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Food service research: An integrated approach
International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 477–483
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Hospitality Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman
Review
Food service research: An integrated approach Svetlana Rodgers ∗ The Australian Food Service Academy, 1205/149 Cope str., Waterloo, Sydney 2017, Australia
a r t i c l e
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Keywords: Food production Innovation Product development Risk management
a b s t r a c t Food production demands competencies in both natural science and management principles. The suggested framework includes the following areas of research: technological innovation, process design (including Industrial Cuisine), product development (including Molecular Gastronomy, Industrial Gastronomy and Functional Meal) and risk management (including quantitative risk assessment and predictive microbiology). Developments stemming from food science and engineering could be combined with studies in operations management, consumer psychology, cognitive psychology, sociology and economics. The paper concludes that in order to meet societal demands for health, sustainability and efficiency a radical shift is needed—from ‘low tech’ recipe development and proliferation of marketing concepts to ‘cutting edge’ technological innovation supported by advanced research in management and consumer studies. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defining research on food production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Product development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1. Introduction The term ‘food service’ is applied to the part of economy engaged in provision of meals out of home. Dining options are vital for the growing event and tourism industries. In Australia alone, cafes and restaurants generate $9.7 billion income per year and employ 145,500 people; the corresponding figures for contract catering services are $4 billion and 50,300 (Australian Berou of Statistics, 2009). The sector is highly heterogeneous; typically it encompasses educational, health care and leisure outlets, hotels, pubs and restaurants (Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 2007). Sportrelated organisations, for example, offer simultaneous catering for thousands of athletes, their coaches, and medical teams. Despite the difference in routines and rituals in such organisations, food production, which is the main function, is governed by the same fundamental principles in operations management, food science
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and engineering. These disciplines according to Jones (2004) have well-established theoretical foundations and robust methodologies. At the same time, they are under-represented in the hospitality curriculum, research and industry practices. The CHRIE (Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education) and CAUTHE (Council for Australian University and Hospitality Education) conferences rarely feature papers on hospitality operations and ‘hard’ or equipment based technologies. The Journal of Foodservice has ceased publication for the lack of submissions and readership. The reason for this becomes clear if one would reflect on the latest developments in the food service education. In the past, leading hospitality departments such as at Huddersfield and Bournemouth Universities in the UK or Cornell and Conrad Hilton Hotel Schools in the US had laboratories in food chemistry, microbiology and even plumbing. Now they are replaced with computer or interview rooms. In remaining teaching restaurants operational routines are taught, hence the confusion in terminology—in this context ‘operations’ are practices and not operations management fundamentals. Furthermore, business
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schools took over hospitality programs but did not inject vigour into operational aspects and the food production function was ignored. Currently, a great emphasis is made on human resource management and marketing, which are not core functions of food service divisions. In fact, managers have to engage with the substantial physical resources of hospitality organisations—facilities, equipment and food. Hospitality trade shows are indicative of this—the halls full of endless varieties of food ingredients, catering equipment and cleaning systems. Changing economic climate brings more scrutiny on productivity indicators. Efficiencies could be achieved through cost cutting or radical innovation in logistics and technology—hence, ‘low tech’ vs. ‘high tech’ options. Operators are under competitive pressures from the food manufacturing sector, which is more proactive in seeking government-funded research. The NovelQ Project (FOOD-CT-2005015710) sponsored by the European Union, for example, offers access to novel processing technologies (high pressure, pulsed electric field and plasma processing). This results in numerous offerings of fresh-like ready-to-eat packaged meals in supermarkets, which is in direct competition with commercial and institutional food services as traditional meal providers. Another challenge is the growing importance of diet and health not only in specific settings such as health care, but also in mainstream commercial outlets, including in-flight catering (Grammatikopoulou et al., 2007). The nutritional value is more than part of product quality; its disclosure is becoming a legal requirement. In the UK, several major fast food chains, such as Pizza Hut, McDonalds and Starbucks, list calories on the menu as recommended by the Food Standard Agency (Elliot, 2009). To increase competitiveness and add value, proactive operators could differentiate themselves through the development of health improving Functional Meals (Rodgers, 2004). Thus, the field of food production yields itself to multidisciplinary approaches through triangulation of quantitative (hard) and qualitative (soft) methods in technology and management. To facilitate high quality research, this paper offers a framework of relevant scientific disciplines, potential topics and methodologies. The aim of this paper is to alert academics from disciplines outside the field of hospitality management to possibilities of applying their research methodologies to food service operations. This viewpoint echos those expressed at the annual conference of the CAUTHE in February 2010 in Hobart (Australia): multi-disciplinarity and complexity of programs, the need for innovation in education; business elements over-shadowing nonbusiness elements; removal of departmental barriers; and brining new disciplines into the field. At the conference, this manuscript was selected for the best paper award by the University of Tasmania Business School.
2. Defining research on food production From the operational perspective, food services consist of two distinct areas, front- and back-of-house. The former is closely associated with the consumer and governed by artistic/social concepts often described as Meal Science (Gustafsson, 2004). The relevant disciplines are: ethnology, sociology, anthropology, business economics, nutrition, domestic science and public health; the major subject areas are: history, textiles, design, colour, social psychology, menu planning, sensory analysis, food and beverages, food chemistry, cooking and serving techniques, labour and alcohol laws and business economics (Gustafsson et al., 2006). The management control systems include business administration, marketing, labour law, work organisation, work environments, statistics, management and leadership (Gustafsson et al., 2006). Such descriptive listings prevalent in hospitality management literature are not
sufficient for informed decision-making. Instead, robust operational principles supported by advanced quantitative techniques are needed. Examples include financial analysis of activities, process design and analysis, forecasting, productivity, capacity and aggregate planning, inventory optimisation and waiting line theory (Davis and Heineke, 2005). Quantitative approaches are vital for back-of-house operations, behind the line of visibility they could be managed using operational philosophies not dissimilar to manufacturing. Food manufacturing practices share with food services such attributes as biological variability of raw materials and stock management methods linked to their perishability (Tansey et al., 2003). Engineering and operational processes are governed by the same universal rules whether they take place in a banquet servery or a factory. In fact, the Lean Manufacturing and Just-In-Time principles originated in car manufacturing (Eugelund et al., 2008). The ‘soft’ disciplines related to technological innovation reflect the ‘human’ factor—either consumers of new products or users of new equipment or organisations coping with the changeover to a new food service system. For practical reasons, the mainstream management disciplines, which are applicable to food service practices, are not covered in this review. A researcher from a business school could use the food service context to study business law, finance, economics or human resource management; examples of such studies could be found in the Journal of Foodservice Business Research. The focus of this paper, however, is on the field-specific research which may integrate food service technology with consumer studies or principles in engineering with principles in operations management. The suggested framework (Table 1) consists of four major elements: technological innovation, process design, new product development and risk management. The breadth of underpinning methodologies extends from the Computational Fluid Dynamic modelling to Ajzen-Fobishbein theory of reasoned action. Correspondingly, the relevant journals range from the Journal of Food Process Engineering to Appetite. It should be noted that these publications rarely reach hospitality professionals and academics.
