Foreign language skill, anxiety, cultural intelligence and individual task performance in global virtual teams: A cognitive perspective

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Foreign language skill, anxiety, cultural intelligence and individual task performance in global virtual teams: A cognitive perspective Alfred Presbitero Department of Management, Deakin Business School, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia

A R T IC LE I N F O

ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Global virtual teams Foreign language skills Foreign language anxiety Cultural intelligence Task performance

Global virtual teams (GVTs) operate in a globally dispersed work environment, principally relying on communication and information technologies to achieve work tasks. In this work context, using language effectively is crucial. We utilize the cognitive perspective to explain how foreign language use in a GVT influences individual task performance. This study employs (a) cognitive neuroscience of foreign language processing perspective to explain the relationship between foreign language skills and individual task performance; (b) the theory of cognitive load to explain foreign language anxiety as a pathway that further explains how low-level foreign language skill negatively influences individual task performance; and (c) the theory of intelligence to examine the conditional role of cultural intelligence in the mediation process. Utilizing 294 data pairs (collected from GVT members and their respective supervisors) in a multinational offshoring firm, we found support for the mediation process and the conditional influence of the dimensions of cultural intelligence in reducing the negative effect of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance in GVT.

1. Introduction Globalization has given rise to the creation of global teams. These global teams operate in globally dispersed work environment, and therefore are characterized by a high degree of heterogeneity for multiple dimensions, including nationality of members, geographical location, and languages spoken (Maloney and Zellmer-Bruhn, 2006). With the advances in information and communication technologies, most global teams operate virtually rather than face-to-face, and are therefore referred to as “global virtual teams” (“GVTs”). These GVTs leverage on communication and information technologies (Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1999) to carry out their expected tasks. Many multinational firms utilize GVTs because they offer a range of beneficial outcomes. For example, Jimenez et al. (2017) stated that GVTs can bring together the best talent pool to work on a project despite their different geographical locations. These researchers also stated that the cultural diversity in GVTs can contribute significantly to effective problem solving by providing different perspectives that may not be readily available in culturally homogeneous teams. GVTs also have recourse to immediate and instant communication whenever issues or problems arise (Gilson et al., 2015). However, ensuring that each member of the GVT delivers and performs the tasks assigned to them can oftentimes be challenging. This is due to diversity in GVT at different levels (e.g., team member, contextual and personal) generating varying outcomes (Taras et al., 2019). Without taking into consideration diversity at multiple levels, conflicts and misunderstandings can surface influencing both the task and relationships within GVTs (Kankanhalli et al., 2006). The formation of trust (Zakaria and Yusof, 2018) as well as effective communication are typical issues in GVTs given that members are located in different countries and have varying native

E-mail address: [email protected]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2019.100729 Received 17 February 2019; Received in revised form 23 November 2019; Accepted 24 November 2019 1075-4253/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Alfred Presbitero, Journal of International Management, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2019.100729

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languages (Jimenez et al., 2017). The differences in languages spoken in GVTs have given rise to studies examining the importance of language in GVTs. For example, Klitmøller and Lauring (2013) found that differences in linguistic capabilities can influence effectiveness of knowledge sharing in GVTs. Klitmøller et al. (2015) further demonstrated that language proficiency together with media choice can influence social categorization in GVTs. However, most studies on language in GVTs have focused on the mechanistic view that language proficiency relates to effectiveness in performing the tasks in GVTs, without offering fresh perspectives on why this relationship exists. Thus, this study explores an alternative theoretical view drawing principally from the cognitive perspective. The cognitive perspective has provided novel insights into multiculturalism (e.g., Lücke et al., 2014) and multinational corporations (e.g., Volk et al., 2014) and can offer novel insights on the use of foreign languages in the context of GVTs. This study draws from a range of cognitive perspectives to understand how foreign language skills influence individual task performance in GVTs. First, drawing specifically from the literature on the cognitive neuroscience of foreign language processing, we explain the concept of native language processing (commonly referred to as L1 processing) and foreign language processing (commonly referred to as L2 processing) (Perani and Abutalebi, 2005), and how their interaction can theoretically explain the link between foreign language skill and performance in GVT. Second, we explore the link between foreign language skills and individual task performance by considering foreign language anxiety, which is described in the literature as the experience of a sense of worry, concern, or apprehension when using a foreign language (MacIntyre, 1998). In examining the mediating role of foreign language anxiety, we draw from the theory of cognitive load (Sweller, 1988) to demonstrate how cognitive resources can be easily depleted because of foreign language anxiety, which in turn can negatively influence effectiveness when performing the tasks in GVTs. Third, we draw from the cognitive perspective of intelligence to consider the role of cultural intelligence and how it can be a condition that reduces the negative effect of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance in GVTs. By examining these relationships, we generate knowledge on GVTs and provide insights into how GVTs operate that are relevant for practice. Theoretically, the study contributes to the literature on GVTs by offering important insights from the cognitive perspective. The cognitive perspective provides alternative explanations for how foreign language skills relate to effectiveness when performing tasks, particularly in the context of GVTs, and for the mechanisms and boundary conditions through which this relationship exists. Specifically, we provide a robust conceptual anchor using the cognitive neuroscience of foreign language processing perspective to explicate the relationship between foreign language and individual task performance in GVT. Moreover, the role of foreign language anxiety is also highlighted in this study bringing in insights from the cognitive load theory. Specifically, foreign language anxiety is viewed to create a burden on the cognitive system which then limits individual performance. Also, guided by the theory of intelligence, cultural intelligence has been examined further unpacking how each dimension exerts influence on individual effectiveness in GVT. Such knowledge contributes to the growing literature that investigates each dimension of cultural intelligence and the consequent outcomes. Practically, we offer relevant insights for managers in international firms, particularly those managing performance in GVTs. These include the relevance of offering special assistance and support to those experiencing high levels of foreign language anxiety in GVTs. Similarly, we highlight having provisions for training and development interventions that are geared towards enhancing cultural intelligence.

