration and loss of food in these areas (FAO/ WHO, 1987). A WHO round table conference on meat hygiene in developing countries concluded that developing countries needed urgent assistance from international organizations to provide a safe meat supply through hygienic programmes based on adequate legislation (WHO, 1985). Guidelines have been given by WHO on small slaughterhouses and meat hygiene for developing countries (WHO, 1984b). 21
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and 0. J. Jukes
In a FAO/WHO consultation on food safety evaluation in October 1984 a concept was developed for evaluating food safety programmes with a view to making them more effective. This concept involves the ‘application of relevant criteria’ to define national needs, priorities and resources available for food safety programmes, and it has been recommended to governments for adoption (WHO, 1989). A consultation exercise on health education in food safety was held in April/May 1987. Its advice included aspects of the integration of food safety into the primary health care system to achieve maximum benefits for developing countries. Separate meetings have been held to discuss salmonellosis control (September 1987) and listeriosis (February 1988) (WHO, 1988).
The main objectives of the CAC are as follows. (1) Protecting the health of the consumers and ensuring fair practices in food trade; (2) promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations; (3) determining priorities and initiating and guiding the preparation of draft standards through and with the aid of appropriate organizations; (4) finalizing standards elaborated under (3) above and after acceptance by governments, publishing them in a Codex Alimentarius either as regional or world-wide together with international standards standards, already finalized by other bodies under (2) above, whenever this is practicable; (5) amending published standards after appropriate survey in the light of developments (Codex, 1986). Codex develops standards for all principal foods, whether processed, semi-processed or raw. In establishing standards, Codex considers the hygiene, nutritional quality, microbiological norms, food additives, pesticide residues and other contaminants. Labelling and presentation, sampling and analysis, and advisory information such as codes of practice and guidelines are also considered. The Codex Alimentarius Commission is made up of an Executive Committee, an FAO/WHO secretariat, and 28 subsidiary bodies (see Figure 2). The Executive Committee consists of a Chairman and Vice Chairman and six other members elected by the Commission at
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme - Codex Alimentarius Commission The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is jointly sponsored by FAO and WHO and is responsible for most work on international food safety control and standardization. Established in 1962, its membership is open to all members and associate members of FAO and/or WHO. Codex membership has risen from 30 countries in its early days to 134 countries in 1988. Codex has its headquarters in Rome within the FAO Food Quality and Standards Division.
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2 Organisational
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Food Control - January 1990
; , I
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
sessions drawn from the different geographic regions covered by Codex. Full plenary sessions of the Commission are held every two years whilst the Executive Committee acts for the Commission between sessions. The subsidiary bodies are divided into three broad categories: food commodity committees (sugars, fats and oils, etc.): general subject committees (additives, labelling, etc.): regional co-ordinating committees (Africa, Asia, etc.). Implementation of the food standards programme is achieved largely through the expertise contained in the subsidiary bodies and with technical information also provided by international non-governmental groups of experts. Certain subsidiary bodies have been very influential in propagating the objectives of Codex. Of particular importance are the Regional Co-ordinating Committees. There are four of these serving Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin America and the Caribbean. They aim to define the problems and needs of the countries in the region, to stimulate the strengthening of food control; and to develop regional standards and promote mutual exchange of information on food control. The regional committees have held many sessions since their inauguration. They have helped to up-grade food control in their regions through the following services: drafting and updating of food law and regulations; planning for national infrastructure for food control; improvement of food inspection, analyses and facilities for control; food contamination monitoring programmes; upgrading of food supplies and industrial practice through recommendations and education; improvement of food trade through improved standards; improvement in nutritional status. In addition there are the main technical subsidiary bodies. These include the following. Food Additives and Contaminants Committee
This body establishes and endorses permitted levels for food additives and contaminants in food and animal feed; prepares priority lists for toxicological testing by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA); specifies the identity and purity of food additives and their method of evaluation; and elaborates standards and codes for food additives and irradiation of foods. Many countries, lacking their own experts, rely on these evaluations and tests as the basis for their own national legislation. The Food Additives and Contaminants Committee has developed a general standard for irradiated foods and a code of practice for the safe bperation of radiation facilities (in collaboration with the International Atomic Energy Agency). Pesticide residues
This body establishes limits for pesticide residues in food and animal feed moving in international trade. It also prepares priority lists of pesticides for evaluation by the Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues (JMPR). Food Hygiene
This body has developed many codes of practice for hygienic handling of different food items. These codes have been particularly helpful to developing countries Food Control - January 1990
step
Governments etc.