3. Technological innovation Physical resources such as food, equipment, facility and engineering systems represent the core competencies of any food service organisation. Technological innovation provides foundation for competitiveness, differentiation and cost leadership. The benefits include reduction of cooking time, energy efficiency, labour saving, superior process control, modularity and flexibility, superior food quality, better HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) and Good Manufacturing Practice management and improved service (Rodgers, 2007b). An early example of innovation in engineering systems is the kitchen at the Royal Brighton Pavilion (Brighton, UK) designed for Antonine Caréme, 19th century celebrity chef. It featured such novelties of the time as running water and centralised steam supply, food was kept cold in a large ice house, then reheated and kept hot on the ‘steam table’ prior to service. This was a precursor of modern food service systems such as cook-chill, cook-freeze and sous vide (cooked-in-a-bag). Later advances in engineering allowed production decoupling from consumption, which led to the development of Industrial Cuisine (Hudson, 1997). Industrial methods of food production are common for large-scale organisations, which would typically have a CPU (central production unit) to supply satellite kitchens. Large Industrial Cuisine settings can afford experimentation with new cooking techniques including induction heating and microwaving, packaging and process monitoring devises. For example, the COMPASS Group (UK) introduced the so-called STEAMPLICITY method: raw packaged meals are stored chilled and cooked in a
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Table 1 Framework of research topics supporting food production. Elements
Potential topics
Example of theories/quantitative tools
Examples of refereed journals
Technological innovation
Equipment design based on advanced modelling techniques New system development beyond the traditional cook-chill/cook-freeze/sous vide, etc. Testing equipment performance—food quality outcomes and resource consumption Consumer and organisational behaviour
Computational Fluid Dynamic, food preservation and engineering Food preservation principles
Journal of Food Process Engineering
Process design
Product development
Risk management
a
Cost/benefit analysis/economic indicators
Journal of Culinary Science & Technology Journal of Foodservice Trends in Food Science & Technology
Adaptation behaviour to innovation—theory of reasoned action Modes of organisational change: entropy, bricolage, substitution and hybridizationa
Organisational Studies American Behavioural Scientist American Sociological Review American Journal of Sociology
New food service systems: design and assessment
Lean Manufacturing Decoupling Industrial Cuisine Productivity models
Processes optimisation, decision support, facility design and distribution logistics
Modelling and computer simulation Statistical decision theory, system theory, logical inference and artificial intelligence, dynamic supply chain planning of perishable food
Interaction between people and processes
Food Neophobia scale Social theory of ‘actors’ and their experiences of awareness, knowledge, power, motivations, time, circumstances and the technological artefacts
International Journal of Production Planning International Journal of Production Research International Journal of Operations and Production Management Production Planning & Control Journal of Food Distribution Research Journal of Service Research Engineering Optimisation Supply Chain Management International Journal of Logistics Management International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications Journal of Phenomenological Psychology Organization Science
Novel preparation techniques and cooking methods
Analytical techniques of food analysis
Sensory evaluation and shelf-life testing Consumer studies
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis
Design of risk management systems Quantitative risk assessment Behavioural aspects of risk perception
Consumer decision-making and attitude formation and change Socio-ecological/cultural feedback loops The MAO (motivation, ability and opportunity) factors ISO 22000, HACCP and HAZIP Monte Carlo simulation Bayesian Belief Networks A lottery model Personal hygiene risk management triad Ajzen-Fobishbein theory of reasoned action and health belief model platform
Trends in Food Science & Technology Food Research International Journal of Food Science Appetite Psychology and Behaviour Journal of Sensory Studies Food Quality and Preference
Food Control Journal of Food Service Technology Journal of Food Protection Appetite
As described in Monnin (2005).
microwave oven immediately before consumption. The patented valve imbedded in the lid is used to release steam (Chartwell, 2008). There are numerous cleaning/sanitation technologies (Napper, 2007) and devices supporting food quality and safety control. TTIs (time–temperature indicators), for example, provide dynamic ‘reallife’ food quality status of a food product based on the colour change triggered by mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic or microbiological temperature-dependent reactions. Operators/researchers in food services are not expected to invent complex engineering solutions themselves, but should be able to scan innovations in other ‘high tech’ fields of economy for potential applicability in the kitchen. The European Union technology transfer programs INICON (2002) was funded to impart knowledge from science and food technology to the kitchen. High profile participants of this program, El Bulli (Spain) and Fat Duck (UK) restaurants, use laboratory-type units—immersion circulators, centrifuges, distillers and water baths. This results in unusual texture, shape and appearance of food and is often called Molecular Gastronomy. This term is somewhat misleading as no manipulations on molecular level take place; it rather reflects the reliance on
scientific principles rather than on practice and intuition. Another term is Industrial Gastronomy which reflects the use extrusion, freeze-drying, phase separation and other techniques adopted from food manufacturing. It should be noted that the industry is still dominated by ‘low tech’ innovation, mostly recipe development. Even in Molecular Gastronomy applications, ‘texuarizers’ such as xanthan gum, alginate gum and chemically modified cellulose are presented as novelty when they have been used in processed foods and cosmetics since the 1960s. Equipment manufacturers are complacent and do not depart radically from the design of units, many of which have not changed fundamentally since their inception. Their engineering modelling techniques do not reach the level of complexity achieved in more advanced fields such as space or automotive industries—those described by Sazhin (2006), for example. There is a wide scope for management research to complement technological developments. Studies on performance of new equipment prototypes in terms of energy efficiency could use methodologies from the field of engineering and operations man-
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Table 2 Operational benefits of TTIs. General benefits
Conformity with norms and regulations Improvement of the reputation and competitiveness of companies
Benefits in terms of improvement in supply chain operations
Benefits stemming from the real time information on products’ freshness: Simplification of product freshness control procedures Improvement of product rotation Reduction of the cost pertaining to product inspection procedures Reduction of the cost related to product recall procedures Raise in the awareness of operators concerning time and temperature conditions Less litigation between actors of the cold chain Prevention of frauds in use by date labels Decision-making in case of equipment breakdown Reduction of the cost associated with discarded products Advantages stemming from the extension of products’ shelf-lives: Efficiency in production process Better organisation of purchasing, replenishment and transportation process Reduction in losses due to shrinkage Reduction of store out of stock situations Extension of the geographic coverage of companies
Benefits stemming from the information on products’ remaining shelf-lives
Control of the logistics agreements between supply chain actors: Inventory management based on products’ remaining shelf-lives Pricing based on products’ remaining shelf-life Improvement of the quality of service for end consumers
Compiled from Sahin et al. (2007).
Table 3 Statements of celebrity chefs about Molecular Gastronomy. Three basic principles of our cooking: excellence, openness, and integrity Our cooking values tradition, builds on it, and along with tradition is part of the ongoing evolution of our craft We embrace innovation – new ingredients, techniques, appliances, information, and ideas – whenever it make a real contribution to our cooking We believe that cooking can affect people in profound ways, and that a spirit of collaboration and sharing is essential to true progress in developing this potential Compiled form Yek (2008).
Table 4 Advantages of cook-chill and Lean Manufacturing in a Danish hospital. Increased flow as a result of optimisation handling routines in selected areas and better planning of the daily production Reduced product waste resulting from changed storage and portioning routines Improved efficiency in storage, transporting and packaging procedures A common system involving all employees in improving/evaluating product quality Increased team spirit Reduction of overtime Compiled from Eugelund et al. (2008).
agement. The breadth of potential projects can be demonstrated with studies on TTIs, a tool on supply chain management for perishable products (Sahin et al., 2007). The accuracy of these devices is tested by reproducing real-life temperature profiles in a laboratory setting. The rate of visible responses as a cumulative indication of storage conditions is correlated with the ‘true’ shelf-life of a product as established by analytical methods (Giannakourou et al., 2005). This can be complemented with studies on operational advantages of TTIs such as listed in Table 2 as well as the ‘soft’ aspects such as consumer perception of their usefulness (Sherlock and Labuze, 1992). Other ‘soft’ topics include the adaptation behaviour of organisations in implementing technological innovation based on the theory of reasoned action, social influence and cognitive instrumental processes (Wang and Qualls, 2007). The perceived economic benefits of innovation include increased productivity, improved efficiency, cost savings, improvement in market share and better customer service. Cognitive and political nature of routines in culinary settings may affect the distribution of power within the organisation—actors with higher status have more to lose from institutional change (Monnin, 2005). The culinary process of innovation could be classified in terms of its depth and breadth based on Autocratic, Boardroom or Consensus approaches (Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2008). The value statements of celebrity chefs practicing Molecular Gastronomy such as listed in Table 3 could be analysed through the lenses of organisational behaviour, sociology or human psychology. Thus, the complex nature of innovation offers limitless opportunities for multi-disciplinary projects.