2. Hypotheses development Language is one of the factors that has been studied in relation to managing the challenges in GVT and improving productivity. Reinares-Lara et al. (2016) explain that GVT members who are less proficient in the working language typically exclude themselves and disengage in group discussion. Klitmøller and Lauring (2013) assert that language commonality is critical to achieving high levels of knowledge sharing in GVTs. In addition, several studies have demonstrated that fluency in a common language increases communication frequency and therefore the ability of GVT members to share information (e.g., Barner-Rasmussen and Aarnio, 2011; Zander et al., 2012). However, considering the nature of GVTs (i.e., being characterized by having members who are geographically dispersed), it can be expected that members may not have the same levels of proficiency in the common or working language. It can be argued that this variation in language proficiency influences the ability of members to perform the tasks expected from them. Team members who are proficient in the common language are more effective in communicating and sharing knowledge with others, while those with a low level of proficiency in the common language face difficulties in understanding others and in being understood by others. This argument is consistent with a recent findings that variation in language proficiency influences social categorization in the context of GVTs (Klitmøller et al., 2015), which can in turn affect task performance. However, to date, there seems to be a mechanistic view on how foreign language skill relates to individual task performance in GVT. That is, a GVT team member who is proficient in the foreign language is more capable of performing their individual tasks in a GVT. While this assertion is logical, it requires further theoretical explanations for the relationships which we intend to provide by utilizing a range of cognitive perspectives. First, we draw from cognitive neuroscience of foreign language processing to examine the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance. Second, we employ the theory of cognitive load to examine the role of foreign language anxiety in the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance. Third, we employ the cognitive perspective on intelligence to examine the effect role of cultural intelligence in reducing foreign language anxiety, and therefore in mediating the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance through its effect on foreign language anxiety. Using our theoretical proposals relating to how foreign language skill affects individual task performance, we develop our conceptual framework (see Fig. 1) and utilize it in developing our hypotheses in the following section.

2

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H1 H2a

Foreign language skill

Foreign language anxiety

H2b Task performance

H2c Cultural intelligence (cultural knowledge, cultural metacognition, cultural skill)

H3a, H3b, H3c

Fig. 1. A moderated-mediation model.

2.1. Foreign language skills and individual task performance Previous studies have emphasized the important role of foreign language skills in achieving various individual-level outcomes. For example, Volk et al. (2014) explains that foreign language skills can affect an employee's capability to recognize business opportunities. Klesse et al. (2015) also found that foreign language skills (particularly the ability to process foreign languages) can improve self-regulation, enabling the individual to adjust effectively to a situation. While such studies have offered important insights into the positive outcomes of possessing high-level foreign language skills, we offer fresh insights on how foreign language skills relate positively to individual task performance in GVTs by examining this relationship from the perspective of the cognitive neuroscience of foreign language processing (Perani and Abutalebi, 2005). This perspective identifies the concept of native language processing (L1 processing) and how it interacts with foreign language processing (L2 processing). L1 processing is a neural mechanism that is developed early in life (i.e., during childhood) and is “acquired implicitly and mediated, according to many theorists, by innate learning mechanisms triggered during a critical period” (Perani and Abutalebi, 2005, p. 202). That is, L1 processing occurs unconsciously and coincides with an individual's developmental process and growth as an adult. However, when an individual learns a foreign language, L2 processing occurs. This theoretical and empirical research leads to the argument that the foreign language skill of a GVT member can be related to their individual task performance, such that higher levels of foreign language skills are positively related to a higher level of individual task performance, while lower levels of foreign language skills impair and limit individual task performance. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 1. Foreign language skill is positively associated with individual task performance in GVTs, such that higher proficiency in the foreign language is associated with higher effectiveness when performing individual tasks in GVTs.

2.2. The mediating effect of foreign language anxiety We further examine the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance in GVTs by testing the role of foreign language anxiety in this relationship. We consider that foreign language anxiety provides an alternative explanation for the effect of foreign language skill on individual task performance of GVT members. Foreign language anxiety has been defined as the “feeling of tension and apprehension specifically associated with second language contexts, including speaking, listening and learning” (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994, p. 284). From a cognitive perspective, foreign language anxiety is a cognitive consequence of the process of learning a foreign language. This perspective is embodied in the theory of cognitive load (Sweller, 1988), which emphasizes the fact that cognitive resources are limited. When the task is cognitively complex, it can impose a burden on an individual's cognitive system (Paas and Van Merriënboer, 1994). This mechanism is the result of the brain's limited working memory, which hinders an individual from further absorbing any additional inputs (Van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005). The perspective of cognitive load is important in the context of using a foreign language. As explained, in the early stages of L2 processing, reliance on L1 processing often occurs to augment the inefficiencies and limited L2 lexical neural network. The constant switching and reverting back to the native language can become a cognitive burden and can cause high levels of anxiety, particularly communication apprehension (i.e., anxiety about or fear of communicating with other people) and fear of negative evaluation (i.e., fear of being seen unfavorably by others) (Horwitz et al., 1986). This theory allows us to argue that when a GVT member high-level foreign language skills, they will experience low levels of foreign language anxiety because they experience only a low level of cognitive load (which depletes an individual's cognitive resources). However, when a GVT member has low-level foreign language skills, they will experience high levels of foreign language anxiety because their limited knowledge of the foreign language means they experience a high level of cognitive load, creating fear of communicating with others and fear that they will be seen unfavorably by others. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2a. Foreign language skill is negatively associated with foreign language anxiety in GVTs, such that high levels of 3

