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Forest resource availability and its use by the migratory villages of Uttarkashi, Garhwal Himalaya (India)
Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Forest resource availability and its use by the migratory villages of Uttarkashi, Garhwal Himalaya (India) Anjali Awasthi*, Sanjay Kr. Uniyal, Gopal S. Rawat, Asha Rajvanshi Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248001 (UP), India Received 30 June 2000; received in revised form 15 October 2001; accepted 18 December 2001
Abstract Recognising the ecological importance of Himalayan forests in terms of their intrinsic values as life support system for the local people and as repository of regional biodiversity, the present study was conducted. It aimed at assessing the status of available forest resources, current levels of pressure on them and sustainability of current land use practices in a part of district Uttarkashi in Garhwal Himalaya. We quanti®ed available standing biomass, regeneration and population of highly preferred species and their consumption patterns. The study revealed a spatio-temporal variation in resource extraction. The standing biomass of preferred woody species at low altitude permanent villages and high altitude summer camping sites (Kharaks) were 140:68 26:91 and 477:46 31:8 t/ha, respectively. Average fuel wood consumption per household at permanent villages was 14:65 0:78 kg/day whereas consumption per temporary hut (Chhans) at camping sites was 36:42 3:35 kg/day. Higher per capita consumption of fuel wood in the camping sites due to seasonal migration of local as well as transhumants locally known as Gujjars had put immense pressure on sub-alpine forests. An increase in the demands for natural resources was noticed due to an augmented in¯ux of tourists, which would further lead to the degradation of already scarce resources in the sub-alpine areas. Thus increased resource extraction from the low as well as high altitude forests simultaneously, may not be sustainable in the long run. In near future this might affect the status of the undisturbed forest at middle elevation, which has relatively high available biomass and regeneration capacity. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Biomass; Disturbance; Fuel wood; Migration; Himalaya
1. Introduction The climax forests of the Western Himalaya are characterised by the dominance of one or the other species of oak (Quercus spp.). These forests are not only intricately associated with the hydrological balance but also form the life support system for the local inhabitants (Singh and Singh, 1992). The sustainability of these forests depends greatly on their productivity, *
Corresponding author. Tel.: 91-0135-640112/640115; fax: 91-0135-640117. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Awasthi).
resilience and the human activities. Traditionally people have been using and managing these resources in a sustainable manner, however, since past few decades changes have been observed in the traditional land use practices due to the construction of roads and in¯uence of market forces. One such practice in¯uenced by the changing socio-economic conditions is the nomadic pastoralism. This practice once represented an example of spatio-temporal resource use, which is gradually transforming to nuclear transhumance, i.e., migration by only one or two persons per family (Farooquee, 1992). This leads to simultaneous resource use at permanent as well as temporary huts creating large
0378-1127/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 1 1 2 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 2 6 - 9
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A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