4. Process design Technically, the provision of large quantities of meals started during the middle ages in large kitchens of monarchs, nobility and religious institutions. Attempts to make mass meal production more efficient could be traced back to Caréme’s time when he introduced four basic sauces or fonds from which over a hundred derivatives were made—the ‘food platform’ principle. Later on, Escoffier replaced the ‘ancient regime’ (a number of sections working independently) with five interdependent parties each responsible for different types of operations: garde-manger for cold dishes, entremettier for soups, rotisseur for roasts, grills and fried dishes, saucier and patisseus (Menell, 1985). In modern terms, this could be described as a process-oriented layout, which is still applicable to CPUs. Relevant operational concepts here are: production decoupling, ‘time buffer’ through extended shelf-life and Industrial Cuisine/mass customisation. An example is the introduction of the cook-chill system in a Danish hospital and resulting operational advantages listed in Table 4. The shift from product to process orientation resulted in 17 positions becoming redundant (Eugelund et al., 2008). Delivery of meals along the entire supply chain to satellite kitchens ‘should follow well planned distribution routes that minimise mileage’ (Rimmington et al., 2006). This could be achieved through research in logistics management, optimisation of the flow of materials and associated information. Examples of the complex pathways of data flow are illustrated in Fig. 1. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (Martens and Nicolai,
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Fig. 1. Information Shaping during data flows in professional kitchen processes. Adopted from Taskinen et al. (2007).
1998) is one of the tools in streamlining of processes and information. Unlike the Industrial Cuisine with its CPU approach, a focused work centre/factory or a large work cell principle represents a different operational philosophy. It is applicable to Nouvelle or Marche’-type settings where a chef is provided with all needed equipment (including heating and refrigeration) ‘on the spot’. Units are modular and multifunctional, adoptable for easy reconfiguration/adjustment with a changing product mix. The applicable operational concepts are: Activity Based Costing (Annaraud et al., 2008), Lean Manufacturing, Value Stream Mapping (Eugelund et al., 2008), Just-in-time, modularity principle and flexible labour practices (Chang and Jones, 2007). The perishable nature of the food service product creates operational inefficiencies. The provision of cold storage, for example, leads to extra space/capital/running cost and non-value adding handling (Eugelund et al., 2008). The adherence to hygiene rules and regulations, such as the Construction and Fit-out of Food Premises (Standards Australia, 1998) or Cruise Ships Construction Guidelines (Centre for Disease Control, 2005), requires extra spaces and steps in the product flow. The impact of these practices could be assessed in terms of the grossing factor (Ransley and Ingram, 2001), costs incurred and resource consumption (Napper, 2007). The major challenge in operation research is the limited scope for experimentation—a food service facility often represents a multi-million dollar investment. The use of computer modelling could compensate for this. Available tools include Auto CAD, Computerized Relative Allocation of Facilities Technique, Computerized Relationship Layout Planning, Factory Flow and others
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software packages. A visual interface supported by animation is useful in conceptualising operations. Programs such as Promodel (http://www.promodel.com) provide quantitative optimisation for a variety of service settings. The practical difficulties in operational simulation are twofold: first, the inherent limitation of modelling as a ‘reductionist representation of reality’ (Wood, 2004); second, limited availability of operational data to design and validate models. Organisations are either secretive about their cost structure or simply do not perform activity costing in the first place. Commercial software in the hospitality sector designed for production scheduling, capacity and inventory management rarely integrate latest quantitative techniques at the level of complexity such as the dynamic model for supply chain planning of perishable food (Li et al., 2006) or closed-form/probabilistic models for capacity estimation (Pullman and Rodgers, 2009). Academic papers on operations management in food services are mostly descriptive in nature. In Chang and Jones (2007), Taskinen et al. (2007) and Eugelund et al. (2008) ‘soft’ qualitative methodologies prevail—interviewing operators about existing practices rather than optimising through modelling. Typically, research on categorisation/classification ‘amounts to little more than an interesting description of how technologies may be arranged. useful mapping or orientation techniques . . . it has no utility value beyond the most basic planning’ (Wood, 2004). The configuration of technologies affects ‘actors’ in the production process as well as the ultimate receivers of services, consumers. When a new food service system is introduced, it fundamentally reshapes an organisation: its strategic positioning (cost leadership), human resources (industrial relations linked to the substitution of labour with capital), organisational behaviour (new operational philosophies) and marketing (new product/menu). Consequently, typical qualitative methodologies such as surveys, interviews and focus groups coupled with qualitative thematic analysis are applicable. Focus groups with stakeholders elicited a range of themes such as patient care, patient satisfaction, meal time and foodservice staff (Hartwell et al., 2006). A deeper probing resulted in identification of particular issues such as food service system, menu variety, feeding assistance, excessive packaging and portion size (Walton et al., 2006). A study on consumer attitudes towards the use of food service systems in food preparation was based on the ‘Food Neophobia’ scale. The fact that older generation was less accepting was interpreted as a result of the negative experiences with post-war over-processed foods (Creed, 2001). Thus, process design has wide implications, which could be analysed through the lenses of quantitative operations management principles and qualitative human behaviour fundamentals.
5. Product development In the hospitality literature, the coverage of the PD (product development) process is limited to description of stages in the product life-cycle. In industry practices, PD is limited to recipe development and new marketing concepts. Even large corporations such as COMPASS, SODEXHO, ARMARK and STARBUCKS, which could afford specialised PD divisions, do not commission academic research to support new concepts. The field of food science offers a great variety of well established methodologies in shelf-life testing and sensory evaluation to select the best formulation. In the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis or QDA, for example, panellists rate the intensity aspects of a sample and define to what degree each characteristic or qualitative note is present in that sample. It can be combined with the hierarchical cluster analysis to identify groups of consumers with similar preferences (Farley and Reed, 2005). The conjoint analysis could establish the importance of product attributes (Monaco et al., 2007). In vegetable soups, these were pro-
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cessing technology (frozen, canned and chilled) and organic ingredients (Monaco et al., 2007). In ‘no sugar added’ vanilla ice-cream, maltitol syrup was the best sweetening agent (Stokols et al., 2006). PD in food manufacturing is dominated by developments of functional foods, foods with added functional or health improving ingredients. This latest trend has not reached the food service sector. It is conceivable that proactive restaurant owners may derive competitive advantages through innovative dishes containing freshly extracted functional ingredients and local varieties of ‘super foods’, such as ‘all-Aussie salads’ from native plants (aboriginal bush food) and the native Queen Garnet Plum from Queensland (Australia) with high antioxidant content (Mulherin, 2009). Braida and Gormley (2008) developed lasagne with apple pectin (fibre), algal extract (calcium) and inulin, a pre-biotic which supports the growth of probiotics. Rodgers (2007a) designed restaurant meals with probiotic (health improving) bacterial cultures. The main technological advantage of food services in functional nutrition is the ability to deliver a fresh product at the top of its bioactivity. In addition to this, food services could target niche markets of health conscious consumers by offering a greater variety of functional ingredients overlooked by industrial food manufacturers. Operators may take advantage of the fact that face-to-face interaction with the waiting staff may influence the consumer selecting a ‘functional’ option on the menu (Edwards and Meiselman, 2005). Apart from the technological challenge of preserving active biological compounds, there is a need for ‘soft’ consumer research to test acceptability of these novel concepts. Food industry has decades of experience in the functional food market—suitable theories have been identified and methodologies tested. Consumer behaviour models include consumer decisionmaking and attitude formation and change (Grunert and Wills, 2007), socio-ecological/cultural feedback loops—attention–second interest–desire–action formula (Oltersdorf, 2007) and the MAO (Motivation, Ability, Opportunity) factors (Feunekes, 2003). For example, the most important attributes of functional foods were chemical and additive-free, high in calcium, enriched in minerals and vitamins, low fat, with plant oil, low in cholesterol and caloric value (Szakaly et al., 2007); elderly consumers sought disease prevention and health benefits and younger consumers general well-being (Urala and Lähteenmäki, 2003); females sought better performance and more energy; males improved mood and strength (Williams et al., 2003). Food labelling is essential for all products with a nutritional/health claim in both Europe and the US. The wording of the claim is another consumer-related aspect; it could not be misleading or over-interpretative. The fact that margarine has cholesterol-reducing additives could imply that it is low in fat. Information processing and decision-making theories imbedded in psychology and economics could assist in grasping consumer logic (Leathwood et al., 2007). The fact that PD has implications for managers is often overlooked. It affects such aspects as cost structure, process design, strategic positioning, human resource management (new technical skills) and marketing (new products). In the case of Functional Meals, a clinical study supporting a health claim could cost thousands of dollars—an entry barrier affordable only by large multinational corporations, hence strategic implications. Thus, PD demands from operators sufficient competencies to reconcile nutritional, sensory, consumer-related and managerial aspects.