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proficiency in the foreign language are associated with low levels of foreign language anxiety. Foreign language anxiety can create a burden on the cognitive system, preventing an individual from effectively functioning and achieving their objectives. The theory of cognitive load (Paas et al., 2003) states that an individual's cognitive architecture can be disrupted by extraneous or ineffective cognitive load. Such extraneous or ineffective cognitive load creates a form of tension, apprehension, or anxiety, making an individual believe that they may not be able to learn and absorb the required information. This phenomenon is common in foreign language learning. Empirical studies have shown that the anxiety caused by foreign language learning can relate to negative outcomes. For example, Chen and Chang (2004) demonstrated that foreign language anxiety can be significantly associated with learning difficulties. Young (1986) also found that foreign language anxiety is associated significantly but negatively with effective performance in oral presentations. Following these, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2b. Foreign language anxiety is negatively associated with individual task performance in GVTs, such that high levels of foreign language anxiety are associated with low levels of individual task performance. We further draw on the theory of cognitive load to understand how the level of foreign language skill can influence foreign language anxiety, and in the process affect individual task performance in GVTs. Specifically, we draw from the specific argument that human working memory is not able to process too much information and detail (Van Merriënboer and Sweller, 2005). That is, the cognitive resources of human beings are finite, thus, individuals have a need for schemata so they can readily chunk and store information. Without these mental efforts to organize information properly, cognitive overload can occur, leading to confusion, anxiety, and irrational decision making (Paas and Van Merriënboer, 1994). The mechanism of cognitive overload can also occur as a result of not having proficiency in a foreign language. In the context of GVTs, it is critical to understand and be able to use the common foreign language, so that all team members can engage and effectively share critical information (Klitmøller and Lauring, 2013). As demonstrated in the literature, foreign language anxiety engenders a range of negative reactions and outcomes. For example, Serraj and Noordin (2013) demonstrated that foreign language anxiety can influence listening comprehension skills. Izadi and Atasheneh (2012) also demonstrated that foreign language anxiety is associated with low levels of self-esteem and self-confidence. In the educational setting, studies have shown how foreign language anxiety can lead to lower academic performance (Phillips, 1992; Wilson, 2006), lower achievement (Batumlu and Erden, 2007; Horwitz, 1986), and lower course grades (Yan and Horwitz, 2008). This theoretical and empirical evidence allows us to argue that foreign language anxiety mediates the relationship between foreign language skills and individual task performance in GVTs. That is, the level of proficiency in the foreign language influences the level of foreign language anxiety, which in turn affects the individual task performance. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2c. Foreign language anxiety mediates the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance in GVTs.

2.3. Moderating effects of cultural intelligence Cultural intelligence has been operationalized as the “ability to interact effectively across cultural contexts and with culturally different individuals” (Thomas et al., 2015, p. 5). Cultural intelligence is conceptualized as the individual's possession of an intercultural capability composed of cultural knowledge, cultural skills, and cultural metacognition (Thomas et al., 2015). Empirical evidence shows that cultural intelligence can enable individuals working in cross-cultural contexts to be more effective and engaged in performing their tasks (e.g., Ramalu and Subramaniam, 2019; Presbitero, 2016, 2017; Presbitero and Toledano, 2017). Recently, Rocksthul and Van Dyne (2018) identified potential theoretical extensions for cultural intelligence. They specifically theoretically established how cultural intelligence relates to various outcomes such as intercultural judgment and decision making, intercultural adaptation and intercultural performance. In addition, the recent review of the literature on cultural intelligence by Ott and Michailova (2018) demonstrates the growing nomological network of cultural intelligence, including its potential negative consequences. For example, Chua and Ng (2017) found a curvilinear effect of cultural knowledge on individuals with low cultural metacognition. Sharma (2019) also found negative direct-only non-mediation effects of behavioral cultural intelligence on institutional success. Furthermore, he finds that cultural knowledge has to be accompanied with cultural metacognition to ensure institutional success. Such findings imply the importance of developing not only cultural knowledge but also higher-order thinking capabilities such as perspective-taking and mindfulness in cross-cultural environments. This study takes a different approach and considers the conditional influence of cultural intelligence on the relationship between foreign language anxiety and individual task performance in GVTs. To examine this role of cultural intelligence, we draw on cognitive perspectives of intelligence, particularly the theory of intelligence. This theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 2003) fundamentally draws from the literature on cognition, particularly in relation to understanding how intelligence can assist in the packing and automation of new information, and how the cognitive system transforms this new information into a more manageable and easy-to-use set of information. Although cultural intelligence is certainly a type of intelligence, it is considered in the literature a domain-specific intelligence. That is, cultural intelligence is a form of intelligence that is required when interacting in culturally diverse contexts (Thomas et al., 2015; Thomas et al., 2008), and can improve the individual's interactions in such contexts. Thus, it can be argued that cultural intelligence plays a critical role in reducing the negative effect of foreign language anxiety on the individual task performance of GVT members. Thomas et al. (2015) identified three dimensions of cultural intelligence: cultural knowledge, cultural metacognition and cultural 4