``blanks'' in the forests (Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986; Singh and Singh, 1991). Besides, the in¯ux of tourists has also increased in many parts of the Himalaya, which has not only increased the number of newly constructed hotels and lodges but has also increased the resource dependency on surrounding forests (Singh, 1983). In this paper we present a case study from Garhwal Himalaya which deals with the changing lifestyle of local people, patterns of biomass utilisation, and its conservation implications. 2. Study area The study area lies in district Uttarkashi, which is located between 388280 to 318280 N latitude and 778490 to 798250 E longitude. District Uttarkashi covers an area of 8016 km2. The terrain is mountainous consisting of high hill ranges, plateaus and narrow valleys. The climate of the district varies according to the altitude and aspect and is temperate monsoonal type. The district lies in the upper catchment of two great rivers of India viz, Ganges (called Bhagirathi towards upstream) and the Yamuna. Some of the tributaries of these rivers include Jadhganga, Jalandhari, Pilangana, Duggada, and Assiganga. Of these, the watershed of one rivulet (Duggada) with an altitudinal range 1600± 3400 m was selected for the present study (Fig. 1). The major vegetation types of the study area are Himalayan moist temperate forest, sub-alpine forest and alpine scrub (Champion and Seth, 1968). There are one resident and three migratory villages dependent on these forests for their basic requirements of fuel and fodder. Broad land use categories of the area include permanent settlements (villages), irrigated and rainfed agricultural ®elds, scrub land, mixed broad leaf forests, sub-alpine oak-®r forest, summer camping sites and alpine meadows locally known as ``Kharaks'' and ``bugyals'', respectively. The seasonal transhumants (Gujjars), pilgrims to famous hindu shrines at Gangotri and Kedarnath and trekkers use these forest resources exclusively during summer and rainy seasons whereas the locals use them throughout the year. 3. Methods The present study was undertaken during July 1996±January 1998. To assess availability of woody
species, vegetation parameters were quanti®ed in 1 ha plots n 62 marked at an interval of 100 m elevation using 10 m 10 m quadrats n 10 (Misra, 1973). Data were collected on species, number of individuals of woody plants, their GBH (1.37 m above the ground), height and canopy cover. Diversity and above ground biomass of the three sites were calculated using the Shannon±Wiener diversity index (Magurran, 1988): H0 SPi ln Pi , where H0 is the diversity, Pi the proportion of individuals of ith species and regression equation (Singh and Singh, 1992; Adhikari et al., 1995), respectively: ln Y a b ln X, X, where Y is the dry weight of the component, X the DBH (cm), a the Y intercept, b the slope or regression coef®cient, and ln the natural log. A door-to-door survey was conducted in the four villages (n 229 households) of the study area to illicit information on socio-economic status, land use and resource use pattern. Structured questionnaires (Patton, 1981; Clarke, 1986) were used to interview members of the each household. Based on the initial survey, 20% of the households were selected randomly for monthly monitoring of biomass (fuel wood and fodder) consumption. There were seven summer camping sites (Kharaks) in the alpine meadows of which, four were selected for the present study. In these four summer camping sites, there were a total of 80 temporary huts (Chhans) of which 34 temporary huts were selected randomly for quantifying biomass use. Biomass consumption was quanti®ed using the displacement method (Ravindranath and Premnath, 1997). Parameters selected for biomass estimation included species, weight, and composition of fodder fed, species, weight and size (length (L) and circumference at base, CAB) of the fuel wood burnt were also recorded. For fodder consumption one sheep equivalent was de®ned as one livestock unit (Singh et al., 1986). To assess the biotic pressure on forest, three different sites viz, near villages, near temporary huts and least disturbed sites were identi®ed and in each site three trails of 3 km each were laid. In each trail, belt transects n 60 of 30 m 5 m were marked permanently at every 150 m following Sale and Berkmuller (1988). These belts were monitored on a monthly basis for 1 year and parameters such as number and GBH (1.37 m above ground) of cut and lopped trees were noted.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
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Fig. 1. Map of the study area.