6. Risk management Advanced quantitative risk analysis is widely used in other branches of economy such as banking or transport. It is important in decision-making when resources are limited and preventative
measures have to be prioritised. Food safety risks are the major risks in travel and tourism, there are two types—those controllable by the industry through maintaining high standards of operations and those whose control does not lie primarily in the domain of the industry such as unregulated street catering (MacLaurin, 2003). As with the mainstream operational concepts, risk management practices could be borrowed from other industries—ISO 22000, HACCP from food manufacturing or HAZID (hazard identification) from shipping (Lois et al., 2004). The simple tool in risk assessment is the scoring system which allocates points for different categories of food (high for seafood/low acidity vs. low for mayonnaise/high acidity), the way food is prepared (high for numerous steps in the production process) and the frequency of use (higher for more frequently used items) (Coleman and Griffith, 1998). The allocation of scores is somewhat arbitrary, more accurate techniques involve statistical modelling, which is prevalent in the field of predictive microbiology. Computer simulations such as ‘Monte Carlo’ could provide the range of possible outcomes, show which of the input values is most highly correlated with the worst (or best) outcomes, the likelihood of the hazard and severity of the consequences (Miles and Ross, 1999). The Bayesian Belief Networks offer transparent representation of complex scenarios with many uncertain quantities (Barker et al., 1999). A quantitative lottery model (Michael et al., 2004) showed that the individual behaviour (hand hygiene compliance) of food handlers and reduction in number of cross-contamination events were more important than incremental improvements in hand cleaning efficacy. The ‘soft’ aspects of food safety management include effectiveness of food safety legislation and HACCP-based policies, aspects of organisational behaviour and implications for human resource management. These include development of mutual understanding between the staff and food inspectors; need for leadership and the change of old habits/attitudes; staff motivation and supervision (Panisello and Quantick, 2001). The Ajzen-Fobishbein theory of reasoned action and health belief model platform was used to develop the sequential model of willingness to change cooking practices (McIntosh et al., 1994). As with other fields described in this paper, a wide range of research methods from ‘hard’ statistical modelling to ‘soft’ or human factor approaches can be applied. 7. Conclusion Technological innovation and advanced management practices are integral to the field of food production. Industrial Cuisine, Molecular Gastronomy, Industrial Gastronomy, Functional Meal, focused work centre, models in engineering and predictive microbiology are just a few examples of the wealth of technological and operational concepts applicable to the field. Food service research yields itself to multi-disciplinary research based on robust quantitative techniques including modelling. The ‘soft’ aspects are imbedded in consumer psychology, cognitive psychology, sociology and economics with the focus on ‘actors’, production workers and consumers. The presented framework may facilitate conceptualisation of projects with strong theoretical underpinning. This would support advanced practices in technological innovation, process and product design, quality and risk management. Hospitality/business schools may use elements of this framework to re-design teaching and research to deliver specialist professional competencies to the sector. References Annaraud, K., Raab, C., Schrock, J.K., 2008. The application of activity-based costing in a quick service restaurant. Journal of Foodservice Business Research. 11, 23–44. Australian Berou of Statistics, 2009. Cafes and Restaurants.
S. Rodgers / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 477–483 Barker, G.C., Talbot, N.L.C., Peck, M.W., 1999. Microbial risk assessment for sousvide foods. In: Third European Symposium on Sous Vide, Leuven, Belgium, April, 1999, pp. 267–280. Braida, M., Gormley, R., 2008. Fish ready-meals with nutraceuticals. Food Manufacturing 22 (3), 26–28. Centre for Disease Control (CDC), 2005. VSP Construction Guidelines. Chang, Y., Jones, P., 2007. Flight catering: an investigation of the adaptation of mass customisation. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management. 14 (1), 47–56. Chartwell, 2008. Meal selection – STEAMPLICITY – all the taste, all the vitality (accessed July 2009) http://westsussex.mealselector.co.uk/pages/25/ Steamplicity.html. Coleman, P., Griffith, C., 1998. Risk assessment: a diagnostic self-assessment tool for caterers. International Journal of Hospitality Management 17, 289–301. Creed, P.G., 2001. The potential of food service systems for satisfying consumer needs. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 2, 219–227. Davis, M., Heineke, J., 2005. Operations Management: Integrating Manufacturing and Services, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK, 2007. Food Service and Eating. Edwards, J., Meiselman, H., 2005. The influence of positive and negative cues on restaurant choice and food acceptance. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 17 (4), 332–344. Elliot, V., 2009. Chefs to put calorie count on the menu. The Times, 22 (Friday January). Eugelund, E., Breum, G., Friis, A., 2008. Optimisation of large-scale production using Lean Manufacturing principles. Journal of Foodservice 20, 4–14. Farley, H., Reed, Z., 2005. An integrated sensory study of selected chilled lasagne ready meals. Food Service Technology 5, 35–45. Feunekes, G.I.J., 2003. Consumer wishes and needs for functional foods. In: Proceedings of the New Functional Ingredients and Foods, Copenhagen, Denmark, April 2003, pp. 01–03. Giannakourou, M.C., Koutsoumanis, K., Nychas, G.J., Taoukis, P.S., 2005. Field evaluation of the application of time temperature integrators for monitoring fish quality in the chill chain. International Journal of Food Microbiology 102, 323–336. Grammatikopoulou, M., Zakas, A., Papadopoulou, K., Panayitoglou, A., 2007. The nutritional value and health issues of in-flight meals offered by Greek airlines—a preliminary study. Journal of Foodservice 18, 87–92. Grunert, K.G., Wills, J.M., 2007. A review of European research on consumer response to nutrition information on food labels. Journal of Public Health Supplement. Gustafsson, I.B., 2004. Culinary arts and meal science—a new scientific research discipline. Food Service Technology 4, 9–20. Gustafsson, I.B., Ostrom, A., Johansson, J., Mossberg, L., 2006. The Five Aspects Meal Model: a tool for developing meal services in restaurants. Journal of Foodservice 17, 84–93. Hartwell, H., Edwards, J., Symonds, C., 2006. Foodservice in hospital: development of a theoretical model for patient experience and satisfaction using one hospital in the UK National Health Service as a case study. Journal of Foodservice 17 (5/6), 226–238. Hudson, B., 1997. Industrial Cuisine Revised. Cornell Hotel Administration Quarterly 38, 81–87. Jones, P., 2004. Finding hospitality industry? Or finding hospitality schools of thought? Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 3 (1), 33–45. Leathwood, P., Richardson, D., Stater, P., Todd, P., Trijp, H., 2007. Consumer understanding of nutrition and health claims: sources of evidence. British Journal of Nutrition 98 (3), 474–484. Li, D., Kehoe, D., Drake, P., 2006. Dynamic planning with a wireless product identification technology in food supply chains. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 30, 938–944. Lois, P., Wang, J., Wall, A., Ruxton, T., 2004. Formal safety assessment of cruise ships. Tourism Management 25, 93–109. MacLaurin, T.L., 2003. The importance of food safety in travel planning and destination selection. In: Hall, C.M., Timothy, D.J., Duval, D.T. (Eds.), Safety and Security in Tourism: Relationships, Management and Marketing. The Haworth Hospitality Press, New York, pp. 233–257. Martens, T., Nicolai, B., 1998. Computer-integrated manufacture of sous vide products: the ALMA case study. In: Gharzala, S. (Ed.), Sous Vide and Cook-Chill Processing for the Food Industry. Aspen Publication, Gaithersburg, pp. 111– 130. McIntosh, W.A., Christensen, L.B., Acuff, G.R., 1994. Perceptions of risks of eating undercooked meat and willingness to change cooking practices. Appetite 22, 83–96. Menell, S., 1985. All Manners of Food: Eating and Taste in England and France from Middle Ages to the Present. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 159.