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skill. Researchers have argued that each dimension of cultural intelligence is distinct, and can exert different influences on critical outcomes (Rocksthul and Van Dyne, 2018). For example, Young et al. (2017) found that only the cognitive aspect of cultural intelligence is associated with ethnocentrism. Khani and A (2011) found that all three dimensions of cultural intelligence are associated with team effectiveness; however, it is the behavioral dimension (i.e., cultural skill) that most predicts team effectiveness. These earlier studies led us to examine all of these three dimensions of cultural intelligence separately, rather as a whole. Cultural knowledge is composed of general knowledge and content-specific knowledge about cultures (Thomas et al., 2015). When an individual has an abundant pool of cultural knowledge, this knowledge can interact with the individual's level of foreign language anxiety, such that the level of anxiety is reduced because of the confidence created by the individual's possession of cognitive resources in relation to their understanding of how people from different cultures work and how they talk and interact to each other. The interaction between cultural knowledge and foreign language anxiety can then influence how an individual performs their tasks in a GVT. Similarly, cultural metacognition, as another dimension of cultural intelligence, can interact with foreign language anxiety, and can lead to the individual's greater ability to perform tasks in a GVT. Cultural metacognition is argued to refer to the ability to control and regulate one's thinking and learning capabilities (Thomas et al., 2008). Thomas et al. (2015) explain that cultural metacognition “involves the ability to consciously and deliberately monitor one's knowledge processes and cognitive and affective states, and also to regulate these states in relation to some goals or objective” (p. 1102). This perspective leads us to consider that cultural metacognition can interact with foreign language anxiety, reducing the level of foreign language anxiety, and in the process, increasing the level of the individual's task performance in a GVT. The ability of the individual to monitor and regulate their cognitive states can play an important role in individual task performance in GVTs, particularly if this ability interacts with foreign language anxiety. Cultural skill has been argued to be the most visible dimension of cultural intelligence because it is overt and can easily be observed (Thomas et al., 2015). Cultural skill is demonstrated when appropriate behaviors are enacted to suit the requirements of a given cultural context. Ang and Van Dyne (2015) and Ang et al. (2007) argue that cross-cultural skills encompass verbal and nonverbal behaviors. When an individual has behavioral flexibility (verbal and non-verbal), then they can readily adjust and adapt to any cultural situation. The ability to constantly adjust one's verbal and non-verbal behaviors to suit the needs of a given cultural context is an indication that an individual is culturally intelligent. Thus, we argue that when a GVT member is challenged by a foreign language and experiences high levels of foreign language anxiety, but is able to conduct themselves appropriately in cross-cultural contexts, their foreign language anxiety can be reduced, in the process making the individual more effective when working with others and performing expected tasks. Thus, we propose the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 3. Each of the cultural intelligence dimension (3a: cultural knowledge; 3b: cultural metacognition; 3c: cultural skill) has a conditional influence on the second stage of mediation (i.e., the relationship between foreign language anxiety and individual task performance), such that a high level of each cultural intelligence dimension interacts with foreign language anxiety to reduce the negative effect of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance in GVTs. 3. Method 3.1. Research context Data were collected in a multinational offshoring firm based in Manila, the Philippines. The Philippines has consistently ranked as one of the leading offshore nations, focusing principally on providing offshore business-process services (A.T. Kearney, 2017). The participating firm had approximately 8000 employees when the data were collected. The firm has offices in various locations in the Philippines. The firm provides offshore business-process services such as information technology and customer service support in countries such as Canada, the United States of America, Australia, and the United Kingdom. In providing these offshore services to clients overseas, GVTs are typically formed with team members from the Philippines and team members from the client country to ensure that the required tasks are delivered promptly and efficiently. 3.2. Procedures and participants We obtained ethics approval to conduct the study. After obtaining the ethics approval, we contacted the vice president for operations of the multinational offshoring firm based in the Philippines to explain the nature of the study. After several face-to-face and online meetings, the vice president for operations gave approval to conduct the study, and we began the planning for the data collection. With the help of research assistants in the Philippines and the operations manager of the firm, an initial list of potential respondents was generated. The list included employees who at the time of data collection were working in the context of a GVT. Approximately 1000 employees were identified at this stage. The email addresses of these employees were obtained with the help of research assistants, and a mailing list was created. A first wave of emails was sent to approximately 1000 employees to make an initial assessment of interest in the study. The email contained information about the nature of the study, and invited the employees to participate voluntarily. The confidentiality of the data was also emphasized, and the involvement in the study of the employees' immediate supervisor was also explained. It was also stated that participation in the study would qualify them to enter a raffle draw that would give them a chance to win a number of gift items. Several questions were included at the end of the invitation, for example, “Would you be interested to take part in the study?” and “Would you give permission for us to contact your immediate supervisor to provide some information about you?” A total of 387 5

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Table 1 Sample characteristics. Characteristics

Gender Male Female Missing Age Below 30 30–50 Above 50 Missing Years of work experience Fewer than 5 years 5–14 years 15–25 years More than 25 years Missing

Frequency (N = 294)

Percentage (%)