4. Results 4.1. Resource availability The density (individuals per hectare) of preferred (for fuel wood and fodder) woody species was least near village (311:34 11:44) located at the lower altitudes and highest in the middle elevation least disturbed site (496:99 10:37). Diversity (H0 ) of woody species was (1.6) in the least disturbed sites whereas it was maximum (1.9) near villages and minimum (1.1) near temporary huts situated in the
sub-alpine and alpine camping sites. The available aboveground woody biomass of preferred species was maximum near temporary huts (477:5 52:25 t/ha) whereas minimum near village (140:68 7:14 t/ha) (Table 1). 4.2. Resource use There were 229 families in the study area of which 160 were migratory. A general pro®le of the area prepared on the basis of door-to-door survey (Table 2) revealed that the study area had a total
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Table 1 Density, biomass and regeneration of preferred species at three sites Species
Density (No./ha) a
V
Biomass (t/ha)
b
c
C
d
Regeneration (No./ha)
LD
V
C
LD
V
C
LD
Cedrus deodara Pinus roxburghii Q. leucotrichophora Lyonia ovalifolia Rhododendron arboreum Litsea spp. Symplocos chinensis Aesculus indica Quercus floribunda Abies pindrow Ilex dipyrena Quercus semecarpofolia Juglans regia
97.04 57.06 63.6 50.4 6.6 29.1 7 0.2 0.34 NA NA NA NA
NA NA NA NA 14 NA 1 1 5 78 1 297 NA
8.12 NA 93.25 34 54.75 8.75 21 55.12 122 50.75 11.5 16.75 21
58.02 53.41 22.9 6.2 7.1 2.6 0.3 0.04 0.12 NA NA NA NA
NA NA NA NA 1.8 NA 0.04 1.5 5.4 NA 0.04 371 NA
1.9 NA 33.25 4.2 7.9 0.4 0.65 78.3 141.3 64.11 0.6 32.9 12.32
NA NA 71.62 37.74 24.11 NA NA NA 0 NA NA NA NA
NA NA NA NA 26.6 NA NA 0 0 NA 0 19.99 NA
NA NA 7.85 0.7 98.14 NA NA NA 118.96 NA NA 15.71 NA
Total
311.34
397
496.9
140.68
477.48
377.73
133.47
46.59
241.36
a
Near villages. Near Chhans. c Least disturbed site. d Not available. b
Table 2 A general pro®le of the study villagesa Parameter
Villages of the study area Saura
Saari
Saalu
Syaba
Altitude (m) Distance from motor road (km) School Temporary settlements (No.) Migratory distance (km) Households (No.) Population (No.) Literate (No.)
1700 2 P 0 0 69 580 162
2100 3.5 P 40 12 65 390 79
2000 4 P 31 15 30 200 79
2300 8 P 49 9 65 325 90
Occupation (No. of households) Agriculture daily wages Agriculture service Agriculture business Livestock population (No.)
51 8 10 300
57 6 2 312
28 2 0 253
60 2 3 403
Fuel use (No. of households) LPG Kerosene Firewood Income (Rs.)/capita
8 0 69 1249.52
1 0 65 1115.64
1 0 30 873.33
0 0 65 1079.23
Landholding (ha)
133.76
483.663
180.274
190.115
a
P: present.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
human population of 1495. Primary occupation of the people was agriculture (85.59%). In the kharif season (April±November) irrigated land was devoted to paddy cultivation whereas in rainfed land, potato cultivation was given priority (406:44 175:85 quintals per year per village). Three agricultural ®elds' (each of ca. 40 m 50 m) per year per village were added after clearing the forest or abandoned land (personal observations) to grow potato, soybean or French beans. Interviews with the local people revealed that till last decade, 96.51% n 221 families grew indigenous crops such as amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), millet (Oplismenus frumentaceus Link.), kodu or ®nger millet (Eleusine coracona Linn.), cheena (Panicum miliaceum Linn.), phaphara or buck wheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Goertn.) and bhatt (Glycine soja Sieb.). Now only 48.47% n 111 of the families cultivate these crops that too in low proportion. All the villagers preferred to grow cash yielding crops such as potato, French beans and soybean. This has not only affected the traditional knowledge of people and genetic diversity of crops but has also put additional pressure on the surrounding forests. Livestock (n 1268, where n is number of livestock) were kept basically for draught power and manure. Livestock comprised mainly of buffaloes, cows, oxen and mules. Very few families own sheep and goats now. Change in livestock numbers and composition has also increased the demands of lopped fodder and grazing grounds, which has further deteriorated the