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Michael, B., Keller, C., Blevins, M., Paoli, G., Ruthman, T., Todd, E., Christopher, J., 2004. Prevention of food worker transmission of foodborne pathogens: risk assessment and evaluation of effective hygiene intervention strategies. Food Service Technology 4, 31–49. Miles, D.W., Ross, T., 1999. Identifying and quantifying risks in the food production chain. Food Australia 51 (7), 298–303. Monaco, R., Cavella, S., Torrieri, E., Masi, P., 2007. Consumer acceptability of vegetable soups. Journal of Sensory Studies 22 (1), 81–98. Monnin, P., 2005. Building with, or on, the ruins? Institutional change in the French haute cuisine field (1951–2000) as transformations in symbolic systems, organisational routines and artefacts. Monograph, The European Institution for LifeLong Learning. Mulherin, T., 2009. Queensland Government supports food research. Food Australia 61 (10), 431–432. Napper, D., 2007. Hygiene in food factories of the future. Trends in Food Science & Technology 18, S83–S88. Oltersdorf, U., 2007. Consumer knowledge, attitude and behaviour: the scientific view. In: Proceedings of the Functional Foods in Europe—International Developments in Science and Health Claims, Malta, May 2007. Ottenbacher, M., Harrington, R., 2008. U.S. and Germany culinary innovation process: differences in involvement and other factors. Journal of Foodservice Business Research 11 (4), 412–438. Panisello, P.J., Quantick, P.C., 2001. Technical barriers to Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP). Food Control 12 (3), 165–173. Pullman, M., Rodgers, S., 2009. Emerging methods in strategic and tactic capacity management in tourism. Tourism Management 29, 117–187. Ransley, J., Ingram, H., 2001. What is “good” hotel design? Facilities 19 (1/2), 79–87. Rimmington, M., Smith, C., Hawkins, R., 2006. Corporate social responsibility and sustainable food procurement. British Food Journal 108 (10), 824–837. Rodgers, S., 2007a. Incorporation of probiotics in food service products: an exploratory study. Journal of Foodservice 18 (3), 108–118. Rodgers, S., 2007b. Innovation in food service technology and its strategic role. International Journal of Hospitality Management 26, 899–912. Rodgers, S., 2004. Value adding with functional meals. Journal of Food Service Technology 4, 149–158. Sahin, E., Zied, M., Dalley, Y., 2007. Ensuring supply chain safety through time temperature indicators. The International Journal of Logistics Management 18 (2007), 102–124. Sazhin, S.S., 2006. Advanced models of fuel droplet heating and evaporation. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2), 162–214. Sherlock, T.P., Labuze, T., 1992. Consumer perceptions of consumer time–temperature indicators for use on refrigerated dairy foods. Journal of Dairy Science 75, 3167–3176. Standards Australia, 1998. Construction and Fit-out of Food Premises. AS/NZS 1234. Standard Australia, Sydney, Australia. Stokols, J., Bordi, P., Palchak, T., Lee, A., 2006. Sensory evaluation: age and gender profiling of light, no sugar added vanilla ice creams. Journal of Foodservice 17, 41–48. Szakaly, Z., Szigeti, O., Berke, S., Szente, V., 2007. Foods in Europe—international developments in science and health claims. In: Proceedings: Functional Foods in Europe–International Developments in Science and Health Claims Conference, Malta, May 2007. Tansey, F.S., Gormey, T.R., Bourke, P., O’Beurne, D., Oliveria, J.C., 2003. Texture, quality and safety of sous vide/frozen foods. In: Culinary Arts and Sciences IV Conference, Orebro, Sweden, pp. 199–208. Taskinen, T., Tuikkenen, R., Harju, P., Hynes, D., 2007. Information shaping during data flows in professional kitchen processes. In: Koshrow-Pour, Medhi, R. (Eds.), Managing Worldwide Operations and Communications with Information Technology. IGI Publishing, Philadelphia, pp. 1264–1266. Urala, N., Lähteenmäki, L., 2003. Consumer attitudes describing the willingness to use functional foods. In: Proceedings of the New Functional Ingredients and Foods, Copenhagen, Denmark, April 2003, p. P2-C03. Walton, K., Williams, P., Tapsell, L., 2006. What do stakeholders consider the key issues affecting the quality of foodservice provision for long-stay patients? Journal of Foodservice 17 (5/6), 212–225. Wang, Y., Qualls, W., 2007. Towards a theoretical model of technology adaptation in hospitality organizations. International Journal of Hospitality Management 26, 560–573. Williams, E.B., Stewart-Knox, B., Mc Donald, J., 2003. Functional foods—what does the consumer want? In: Proceedings of the New Functional Ingredients and Foods, Copenhagen, Denmark, April 2003, p. P2-D06. Wood, R., 2004. Closing a planning gap? The future of food production and service theory. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development 1 (1), 19–37. Yek, G., 2008. Deconstructing Molecular Gastronomy. Food Technology 6, 35–43.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Hospitality Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman
Review
Food service research: An integrated approach Svetlana Rodgers ∗ The Australian Food Service Academy, 1205/149 Cope str., Waterloo, Sydney 2017, Australia
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords: Food production Innovation Product development Risk management
a b s t r a c t Food production demands competencies in both natural science and management principles. The suggested framework includes the following areas of research: technological innovation, process design (including Industrial Cuisine), product development (including Molecular Gastronomy, Industrial Gastronomy and Functional Meal) and risk management (including quantitative risk assessment and predictive microbiology). Developments stemming from food science and engineering could be combined with studies in operations management, consumer psychology, cognitive psychology, sociology and economics. The paper concludes that in order to meet societal demands for health, sustainability and efficiency a radical shift is needed—from ‘low tech’ recipe development and proliferation of marketing concepts to ‘cutting edge’ technological innovation supported by advanced research in management and consumer studies. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defining research on food production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Product development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
477 478 478 480 481 482 482 482
1. Introduction The term ‘food service’ is applied to the part of economy engaged in provision of meals out of home. Dining options are vital for the growing event and tourism industries. In Australia alone, cafes and restaurants generate $9.7 billion income per year and employ 145,500 people; the corresponding figures for contract catering services are $4 billion and 50,300 (Australian Berou of Statistics, 2009). The sector is highly heterogeneous; typically it encompasses educational, health care and leisure outlets, hotels, pubs and restaurants (Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, 2007). Sportrelated organisations, for example, offer simultaneous catering for thousands of athletes, their coaches, and medical teams. Despite the difference in routines and rituals in such organisations, food production, which is the main function, is governed by the same fundamental principles in operations management, food science
∗ Tel.: +61 043 086 1964. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0278-4319/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.05.002
and engineering. These disciplines according to Jones (2004) have well-established theoretical foundations and robust methodologies. At the same time, they are under-represented in the hospitality curriculum, research and industry practices. The CHRIE (Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education) and CAUTHE (Council for Australian University and Hospitality Education) conferences rarely feature papers on hospitality operations and ‘hard’ or equipment based technologies. The Journal of Foodservice has ceased publication for the lack of submissions and readership. The reason for this becomes clear if one would reflect on the latest developments in the food service education. In the past, leading hospitality departments such as at Huddersfield and Bournemouth Universities in the UK or Cornell and Conrad Hilton Hotel Schools in the US had laboratories in food chemistry, microbiology and even plumbing. Now they are replaced with computer or interview rooms. In remaining teaching restaurants operational routines are taught, hence the confusion in terminology—in this context ‘operations’ are practices and not operations management fundamentals. Furthermore, business
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schools took over hospitality programs but did not inject vigour into operational aspects and the food production function was ignored. Currently, a great emphasis is made on human resource management and marketing, which are not core functions of food service divisions. In fact, managers have to engage with the substantial physical resources of hospitality organisations—facilities, equipment and food. Hospitality trade shows are indicative of this—the halls full of endless varieties of food ingredients, catering equipment and cleaning systems. Changing economic climate brings more scrutiny on productivity indicators. Efficiencies could be achieved through cost cutting or radical innovation in logistics and technology—hence, ‘low tech’ vs. ‘high tech’ options. Operators are under competitive pressures from the food manufacturing sector, which is more proactive in seeking government-funded research. The NovelQ Project (FOOD-CT-2005015710) sponsored by the European Union, for example, offers access to novel processing technologies (high pressure, pulsed electric field and plasma processing). This results in numerous offerings of fresh-like ready-to-eat packaged meals in supermarkets, which is in direct competition with commercial and institutional food services as traditional meal providers. Another challenge is the growing importance of diet and health not only in specific settings such as health care, but also in mainstream commercial outlets, including in-flight catering (Grammatikopoulou et al., 2007). The nutritional value is more than part of product quality; its disclosure is becoming a legal requirement. In the UK, several major fast food chains, such as Pizza Hut, McDonalds and Starbucks, list calories on the menu as recommended by the Food Standard Agency (Elliot, 2009). To increase competitiveness and add value, proactive operators could differentiate themselves through the development of health improving Functional Meals (Rodgers, 2004). Thus, the field of food production yields itself to multidisciplinary approaches through triangulation of quantitative (hard) and qualitative (soft) methods in technology and management. To facilitate high quality research, this paper offers a framework of relevant scientific disciplines, potential topics and methodologies. The aim of this paper is to alert academics from disciplines outside the field of hospitality management to possibilities of applying their research methodologies to food service operations. This viewpoint echos those expressed at the annual conference of the CAUTHE in February 2010 in Hobart (Australia): multi-disciplinarity and complexity of programs, the need for innovation in education; business elements over-shadowing nonbusiness elements; removal of departmental barriers; and brining new disciplines into the field. At the conference, this manuscript was selected for the best paper award by the University of Tasmania Business School.