141 137 16

48 47 5

98 154 25 17

33 52 9 6

44 136 76 23 15

15 46 26 8 5

employees were initially identified as willing to participate in the study. Following these expressions of interest in participating in the study, an online survey was developed using the Qualtrics survey system. To ensure that the online survey was easy to understand, a pilot survey was conducted. Twenty-five people (from the personal network of the researchers) were invited through email to participate in the pilot survey, which contained one item asking the respondents to report the extent to which they understood the items in the English language (on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “I did not understand any of the survey” to 4 = “I completely understood the entire survey”). The results provided a mean score of 3.89, demonstrating that the respondents clearly understood the survey, and found the items in the English language clear and easy to comprehend. After the pilot test, the online survey was launched. Email invitations were sent to the 387 employees who expressed their interest in participating in the study. The online survey was live for approximately three weeks, with constant reminders sent. A total of 332 survey responses were retrieved when the online system closed. After this step, the online survey for the immediate supervisor was established and sent to the respective email addresses with unique codes and the surname of the subordinate to be assessed. The online survey for the supervisors was live for approximately two weeks, with constant reminders sent. There was a total of 312 survey responses submitted by the supervisors. However, after inspecting the data and removing the surveys with high missing values (i.e., more than 20% missing values), only 294 paired surveys were retained and utilized for data analysis. The sample characteristics are presented in Table 1. 3.3. Measures All of the measures used in this study were in the English language. Demographic variables were also collected and used as control variables (e.g., age, gender, and years of work experience in GVTs). All the items used to measure the study variables are presented in Table 2. Foreign language skill was measured using the two-item scale adapted from Paas (1992) and used in later studies by Kalyuga et al. (1999). A Likert scale was used where 1 = None at all and 5 = To a great extent. Scores were reversed to indicate foreign language skill (i.e., higher score refers to higher level of proficiency in foreign language). Foreign language anxiety was measured using the 10-item scale developed by Horwitz et al. (1986). A Likert scale was used where 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree. The three dimensions of cultural intelligence were measured using the 10-item scale developed by Thomas et al. (2015). Two items were used for the cultural knowledge dimension of cultural intelligence; five items were used for the cultural skill dimension of cultural intelligence; and three items were used for the cultural metacognition dimension of cultural intelligence. A Likert scale was used where 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree. Task performance was measured using the seven-item scale developed by Williams and Anderson (1991). The items that were originally created to for the participant to assess themselves were modified to ask for the supervisor's assessment of the subordinate's task performance. A Likert scale was used where 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree. Several control variables were used in the study. Age was obtained and controlled in the study. Randel and Jaussi (2008) explained that age can influence observable differences in interactions within a team context. Killingsworth et al. (2016) offered empirical support to this assertion by demonstrating that age is positively related to behaviors in teams such as knowledge sharing. We also obtained gender since prior studies (e.g., Polzer et al., 2006) assert that gender can influence differences in team behaviors. Furumo and Pearson (2007) specifically show that males use communication in teams to achieve dominance while females use it to enhance relationships and strengthen trust with other team members. Years of work experience were also obtained and controlled similar to earlier studies which explained how the extent of experience contributes to greater task effectiveness and performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2009; Davison et al., 2006). These prior studies provide justification for the use of control variables consistent 6

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Table 2 Factor loadings and psychometric qualities. Constructs (validity and reliability indices) and indicators

Standardized factor loadings

Foreign language skill (AVE = 0.78; Dillon–Goldstein ρ = 0.82; Coefficient H = 0.85; Cronbach alpha = 0.82) 1. How do you rate the level of the mental effort you make when using English as a foreign language? 2. How do you rate the level of difficulty you experience using English as a foreign language? Foreign language anxiety (AVE = 0.80; Dillon–Goldstein ρ = 0.85; Coefficient H = 0.82 Cronbach alpha = 0.87) 1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in English. 2. I don't worry about making mistakes in English (reverse). 3. It frightens me when I don't understand what the other person is saying in English. 4. I keep thinking that others are better at English than I am. 5. I am usually at ease during conversations in English (reverse). 6. I start to panic when I have to speak in English without being prepared. 7. I would not be nervous speaking in English with native English speakers (reverse). 8. I can feel my heart pounding when I'm going to speak in English. 9. I don't feel the pressure to prepare particularly well when using English. 10. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking English. Cultural intelligence—cultural knowledge (AVE = 0.85; Dillon–Goldstein ρ = 0.86; Coefficient H = 0.89 Cronbach alpha = 0.90) 1. I know the ways in which cultures around the world are different. 2. I can give examples of cultural differences from my personal experience, reading, and so on. Cultural intelligence—cultural skill (AVE = 0.88; Dillon–Goldstein ρ = 0.88; Coefficient H = 0.92 Cronbach alpha = 0.85) 1. I enjoy talking with people from different cultures. 2. I have the ability to accurately understand the feelings of people from other cultures. 3. I sometimes try to understand people from another culture by imagining how something looks from their perspective. 4. I can change my behavior to suit different cultural situations and people. 5. I accept delays without becoming upset when in different cultural situations 6. and with culturally different people. Cultural intelligence—cultural metacognition (AVE = 0.86; Dillon–Goldstein ρ = 0.88: Coefficient H = 0.90 Cronbach alpha = 0.87) 1. I am aware of the cultural knowledge I use when interacting with someone from another culture. 2. I think a lot about the influence that culture has on my behavior and that of others who are culturally different. 3. I am aware that I need to plan my course of action when in different situations and with culturally different people. Individual task performance (AVE = 0.80; Dillon–Goldstein ρ = 0.88; Coefficient H = 0.90 Cronbach alpha = 0.82) 1. He/she can adequately complete assigned duties in the global virtual team. 2. He/she can fulfil tasks assigned to him/her in the global virtual team. 3. He/she can meet the performance expectations in the global virtual team. 4. He/she can satisfy the requirements in the global virtual team. 5. He/she fails to perform essential duties in the global virtual team (reverse). 6. He/she neglects aspects of the job he/she is obligated to performance in the global virtual team (reverse). 7. He/she performs tasks that are expected of him/her in the global virtual team.

0.78 0.83

0.81 0.80 0.90 0.82 0.81 0.85 0.83 0.90 0.79 0.92

0.85 0.84

0.90 0.84 0.90 0.89 0.89

0.85 0.87 0.86

0.88 0.90 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.90

with the recommendations of Nielsen and Raswant (2018).

4. Results 4.1. Validity and reliability A non-response using the survey wave technique was initially conducted. The results did not indicate any discrepancy between early and late respondents. In addition, Harman's single-factor test (Harman, 1976; Podsakoff et al., 2012) was conducted, and the results revealed that no single factor accounted for more than 50% of the variance in the data. A partial correlation technique using a marker variable (Lindell and Whitney, 2001) was also conducted. We particularly followed the recommendation of Williams and McGonagle (2016) and used community satisfaction as a marker variable given that it would not be expected to substantially relate to any of the variables under investigation, and the results show zero correlations. The dependent variable (i.e., individual task performance of global team member) was also obtained from another source (supervisor) to ensure that common method bias is minimized. We obtained the following Cronbach's alphas: foreign language skill = 0.82; foreign language anxiety = 0.85; cultural intelligence—cultural knowledge = 0.90; cultural intelligence—cultural skill = 0.87; cultural intelligence—cultural metacognition = 0.85; individual task performance = 0.82. To further determine validity and reliability, we used structural equation modelling based on partial least squares aided by XLSTAT (Addinsoft, 2017; Hair et al., 2016). This testing enabled us to determine the psychometric properties of the scales. The results of the measurement-model testing indicated significant loadings of the relevant 7