regeneration of preferred species. The seasonal calendar (Fig. 2) of various activities revealed that the villagers were involved in two interrelated activities viz, extraction of biomass from forests and agriculture. Three villages follow nuclear transhumance to the summer camping sites with their livestock. At permanent villages as well as camping sites, villagers depend on the forests for their basic needs of fuel, fodder, leaf-litter and non-timber forest products (NTFPs). There was a seasonal variation in the nature of resources extracted from the forest. Firewood being the major source of fuel was extracted throughout the year whereas lopping for leaf fodder mostly occurred during months of February±May and leaf-litter was collected during winter season when cattle were kept in the sheds. Extraction of bamboo (Arundinaria falcata) culms occurred during the
17
months of April±July when it was required for supporting French bean seedlings. There was a spatio-temporal variation in fuel wood and fodder extraction. At permanent villages, fuel wood was either cut directly from the forest or dead wood of any kind was collected. Fuel wood consumption at permanent villages varied signi®cantly with the season (1-way ANOVA, F-value 7:16, ***p < 0:001, n 4). It was maximum during winter (20:18 0:44 kg/day/h.hold) and least in the summer (9:86 0:83 kg/day/h.hold). Whereas at temporary huts the fuel wood consumption was restricted between April and September, but due to low temperature at higher elevations fuel wood burnt was quite high when compared to permanent villages (Fig. 3). Also a signi®cant difference in the size (L and CAB) of the fuel wood burnt at two settlements was found. At village medium sized branches (CAB standard error S:E: 14:93 0:7 cm, L 83:78 3:45 cm) from full canopy trees were mainly lopped whereas at summer camping sites, along with one or two thick branch (CAB 25:77 3:68 cm, L 315:55 66:54 cm), few loads of medium size branches (CAB 16:30 2:1 cm, L 91:45 6:07 cm) were also burnt. At permanent villages where most of the livestock remained from October to April, they were strictly stall-fed during the periods of snowfall else stallfeeding was accompanied with grazing. Fodder demands were basically ful®lled through leaf fodder, agricultural by-products and grass fodder (green and dried). There was a seasonal variation in the type of fodder fed. Agricultural by-products constituted the major feed in winter while leaf fodder lopped from nearby forest was fed during summer (Table 3). There was a variety of leaf fodder species available around the villages. The most preferred leaf fodder species are shown in Table 4. At summer camping sites, most of the time animals were left free for grazing. Only calves and milk cows were stall-fed. This greatly reduced the demand (7:91 0:66 kg/day/l.u.). Consumption of leaf fodder per livestock unit varied signi®cantly at the two settlements in the rainy season (Fig. 4). Along with the local villagers, ca. 1000 families of seasonal migrants (Gujjars) from the foothills of Himalaya also visit the sub-alpine and alpine areas during summer±rainy season. They too utilise an average of 43 kg/day of fuel wood and 1.5 kg/l.u./day
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Fig. 2. Seasonal calendar of villagers activities.
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A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
19
Fig. 3. Per capita fuel wood consumption at two settlements in rainy season. Table 3 Seasonal variation in fodder composition at villages Fodder type (kg/l.u.a/day)
Summer n 4
Rainy n 4
Winter n 4
Leaf fodder Agriculture by-product Grass fodder
11.81 2.8b 0.9 0.42
1.94 1.04 4.13 1.7
5.54 1.25 9.49 1
1.7 0.59
0.39 0.16
5.36 0.62
a b
Livestock unit. S.E.
of lopped fodder. With an average of four families coming to the study area, the total demand per day becomes 172 kg. Similarly with an average of 128 l.u. in a family the total livestock unit becomes 512 and Table 4 Species preferred as leaf fodder at two settlements Villages
Chhans (temporary huts)
Q. leucotrichophora Q. floribunda Q. semecarpifolia Carpinus viminea Debregeasia longifolia Ulmus wallichiana Desmodium sp. A. falcata Swida macrophylla Acer spp.