2. Defining research on food production From the operational perspective, food services consist of two distinct areas, front- and back-of-house. The former is closely associated with the consumer and governed by artistic/social concepts often described as Meal Science (Gustafsson, 2004). The relevant disciplines are: ethnology, sociology, anthropology, business economics, nutrition, domestic science and public health; the major subject areas are: history, textiles, design, colour, social psychology, menu planning, sensory analysis, food and beverages, food chemistry, cooking and serving techniques, labour and alcohol laws and business economics (Gustafsson et al., 2006). The management control systems include business administration, marketing, labour law, work organisation, work environments, statistics, management and leadership (Gustafsson et al., 2006). Such descriptive listings prevalent in hospitality management literature are not
sufficient for informed decision-making. Instead, robust operational principles supported by advanced quantitative techniques are needed. Examples include financial analysis of activities, process design and analysis, forecasting, productivity, capacity and aggregate planning, inventory optimisation and waiting line theory (Davis and Heineke, 2005). Quantitative approaches are vital for back-of-house operations, behind the line of visibility they could be managed using operational philosophies not dissimilar to manufacturing. Food manufacturing practices share with food services such attributes as biological variability of raw materials and stock management methods linked to their perishability (Tansey et al., 2003). Engineering and operational processes are governed by the same universal rules whether they take place in a banquet servery or a factory. In fact, the Lean Manufacturing and Just-In-Time principles originated in car manufacturing (Eugelund et al., 2008). The ‘soft’ disciplines related to technological innovation reflect the ‘human’ factor—either consumers of new products or users of new equipment or organisations coping with the changeover to a new food service system. For practical reasons, the mainstream management disciplines, which are applicable to food service practices, are not covered in this review. A researcher from a business school could use the food service context to study business law, finance, economics or human resource management; examples of such studies could be found in the Journal of Foodservice Business Research. The focus of this paper, however, is on the field-specific research which may integrate food service technology with consumer studies or principles in engineering with principles in operations management. The suggested framework (Table 1) consists of four major elements: technological innovation, process design, new product development and risk management. The breadth of underpinning methodologies extends from the Computational Fluid Dynamic modelling to Ajzen-Fobishbein theory of reasoned action. Correspondingly, the relevant journals range from the Journal of Food Process Engineering to Appetite. It should be noted that these publications rarely reach hospitality professionals and academics.
3. Technological innovation Physical resources such as food, equipment, facility and engineering systems represent the core competencies of any food service organisation. Technological innovation provides foundation for competitiveness, differentiation and cost leadership. The benefits include reduction of cooking time, energy efficiency, labour saving, superior process control, modularity and flexibility, superior food quality, better HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) and Good Manufacturing Practice management and improved service (Rodgers, 2007b). An early example of innovation in engineering systems is the kitchen at the Royal Brighton Pavilion (Brighton, UK) designed for Antonine Caréme, 19th century celebrity chef. It featured such novelties of the time as running water and centralised steam supply, food was kept cold in a large ice house, then reheated and kept hot on the ‘steam table’ prior to service. This was a precursor of modern food service systems such as cook-chill, cook-freeze and sous vide (cooked-in-a-bag). Later advances in engineering allowed production decoupling from consumption, which led to the development of Industrial Cuisine (Hudson, 1997). Industrial methods of food production are common for large-scale organisations, which would typically have a CPU (central production unit) to supply satellite kitchens. Large Industrial Cuisine settings can afford experimentation with new cooking techniques including induction heating and microwaving, packaging and process monitoring devises. For example, the COMPASS Group (UK) introduced the so-called STEAMPLICITY method: raw packaged meals are stored chilled and cooked in a
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Table 1 Framework of research topics supporting food production. Elements
Potential topics
Example of theories/quantitative tools
Examples of refereed journals
Technological innovation
Equipment design based on advanced modelling techniques New system development beyond the traditional cook-chill/cook-freeze/sous vide, etc. Testing equipment performance—food quality outcomes and resource consumption Consumer and organisational behaviour
Computational Fluid Dynamic, food preservation and engineering Food preservation principles
Journal of Food Process Engineering
Process design
Product development
Risk management
a
Cost/benefit analysis/economic indicators
Journal of Culinary Science & Technology Journal of Foodservice Trends in Food Science & Technology
Adaptation behaviour to innovation—theory of reasoned action Modes of organisational change: entropy, bricolage, substitution and hybridizationa
Organisational Studies American Behavioural Scientist American Sociological Review American Journal of Sociology
New food service systems: design and assessment
Lean Manufacturing Decoupling Industrial Cuisine Productivity models
Processes optimisation, decision support, facility design and distribution logistics
Modelling and computer simulation Statistical decision theory, system theory, logical inference and artificial intelligence, dynamic supply chain planning of perishable food
Interaction between people and processes
Food Neophobia scale Social theory of ‘actors’ and their experiences of awareness, knowledge, power, motivations, time, circumstances and the technological artefacts
International Journal of Production Planning International Journal of Production Research International Journal of Operations and Production Management Production Planning & Control Journal of Food Distribution Research Journal of Service Research Engineering Optimisation Supply Chain Management International Journal of Logistics Management International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications Journal of Phenomenological Psychology Organization Science
Novel preparation techniques and cooking methods
Analytical techniques of food analysis
Sensory evaluation and shelf-life testing Consumer studies
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis
Design of risk management systems Quantitative risk assessment Behavioural aspects of risk perception
Consumer decision-making and attitude formation and change Socio-ecological/cultural feedback loops The MAO (motivation, ability and opportunity) factors ISO 22000, HACCP and HAZIP Monte Carlo simulation Bayesian Belief Networks A lottery model Personal hygiene risk management triad Ajzen-Fobishbein theory of reasoned action and health belief model platform
Trends in Food Science & Technology Food Research International Journal of Food Science Appetite Psychology and Behaviour Journal of Sensory Studies Food Quality and Preference
Food Control Journal of Food Service Technology Journal of Food Protection Appetite
As described in Monnin (2005).