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Table 3 Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Age Gender Years Work Experience Foreign language skill Foreign language anxiety Cultural intelligence (cultural knowledge) Cultural intelligence (cultural metacognition) Cultural intelligence (cultural skill) Task performance

Mean

SD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

32.19 1.01 9.76 1.99 3.87 4.12 4.32 4.18 4.12

6.60 0.54 4.30 0.60 0.52 0.40 0.42 0.47 0.64

0.01 0.32* 0.20 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.16 0.28*

0.03 0.16 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04

0.30* 0.31* 0.25 0.27 0.28* 0.35*

0.90 −0.50* 0.47* 0.50* 0.42* 0.60*

0.91 −0.50* −0.45* −0.40* −0.52*

0.94 0.60* 0.55* 0.65*

0.87 0.58* 0.63*

0.90 0.65*

0.87

N = 294; *p < .05; values in bold are the square root of AVE.

items to their predetermined constructs (i.e., all items were above the acceptable minimum threshold of 0.70). The average variance extracted (AVE) values were also examined, and ranged from 0.78 to 0.86 (i.e., all the values were above the acceptable minimum threshold of 0.70). These values along with low cross-loadings of items suggest the validity of the measures used in the study. We also tested the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) and the maximum score was 0.75, which is below the conservative threshold value of 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015), thus indicating discriminant validity. Further inspection of the confidence interval show that the upper confidence bounds are less than 1 (i.e., highest value is 0.84) showing additional support for discriminant validity within the data. We further examined the Dillon–Goldstein ρ (Chin, 1998), which is considered a more reliable indicator of unidimensionality and homogeneity of items than the traditional Cronbach's alpha. This is because the Dillon–Goldstein ρ considers the weight or importance of the loadings of each item comprising a construct, rather than assuming that all relevant items are equally correlated to the latent construct (Chin, 1998). The Dillon–Goldstein ρ values were from 0.82 to 0.88, which is within the acceptable range for construct validity (Chin, 1998). Further analysis was made by computing the values of coefficient H (Mueller and Hancock, 2001) to examine internal consistency, homogeneity, and the reliability of the measures in the scale. The results of the coefficient H were all above the minimum 0.70 acceptable threshold, suggesting that all three constructs were measured in a valid and reliable manner. The full results are presented in Table 2. 4.2. Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations The means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations are presented in Table 3. The mean scores and standard deviations for the study variables are as follows: foreign language skill (M = 1.99; SD = 0.60); foreign language anxiety (M = 3.87; SD = 0.52); cultural intelligence—cultural knowledge (M = 4.12; SD = 0.40); cultural intelligence—cultural metacognition (M = 4.32; SD = 0.42); cultural intelligence—cultural skill (M = 4.12; SD = 0.64); individual task performance (M = 4.12; SD = 0.64). The intercorrelations ranged from −0.40 to 0.65. These results imply that the data collected had acceptable level of reliability and that their interrelationships are all in the expected direction. The intercorrelations among the three dimensions of cultural intelligence are above the moderate range implying how closely interrelated these variables are. 4.3. Hypothesis testing To test the hypotheses, the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2018) was used. Specifically, model 14 was applied where X represented foreign language skill, Y represented task performance, M represented foreign language anxiety and W represented cultural intelligence. The moderator was mean-centered following the recommendation of Hayes (2018). This was done by specifically “setting the argument in the center option to 1 (i.e., center = 1)” (Hayes, 2018, p. 572). Results show that foreign language skill is positively and significantly associated with individual task performance in GVT, supporting Hypothesis 1 (β = 0.51; se = 0.12; t = 4.06; LLCI = 0.2087; ULCI = 0.4132; p < .05*). The results also support Hypothesis 2a, which predicts that foreign language skill is significantly but negatively associated with foreign language anxiety (β = −0.43; se = 0.05; t = 3.51; LLCI = -0.3135; ULCI = -0.4975; p < .05*). Foreign language anxiety was also found to be significantly but negatively associated with individual task performance, supporting Hypothesis 2b (β = −0.44; se = 0.04; t = 3.88; LLCI = -0.4019; ULCI = -0.5124; p < .05*). Foreign language anxiety was further found to serve as a mediator for the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance, supporting Hypothesis 2c (β = −0.40; se = 0.05; t = 4.03; LLCI = 0.3765; ULCI = -0.5128; p < .05*). Finally, the three dimensions of cultural intelligence were found to influence the mediation role of foreign language anxiety by exerting a conditional influence on the second stage of mediation, supporting Hypotheses 3a, 3b and 3c (cultural knowledge: β = −0.30; se = 0.18; t = 2.67; LLCI = 0.2467; ULCI = 0.5124; p < .05*; cultural metacognition: β = −0.22; se = 0.27; t = 2.98; LLCI = 0.3871; ULCI = 0.5291; p < .05*; cultural skill: β = −0.19; se = 0.25; t = 3.01; LLCI = 0.2874; ULCI = 0.4981; p < .05*). Tables 4 presents the full details of the results following earlier studies that utilized the same approach (e.g., Peltokorpi, 2015). The conditional approach of plotting slopes as recommended by Aiken et al. (1991) was conducted to better interpret the conditional interactive effect of the dimensions of cultural intelligence in the mediation. Figs. 2, 3 and 4 demonstrate how cultural 8

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Table 4 Tests of direct, mediating and moderating effects.