Subsidiary body
Comminion
regular
1
Step 2
Draft Standard’
I
step 3
Consideration and comments
step 4
step 5
Adoption as ‘Draft Standard
I I Consideration and comments
Step 6
I
step 7
step 8
Adoption as ‘Codex Standard
I
Figure 3 Schematic diagram showing procedure for the adoption of Codex standards
in upgrading food manufacturing and distribution and in educating food operators for proper food handling. Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses
This body studies all nutritional problems in relation to special groups. For example it has developed an advisory list of vitamin compounds and mineral salts for use in foods for infants. It also develops standards for foods for special dietary uses. Examples are the standards for gluten-free foods and foods of lowsodium content. Since its creation over 25 years ago. Codex has elaborated and published standards for >200 commodities, 35 codes of hygiene and technological practice and an extensive series of maximum pesticide residue limits (~2000). Although much of the detailed work is carried out by the subsidiary bodies, before a standard is adopted there is an extensive procedure of consultation involving many specified steps (see Figure 3). Codex consults widely and negotiates with member governments and interested international organizations. This enables all governments to consider how they may be economically or socially affected by such a standard. On adoption of any standard, governments are also invited to accept the standard in various specified ways taking into account their respective constitutional procedures. These ways can be summarized as follows. 23
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
Full Acceptance
Only allows free distribution of products complying with the Codex standard unless there are health matters not properly covered by Codex.
encouraged to discuss deviations before an agreement is reached (McGowan, 1981).
DISCUSSION Target Acceptance
Will accept the Codex standard at a later date but, in the meantime, will allow for a free distribution of products that comply with the Codex standard, unless there are health matters not properly covered by Codex . Acceptance with specified deviations
Accepts a Codex standard with some deviations, but provides written reasons for such deviations. May still allow products to be imported which conform to the standard. Acceptance of a Codex standard can be withdrawn or modified by a country, but the maximum possible time should be allowed to enable Codex to inform other Members. A summary of the acceptances has been published (Codex, 1989). Many countries have notified their acceptance of Codex Standards but these are mostly developing countries. Canada has accepted many standards with specified deviations and the USA, while allowing free distribution of some products complying with Codex description, has not formally accepted any standard. The USA feels that it does not need to adopt a Codex standard to reap the benefits of the Codex programme. It also believes that its approach of allowing free distribution is proving very effective in its dealings with its trading partners (Kimbrell, 1982). The European Community (EC) countries, acting as a group, communicated a similar reason to Codex for non-acceptance. They reasoned that acceptance in any form would necessitate a very complex and lengthy decision process that would create long delays. It also believes that EC standards approximate to those of Codex and formal acceptance would make little difference (Codex, 1985). Other member countries would like to see both the USA and the EC formally accept Codex standards. The WHO Executive Board at its 69th session in January 1982, expressed concern at the way some countries and economic groups were creating more technical barriers to international food trade. Some observers have also suggested that developed countries should step-up acceptances of Codex standards (Mathey, 1981). Their reluctance in formally accepting these standards is difficult to understand, especially since these countries are actively involved in the elaboration of standards and even host and sponsor the committees responsible for the standards. Codex has been criticized by the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) for allowing acceptance of standards with specified deviations. It has argued that allowing for specified deviations amounts to allowing technical barriers to trade and reduces the effectiveness of Codex. GATT has suggested a ‘Code of Good Practices’ to change the way governments accept Codex standards. Instead of allowing for deviations, it has suggested that govemements should be
24