microwave oven immediately before consumption. The patented valve imbedded in the lid is used to release steam (Chartwell, 2008). There are numerous cleaning/sanitation technologies (Napper, 2007) and devices supporting food quality and safety control. TTIs (time–temperature indicators), for example, provide dynamic ‘reallife’ food quality status of a food product based on the colour change triggered by mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic or microbiological temperature-dependent reactions. Operators/researchers in food services are not expected to invent complex engineering solutions themselves, but should be able to scan innovations in other ‘high tech’ fields of economy for potential applicability in the kitchen. The European Union technology transfer programs INICON (2002) was funded to impart knowledge from science and food technology to the kitchen. High profile participants of this program, El Bulli (Spain) and Fat Duck (UK) restaurants, use laboratory-type units—immersion circulators, centrifuges, distillers and water baths. This results in unusual texture, shape and appearance of food and is often called Molecular Gastronomy. This term is somewhat misleading as no manipulations on molecular level take place; it rather reflects the reliance on
scientific principles rather than on practice and intuition. Another term is Industrial Gastronomy which reflects the use extrusion, freeze-drying, phase separation and other techniques adopted from food manufacturing. It should be noted that the industry is still dominated by ‘low tech’ innovation, mostly recipe development. Even in Molecular Gastronomy applications, ‘texuarizers’ such as xanthan gum, alginate gum and chemically modified cellulose are presented as novelty when they have been used in processed foods and cosmetics since the 1960s. Equipment manufacturers are complacent and do not depart radically from the design of units, many of which have not changed fundamentally since their inception. Their engineering modelling techniques do not reach the level of complexity achieved in more advanced fields such as space or automotive industries—those described by Sazhin (2006), for example. There is a wide scope for management research to complement technological developments. Studies on performance of new equipment prototypes in terms of energy efficiency could use methodologies from the field of engineering and operations man-
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Table 2 Operational benefits of TTIs. General benefits
Conformity with norms and regulations Improvement of the reputation and competitiveness of companies
Benefits in terms of improvement in supply chain operations
Benefits stemming from the real time information on products’ freshness: Simplification of product freshness control procedures Improvement of product rotation Reduction of the cost pertaining to product inspection procedures Reduction of the cost related to product recall procedures Raise in the awareness of operators concerning time and temperature conditions Less litigation between actors of the cold chain Prevention of frauds in use by date labels Decision-making in case of equipment breakdown Reduction of the cost associated with discarded products Advantages stemming from the extension of products’ shelf-lives: Efficiency in production process Better organisation of purchasing, replenishment and transportation process Reduction in losses due to shrinkage Reduction of store out of stock situations Extension of the geographic coverage of companies
Benefits stemming from the information on products’ remaining shelf-lives
Control of the logistics agreements between supply chain actors: Inventory management based on products’ remaining shelf-lives Pricing based on products’ remaining shelf-life Improvement of the quality of service for end consumers
Compiled from Sahin et al. (2007).
Table 3 Statements of celebrity chefs about Molecular Gastronomy. Three basic principles of our cooking: excellence, openness, and integrity Our cooking values tradition, builds on it, and along with tradition is part of the ongoing evolution of our craft We embrace innovation – new ingredients, techniques, appliances, information, and ideas – whenever it make a real contribution to our cooking We believe that cooking can affect people in profound ways, and that a spirit of collaboration and sharing is essential to true progress in developing this potential Compiled form Yek (2008).
Table 4 Advantages of cook-chill and Lean Manufacturing in a Danish hospital. Increased flow as a result of optimisation handling routines in selected areas and better planning of the daily production Reduced product waste resulting from changed storage and portioning routines Improved efficiency in storage, transporting and packaging procedures A common system involving all employees in improving/evaluating product quality Increased team spirit Reduction of overtime Compiled from Eugelund et al. (2008).
agement. The breadth of potential projects can be demonstrated with studies on TTIs, a tool on supply chain management for perishable products (Sahin et al., 2007). The accuracy of these devices is tested by reproducing real-life temperature profiles in a laboratory setting. The rate of visible responses as a cumulative indication of storage conditions is correlated with the ‘true’ shelf-life of a product as established by analytical methods (Giannakourou et al., 2005). This can be complemented with studies on operational advantages of TTIs such as listed in Table 2 as well as the ‘soft’ aspects such as consumer perception of their usefulness (Sherlock and Labuze, 1992). Other ‘soft’ topics include the adaptation behaviour of organisations in implementing technological innovation based on the theory of reasoned action, social influence and cognitive instrumental processes (Wang and Qualls, 2007). The perceived economic benefits of innovation include increased productivity, improved efficiency, cost savings, improvement in market share and better customer service. Cognitive and political nature of routines in culinary settings may affect the distribution of power within the organisation—actors with higher status have more to lose from institutional change (Monnin, 2005). The culinary process of innovation could be classified in terms of its depth and breadth based on Autocratic, Boardroom or Consensus approaches (Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2008). The value statements of celebrity chefs practicing Molecular Gastronomy such as listed in Table 3 could be analysed through the lenses of organisational behaviour, sociology or human psychology. Thus, the complex nature of innovation offers limitless opportunities for multi-disciplinary projects.
4. Process design Technically, the provision of large quantities of meals started during the middle ages in large kitchens of monarchs, nobility and religious institutions. Attempts to make mass meal production more efficient could be traced back to Caréme’s time when he introduced four basic sauces or fonds from which over a hundred derivatives were made—the ‘food platform’ principle. Later on, Escoffier replaced the ‘ancient regime’ (a number of sections working independently) with five interdependent parties each responsible for different types of operations: garde-manger for cold dishes, entremettier for soups, rotisseur for roasts, grills and fried dishes, saucier and patisseus (Menell, 1985). In modern terms, this could be described as a process-oriented layout, which is still applicable to CPUs. Relevant operational concepts here are: production decoupling, ‘time buffer’ through extended shelf-life and Industrial Cuisine/mass customisation. An example is the introduction of the cook-chill system in a Danish hospital and resulting operational advantages listed in Table 4. The shift from product to process orientation resulted in 17 positions becoming redundant (Eugelund et al., 2008). Delivery of meals along the entire supply chain to satellite kitchens ‘should follow well planned distribution routes that minimise mileage’ (Rimmington et al., 2006). This could be achieved through research in logistics management, optimisation of the flow of materials and associated information. Examples of the complex pathways of data flow are illustrated in Fig. 1. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (Martens and Nicolai,
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Fig. 1. Information Shaping during data flows in professional kitchen processes. Adopted from Taskinen et al. (2007).
1998) is one of the tools in streamlining of processes and information. Unlike the Industrial Cuisine with its CPU approach, a focused work centre/factory or a large work cell principle represents a different operational philosophy. It is applicable to Nouvelle or Marche’-type settings where a chef is provided with all needed equipment (including heating and refrigeration) ‘on the spot’. Units are modular and multifunctional, adoptable for easy reconfiguration/adjustment with a changing product mix. The applicable operational concepts are: Activity Based Costing (Annaraud et al., 2008), Lean Manufacturing, Value Stream Mapping (Eugelund et al., 2008), Just-in-time, modularity principle and flexible labour practices (Chang and Jones, 2007). The perishable nature of the food service product creates operational inefficiencies. The provision of cold storage, for example, leads to extra space/capital/running cost and non-value adding handling (Eugelund et al., 2008). The adherence to hygiene rules and regulations, such as the Construction and Fit-out of Food Premises (Standards Australia, 1998) or Cruise Ships Construction Guidelines (Centre for Disease Control, 2005), requires extra spaces and steps in the product flow. The impact of these practices could be assessed in terms of the grossing factor (Ransley and Ingram, 2001), costs incurred and resource consumption (Napper, 2007). The major challenge in operation research is the limited scope for experimentation—a food service facility often represents a multi-million dollar investment. The use of computer modelling could compensate for this. Available tools include Auto CAD, Computerized Relative Allocation of Facilities Technique, Computerized Relationship Layout Planning, Factory Flow and others
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software packages. A visual interface supported by animation is useful in conceptualising operations. Programs such as Promodel (http://www.promodel.com) provide quantitative optimisation for a variety of service settings. The practical difficulties in operational simulation are twofold: first, the inherent limitation of modelling as a ‘reductionist representation of reality’ (Wood, 2004); second, limited availability of operational data to design and validate models. Organisations are either secretive about their cost structure or simply do not perform activity costing in the first place. Commercial software in the hospitality sector designed for production scheduling, capacity and inventory management rarely integrate latest quantitative techniques at the level of complexity such as the dynamic model for supply chain planning of perishable food (Li et al., 2006) or closed-form/probabilistic models for capacity estimation (Pullman and Rodgers, 2009). Academic papers on operations management in food services are mostly descriptive in nature. In Chang and Jones (2007), Taskinen et al. (2007) and Eugelund et al. (2008) ‘soft’ qualitative methodologies prevail—interviewing operators about existing practices rather than optimising through modelling. Typically, research on categorisation/classification ‘amounts to little more than an interesting description of how technologies may be arranged. useful mapping or orientation techniques . . . it has no utility value beyond the most basic planning’ (Wood, 2004). The configuration of technologies affects ‘actors’ in the production process as well as the ultimate receivers of services, consumers. When a new food service system is introduced, it fundamentally reshapes an organisation: its strategic positioning (cost leadership), human resources (industrial relations linked to the substitution of labour with capital), organisational behaviour (new operational philosophies) and marketing (new product/menu). Consequently, typical qualitative methodologies such as surveys, interviews and focus groups coupled with qualitative thematic analysis are applicable. Focus groups with stakeholders elicited a range of themes such as patient care, patient satisfaction, meal time and foodservice staff (Hartwell et al., 2006). A deeper probing resulted in identification of particular issues such as food service system, menu variety, feeding assistance, excessive packaging and portion size (Walton et al., 2006). A study on consumer attitudes towards the use of food service systems in food preparation was based on the ‘Food Neophobia’ scale. The fact that older generation was less accepting was interpreted as a result of the negative experiences with post-war over-processed foods (Creed, 2001). Thus, process design has wide implications, which could be analysed through the lenses of quantitative operations management principles and qualitative human behaviour fundamentals.