Direct effect Foreign language skill → Task performance Foreign language skill → Anxiety Foreign language anxiety → Task performance Mediating effect Foreign language anxiety as a mediator Moderating effect Values of the moderator (cultural knowledge) Low value condition (−1 SD) High value condition (+SD) Values of the moderator (cultural metacognition) Low value condition (−1 SD) High value condition (+SD) Values of the moderator (cultural skill) Low value condition (−1 SD) High value condition (+SD)

β

se

t

LLCI

ULCI

p

0.51 −0.43 −0.44

0.12 0.05 0.04

4.06 3.51 3.88

0.2087 −0.3135 −0.4019

0.4132 −0.4975 −0.5124

0.00* 0.02* 0.01*

−0.40

0.05

4.03

−0.3765

−0.5128

0.01*

−0.40 −0.20

0.22 0.16

2.87 2.54

0.2679 0.3124

0.4982 0.5412

0.00* 0.00*

−0.37 −0.17

0.37 0.20

2.45 3.16

0.3276 0.3987

0.5142 0.5981

0.01* 0.01*

−0.30 −0.18

0.31 0.22

3.12 2.76

0.2876 0.3123

0.4526 0.5162

0.01* 0.01*

N = 294; *p < .05; age, gender, and years of work experience are controlled; LLCI = lower limit confidence interval; ULCI = upper limit confidence interval.

5

Task performance

4.5 4 3.5 Low CQ (cultural knowledge)

3 2.5

High CQ (cultural knowledge)

2 1.5 1 Low foreign language anxiety

High foreign language anxiety

Fig. 2. Conditional influence of cultural intelligence (cultural knowledge) on the second stage of the mediation (foreign language anxiety and task performance) (CQ = cultural intelligence).

5

Task performance

4.5 4 3.5 Low CQ (cultural metacognition)

3 2.5

High CQ (cultural metacognition)

2 1.5 1 Low foreign language anxiety

High foreign language anxiety

Fig. 3. Conditional influence of cultural intelligence (cultural metacognition) on the second stage of the mediation (foreign language anxiety and task performance) (CQ = cultural intelligence).

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5

Task performance

4.5 4 3.5 Low CQ (cultural skill)

3 2.5

High CQ (cultural skill)

2 1.5 1 Low foreign language anxiety

High foreign language anxiety

Fig. 4. Conditional influence of cultural intelligence (cultural skill) on the second stage of the mediation (foreign language anxiety and task performance) (CQ = cultural intelligence).

knowledge, cultural metacognition and cultural skill each exert conditional influence on the mediation of foreign language anxiety of the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance, such that a high level of cultural intelligence decreases the negative effect of foreign language anxiety on the individual task performance of GVT members, while a low level of cultural intelligence does not. 5. Discussion This study examined the role of foreign language skill in the context of a GVT, focusing on how foreign language skill is associated with individual task performance. We found empirical support that foreign language skill is positively and significantly associated with the individual task performance of GVT members. We further investigated the role of foreign language anxiety in this relationship, and found support that foreign language skill is significantly but negatively associated with foreign language anxiety (i.e., a higher level of foreign language skill leads to a lower level of foreign language anxiety). In addition, we found that foreign language anxiety is significantly but negatively associated with individual task performance of GVT members (i.e., a higher level of foreign language anxiety is associated with a lower level of individual task performance in GVTs). We also found that foreign language anxiety mediates the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance. This provides evidence that foreign language anxiety is an alternative pathway and can explain why individual task performance is negatively affected by a low level of foreign language skill. Finally, our findings reveal that cultural intelligence serves as a condition in achieving a high level of individual task performance despite the presence of a high level of foreign language anxiety. A high level of cultural intelligence can interact with foreign language anxiety, and in the process, reduce the negative effects of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance. 5.1. Theoretical implications The findings in this study offer a number of theoretical implications. First, we contribute to the GVT literature particularly by offering greater understanding of the role of foreign language skill, and how it affects the individual task performance of GVT members. Previous studies have explained the importance of language commonality in GVTs to ensure knowledge sharing (Klitmøller and Lauring, 2013), as well as the relevance of fluency in a common language to increase communication frequency and effectiveness (e.g., Barner-Rasmussen and Aarnio, 2011; Zander et al., 2012). However, GVTs are geographically, culturally, and linguistically diverse, thus, not every member of the team will be fully proficient in a common language. This has been acknowledged in recent studies (i.e., Klitmøller et al., 2015) that have examined variances in language proficiency, and how these variances affect social categorization in GVTs. The current study pursues this line of enquiry, and adopts a cognitive perspective to enrich understanding of the relationship between foreign language skill and individual task performance. We drew from a range of theoretical perspectives related to cognition (e.g., the cognitive neuroscience of foreign language processing) to explain how foreign language skill relates to individual task performance. The cognitive perspective explains the concept of L1 processing (native language processing) and L2 processing (foreign language processing), and thus conceptually clarifies how foreign language processing (in relation to proficiency in the use of a foreign language) can relate to effectiveness when performing tasks in GVTs. That is, the heavy reliance on L1 processing for individuals that have a low level of L2 proficiency can impair and limit effectiveness when performing tasks that require the use of a foreign language such as the tasks required in GVTs. However, when GVT members have achieved proficiency in L2 processing, they are more effective when performing tasks that require the use of a foreign language because their linguistic capability enables them to understand and communicate easily with other members of the GVT in a foreign language. Such findings are consistently demonstrated in educational and classroom contexts, particularly when teaching English to non-English speakers face-to-face (e.g., Chen and Lin, 2009; Ghenghesh, 2015), but have also been found in virtual and online communication contexts 10