The problems of food control in developing countries and an outline of the major work being undertaken on an international basis to alleviate these problems has been generally reviewed. The creation of adequate food safety control systems in developing countries is dependent upon many factors. Whilst lack of funds is a major factor, it has been pointed out that a lack of awareness can limit the effort being directed into food control. Estimates of the problems caused by inadequate food control are hard to find. In a joint FAO/WHO expert consultation on food safety convened in Geneva in June 1983, human health and development were linked to food safety (WHO, 1984a). The Expert Committee on Food Safety observed that many developing countries have a very high incidence of foodbome illnesses and a high percentage of food losses. It also noted that incidences could be one hundred times higher than that observed, because there are no mechanisms for assessing the true extent of the problem. It is estimated that developing countries are losing up to one third of the food produced and that diarrhoeal diseases kill on average 13.6 children (under 5 years old) per 1000 in these countries (Abdussalam, 1983). International organizations like FAO, WHO and Codex have been helping developing countries to establish or strengthen existing food safety control programmes. Studies undertaken by these organizations in developing countries have highlighted many problems and constraints which limit effective food safety control (FAOAVI-IO, 1987; WHO, 1984a; Abdussalam, 1983; Malik 1980). Poverty is seen to be the most limiting factor, but it is believed that, if the other constraints are taken care of a reasonable level of food safety control could be achieved (Abdussalam, 1980). Benefits of a food safety programme Although different countries will benefit in different ways, it is likely that the implementation of a food safety programme would benefit many developing countries. A FAOAVHO consultation on Food Control Strategy in Geneva in December 1977 recognized the benefits of a properly co-ordinated food safety control programme. These benefits can be summarized as follows: assured protection of the health of the consumer; reduced food losses; minimization of food adulteration and fraud; promotion of food exports, quality and volume, to increase foreign exchange; assured minimum standards of composition, quality and safety of foods whether imported or produced for domestic consumption; control of chemicals and microbiological contaminants of foods; promotion of the food industry through improved food processing techniques and proper use of food additives; consumers receive adequate information, including food labelling, to enable informed choice and better food acceptance; protection of
Food Control - January 1990
Control systems in developing countries: R. C. Anyanwu and D. J. Jukes
national food supplies and assure food security; better nutritional status of all levels of populations through availability of safer and better quality foods; prevention of dumping of contaminated or sub-standard foods (FAO/WHO, 1978). A food safety programme therefore has two major functions. Firstly, protection of the consumers’ health and economic interests and protection of the honest trader, and secondly, promotion of trade in food both at national and international levels. International efforts
Member nations of FAO and WHO have adopted a goal of providing safe, wholesome and sufficient food for all by 2000 AD. One of the approaches to achieving this target includes a recommendation to governments to review and analyse their national needs. This would enable an indentification of problems related to unsafe food and water and enable the development of national policies and effective programmes for food safety control (WHO, 1984a). The major international effort which helps developing countries is that involving the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The work of the Codex has been outlined above and details given as to the development of food standards. However, the impact of Codex Alimentarius Commission goes beyond its work on food standardization. There are other less obvious impacts and benefits from Codex. For instance, the Commission has brought people from all over the world to work together in an environment almost devoid of political constraints towards a common goal. Scientists, businessmen and women, regulators and consumers, are provided an international forum to interact and exchange ideas with one another. The recommendations of the Commission are thus a product of considerable scientific, technical and legal exchange between Codex and representatives of governments and international non-governmental organizations. Developed countries as well as the developing ones have benefited economically from Codex work. Differences in national legislation and regulation which cause technical barriers in food trade are gradually giving way to Codex international food standards. Developing countries have improved their national economy by using Codex standards to improve their food supply. They have also been able to prevent commercial fraud and health hazard from ‘food dumping’ from developed countries. The Codex Code of Ethics for International Trade in Food has been useful in this aspect. Codex is saving a lot of money for most of its member governments, who now rely on Codex work on additives and pesticide residues in food, which is given free to member states. It is increasingly being used by governments for guidance on matters of public health and trade interests in food. To benefit more from the work of Codex however, developing countries need to be more aware of the benefits of an effective food safety control system and therefore to give it a proper priority in their national planning.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research upon which this paper is based is funded Food Control - January 1990
the European Community. The authors wish to acknowledge the help given by FAO and WHO to Miss Anyanwu during her visit to Rome and Geneva during the research for this paper.
by
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