5. Product development In the hospitality literature, the coverage of the PD (product development) process is limited to description of stages in the product life-cycle. In industry practices, PD is limited to recipe development and new marketing concepts. Even large corporations such as COMPASS, SODEXHO, ARMARK and STARBUCKS, which could afford specialised PD divisions, do not commission academic research to support new concepts. The field of food science offers a great variety of well established methodologies in shelf-life testing and sensory evaluation to select the best formulation. In the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis or QDA, for example, panellists rate the intensity aspects of a sample and define to what degree each characteristic or qualitative note is present in that sample. It can be combined with the hierarchical cluster analysis to identify groups of consumers with similar preferences (Farley and Reed, 2005). The conjoint analysis could establish the importance of product attributes (Monaco et al., 2007). In vegetable soups, these were pro-
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cessing technology (frozen, canned and chilled) and organic ingredients (Monaco et al., 2007). In ‘no sugar added’ vanilla ice-cream, maltitol syrup was the best sweetening agent (Stokols et al., 2006). PD in food manufacturing is dominated by developments of functional foods, foods with added functional or health improving ingredients. This latest trend has not reached the food service sector. It is conceivable that proactive restaurant owners may derive competitive advantages through innovative dishes containing freshly extracted functional ingredients and local varieties of ‘super foods’, such as ‘all-Aussie salads’ from native plants (aboriginal bush food) and the native Queen Garnet Plum from Queensland (Australia) with high antioxidant content (Mulherin, 2009). Braida and Gormley (2008) developed lasagne with apple pectin (fibre), algal extract (calcium) and inulin, a pre-biotic which supports the growth of probiotics. Rodgers (2007a) designed restaurant meals with probiotic (health improving) bacterial cultures. The main technological advantage of food services in functional nutrition is the ability to deliver a fresh product at the top of its bioactivity. In addition to this, food services could target niche markets of health conscious consumers by offering a greater variety of functional ingredients overlooked by industrial food manufacturers. Operators may take advantage of the fact that face-to-face interaction with the waiting staff may influence the consumer selecting a ‘functional’ option on the menu (Edwards and Meiselman, 2005). Apart from the technological challenge of preserving active biological compounds, there is a need for ‘soft’ consumer research to test acceptability of these novel concepts. Food industry has decades of experience in the functional food market—suitable theories have been identified and methodologies tested. Consumer behaviour models include consumer decisionmaking and attitude formation and change (Grunert and Wills, 2007), socio-ecological/cultural feedback loops—attention–second interest–desire–action formula (Oltersdorf, 2007) and the MAO (Motivation, Ability, Opportunity) factors (Feunekes, 2003). For example, the most important attributes of functional foods were chemical and additive-free, high in calcium, enriched in minerals and vitamins, low fat, with plant oil, low in cholesterol and caloric value (Szakaly et al., 2007); elderly consumers sought disease prevention and health benefits and younger consumers general well-being (Urala and Lähteenmäki, 2003); females sought better performance and more energy; males improved mood and strength (Williams et al., 2003). Food labelling is essential for all products with a nutritional/health claim in both Europe and the US. The wording of the claim is another consumer-related aspect; it could not be misleading or over-interpretative. The fact that margarine has cholesterol-reducing additives could imply that it is low in fat. Information processing and decision-making theories imbedded in psychology and economics could assist in grasping consumer logic (Leathwood et al., 2007). The fact that PD has implications for managers is often overlooked. It affects such aspects as cost structure, process design, strategic positioning, human resource management (new technical skills) and marketing (new products). In the case of Functional Meals, a clinical study supporting a health claim could cost thousands of dollars—an entry barrier affordable only by large multinational corporations, hence strategic implications. Thus, PD demands from operators sufficient competencies to reconcile nutritional, sensory, consumer-related and managerial aspects.
6. Risk management Advanced quantitative risk analysis is widely used in other branches of economy such as banking or transport. It is important in decision-making when resources are limited and preventative
measures have to be prioritised. Food safety risks are the major risks in travel and tourism, there are two types—those controllable by the industry through maintaining high standards of operations and those whose control does not lie primarily in the domain of the industry such as unregulated street catering (MacLaurin, 2003). As with the mainstream operational concepts, risk management practices could be borrowed from other industries—ISO 22000, HACCP from food manufacturing or HAZID (hazard identification) from shipping (Lois et al., 2004). The simple tool in risk assessment is the scoring system which allocates points for different categories of food (high for seafood/low acidity vs. low for mayonnaise/high acidity), the way food is prepared (high for numerous steps in the production process) and the frequency of use (higher for more frequently used items) (Coleman and Griffith, 1998). The allocation of scores is somewhat arbitrary, more accurate techniques involve statistical modelling, which is prevalent in the field of predictive microbiology. Computer simulations such as ‘Monte Carlo’ could provide the range of possible outcomes, show which of the input values is most highly correlated with the worst (or best) outcomes, the likelihood of the hazard and severity of the consequences (Miles and Ross, 1999). The Bayesian Belief Networks offer transparent representation of complex scenarios with many uncertain quantities (Barker et al., 1999). A quantitative lottery model (Michael et al., 2004) showed that the individual behaviour (hand hygiene compliance) of food handlers and reduction in number of cross-contamination events were more important than incremental improvements in hand cleaning efficacy. The ‘soft’ aspects of food safety management include effectiveness of food safety legislation and HACCP-based policies, aspects of organisational behaviour and implications for human resource management. These include development of mutual understanding between the staff and food inspectors; need for leadership and the change of old habits/attitudes; staff motivation and supervision (Panisello and Quantick, 2001). The Ajzen-Fobishbein theory of reasoned action and health belief model platform was used to develop the sequential model of willingness to change cooking practices (McIntosh et al., 1994). As with other fields described in this paper, a wide range of research methods from ‘hard’ statistical modelling to ‘soft’ or human factor approaches can be applied. 7. Conclusion Technological innovation and advanced management practices are integral to the field of food production. Industrial Cuisine, Molecular Gastronomy, Industrial Gastronomy, Functional Meal, focused work centre, models in engineering and predictive microbiology are just a few examples of the wealth of technological and operational concepts applicable to the field. Food service research yields itself to multi-disciplinary research based on robust quantitative techniques including modelling. The ‘soft’ aspects are imbedded in consumer psychology, cognitive psychology, sociology and economics with the focus on ‘actors’, production workers and consumers. The presented framework may facilitate conceptualisation of projects with strong theoretical underpinning. This would support advanced practices in technological innovation, process and product design, quality and risk management. Hospitality/business schools may use elements of this framework to re-design teaching and research to deliver specialist professional competencies to the sector. References Annaraud, K., Raab, C., Schrock, J.K., 2008. The application of activity-based costing in a quick service restaurant. Journal of Foodservice Business Research. 11, 23–44. Australian Berou of Statistics, 2009. Cafes and Restaurants.
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