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(e.g., in GVTs). Second, we contribute to knowledge by explicating an alternative pathway for the association of foreign language skill with individual task performance. Drawing on another cognitive perspective (i.e., theory of cognitive load), we found that foreign language anxiety is a mediator in the relationship between foreign language anxiety and individual task performance. Foreign language anxiety has been described as the sense of worry and apprehension experienced when using a foreign language (MacIntyre, 1998). We found that this sense of concern and worry can be influenced by the lack of proficiency in foreign language, which consequently influences the individual task performance of GVT members. We used the theory of cognitive load (Sweller, 1988) to explain this mechanism. In particular, we explain that L1 and L2 processing can be cognitively taxing, and can deplete the available cognitive resources for an individual member of GVT to function effectively and deliver the desired output. That is, the use of a foreign language can be cognitively complex for non-native speakers, and can impose a burden or load on an individual's cognitive system (Paas and Van Merriënboer, 1994). This cognitive load is a result of the brain's limited working memory, hindering the individual from further absorbing any additional inputs and causing anxiety. The level of anxiety can then influence individual task performance (as we found in this study), thus offering an alternative explanation for what occurs cognitively and emotionally when a GVT member lacks proficiency in a foreign language. Third, we contribute to the expanding nomological network of cultural intelligence by articulating its role in reducing the negative effects of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance in GVTs. This finding is based on another cognitive perspective (i.e., the theory of intelligence) (Sternberg, 2003), which states that intelligence can be critical in assisting an individual in the packing and automation of new information to make this information more manageable and comprehensible. As a form of intelligence that is domain specific, cultural intelligence is malleable and can be learned through various developmental and coaching activities. When fully developed and nurtured, cultural intelligence can become a potent set of competencies that can be a leveraged to assist in managing the challenges associated with being in contexts of cultural diversity, including using foreign languages. As demonstrated in our study, the three dimensions of cultural intelligence (cultural knowledge, cultural metacognition, and cultural skills) exert a conditional influence in reducing the negative effect of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance in GVTs. This finding validates earlier conceptual assertions and empirical findings that cultural intelligence is composed of a set of intercultural capabilities that can enable the individual to deal and interact with culturally different individuals effectively (e.g., Presbitero, 2017; Presbitero and Toledano, 2017; Thomas et al., 2015). Cultural knowledge can enrich an individual's cognitive processes, resulting in higher levels of cognitive complexity, which is essential when dealing with people from different cultural backgrounds, as in GVTs. Cultural metacognition can assist in controlling and regulating one's thinking and learning capabilities, which is also critical when learning a foreign language. Finally, cultural skills can help GVT members behave suitably and appropriately (i.e., to become behaviorally flexible), enabling them to be more effective when dealing with people who are culturally different. The findings of our study relating to the three dimensions of cultural intelligence contribute to the growing number of studies (e.g., Khani and A, 2011; Thomas et al., 2015; Young et al., 2017) that are particularly interested in understanding how each dimension of this type of intelligent plays an important role in enabling effectiveness in cross-cultural encounters. 5.2. Managerial implications This study also offers practical insights that are relevant for managers in international firms, particularly in ensuring the effectiveness of the task performance of individual members of GVTs. First, the results of this study demonstrate that foreign language anxiety, which can arise from having limited skills in a foreign language must be acknowledged and considered by GVT managers. Special assistance and support should be made available to GVT members experiencing high levels of foreign language anxiety. Language lessons should be made available to GVT members having difficulty using the foreign language. Similarly, effective coaching and supervision should be in place to support GVT members experiencing high levels of anxiety because of their limited foreign language skill. Second, the study highlights the relevance of cultural intelligence in ensuring that individual tasks are effectively performed despite experiencing foreign language anxiety. Cultural intelligence is malleable, and can be therefore be learned and developed (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). One way to develop the dimensions of cultural intelligence is through an experientiallearning approach, which can be achieved through cross-cultural simulations that enable participants to reflect on and process their cultural experiences. Empirical studies have shown that cultural intelligence increases through engagement in programs such as cross-cultural training and simulations (e.g., Fischer, 2011; Rehg et al., 2012; Presbitero and Toledano, 2017). These training and development interventions typically focus on enhancing and improving the different dimensions of cultural intelligence, including developing perspective taking and the skills to verbally and non-verbally adjust behaviors to suit the requirements of a given cultural context. Providing these types of cultural learning opportunities to GVT members will enable them to achieve higher levels of individual task performance despite the presence of foreign language anxiety. 5.3. Limitations and directions for future research While this study has offered a number of contributions both to theory and practice, there are some limitations that can be considered for future research. First, while conscious effort was made to manage common method bias (i.e., by collecting data from other sources), other means to avoid such bias could be explored in the future. For example, it would be ideal to examine actual performance indicators such as number of projects completed or client satisfaction on a project. Applying more objective means to measure individual task performance would provide a means to combat bias affecting the results. In addition, the study measured foreign language through self-report. Applying a more rigorous and objective measurement of foreign language skills would be 11

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beneficial for future research because it would ensure greater reliability of the results. Second, future research should control for variables relating to team composition (e.g., team members' familiarity with each other or the number of people in the team who speak foreign languages) because these factors can significantly reduce anxiety over time. Similarly, the cultural distance between the countries involved in the communication should be considered in future studies. In addition, it would be relevant to assess the frequency and intensity of contact between and among members of the GVT. Doing so would help to understand whether the quality and quantity of contact can aide in facilitating better individual task performance despite deficiencies in the use of a foreign language. Third, the samples in this study are obtained only from one country, thus it cannot claim generalizability. Future studies should be conducted in different countries and cultural contexts. Doing so would determine the replicability of the results and would further strengthen the validity of the research findings. 6. Conclusion The study focused on an important issue in GVTs: the use of foreign language. Given that GVTs operate virtually, reliance on verbal communication and language is critical to ensuring that individual tasks are effectively performed. The study highlighted the importance of developing foreign language skill because lacking such skill can induce anxiety, which can have negative effects on the individual task performance of GVT members. However, in cases where foreign language skill cannot be improved (and anxiety cannot be controlled through such improvement), having cultural intelligence can reduce the negative effects of foreign language anxiety on individual task performance, and enable GVT members to function more effectively. 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