Q. semecarpifolia Q. floribunda Thamnocalamus sp. Acer spp.
total consumption of lopped fodder becomes 768 kg/ day. They also depend on the surrounding forest for their biomass needs. After the construction of road to Gangotri in 1960's and opening up of Garhwal for tourism in 1970's, the in¯ux of tourists has gone up with ca. 10,000 domestic and international tourists coming to the valley seasonally. Around 20% of the total tourists also trek to surrounding nature trails and depend on the surrounding forests for their fuel wood needs. A party of ®ve people on an average burns 20 kg/day of fuel wood. Indirect impacts on forests are also on rise due to increased tourism. Every year there is an increase in the number of temporary huts/hotels (ca. 1±2) in the sensitive sub-alpine zone. These hotels are constructed from logs/planks of wood cut from the surrounding forests. Fuel wood burnt in these hotels is quite high (35 kg/day). It also varies with the weather conditions and number of tourists. There was a spatial difference in the composition of fuel wood and fodder species consumed. At lower altitudes, there was a choice of species available as fuel wood and fodder whereas at sub-alpine areas, where Quercus semecarpifolia±Abies forms the timberline, the choice was limited. Therefore due to its burning and heating quality Q. semecarpifolia was the most preferred fuel wood species (Figs. 5 and 6). Q. semecarpifolia was also preferred as leaf fodder at
20
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Fig. 4. Leaf fodder consumption at two settlements expressed as per livestock unit.
temporary huts followed by Thamnocalamus sp. and Q. ¯oribunda (Table 4). Repeated lopping and cutting of preferred species has in¯uenced their standing biomass and regeneration. 4.3. Assessment of biotic pressure During the initial survey (October 1996), a total of 1004 woody plants representing 40 species were marked in total 180 belt transects. Of the total trees,
35.96% were found near villages, 28.98% near temporary huts and 35.06% in least disturbed sites (Table 5). Near villages, of the total 31 species, 54.84% were preferred as fuel wood, 9.68% as leaf fodder and 22.58% as both whereas near temporary huts of the total 14 species, 42.86% were preferred as fuel wood, 7.14% as leaf fodder and 28.57% as both (Table 6). During the initial survey in October 1996, 23.61% trees were found to have cut signs. By December 1997, of the total trees in each site, 21.05%
Fig. 5. Species preferred at temporary huts.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
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Fig. 6. Species preferred at village. Table 5 Trees lopped at different sites between October 1996 and December 1997a Location
Total trees
Near villages Least disturbed site Near Chhans
361 (35.96) 352 (35.06) 291 (28.98)
Total a
Number of species
1004 (100)
Trees lopped/cut between October 1996 and December 1997
31 21 14
76 (21.05) 43 (12.22) 74 (25.43)
40
193 (19.22)
Value in parenthesis represent % of the total.
were found cut near villages, 25.43% near temporary huts and 12.22% in the least disturbed site (Table 5). Most of the trees found cut were of the preferred species. There was a spatio-temporal variation in resource extraction at the two settlements. At villages, maximum biomass was extracted during winter season (11.36%) whereas at temporary huts maximum extraction was during rainy season (22.34%) (Fig. 7). This could be because during rainy season local people,
seasonal transhumants and trekkers depend on these forests for their biomass needs. On the other hand during winter season the area becomes inaccessible due to heavy snowfall. A positive correlation was
Table 6 Use of different species at two settlementsa Location
Villages Chhans a
Total Species
Number of species Fuel wood
Leaf fodder
Both
31 14
17 (54.84) 06 (42.86)
03 (9.68) 01 (7.14)
07 (22.58) 04 (28.57)
Value in parenthesis indicate % of total.
Fig. 7. Spatio-temporal variation in resource extraction.
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found between fuel wood species burnt and species lopped at forests near villages (r 0:36) and near temporary huts (r 0:94). The most intensively lopped tree was banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) near village and kharsu oak (Q. semecarpifolia) near temporary huts. 5. Discussion Transformation in the traditional lifestyle due to changing socio-economic conditions also leads to transition in the resource use. Patterns of resource and land use by human beings bring about alteration of the vegetation structure and composition. In the present study we have observed that one of the major causes of forest degradation is the expansion of agricultural land, intensi®cation of agriculture and increase in livestock population under the in¯uence of market economy coupled with transformed traditional practices. Almost all the villagers now go for the cultivation of cash crops such as potato, French bean and cucumber. Annually 24,000 m2 of areas under forest and scrub are converted to agricultural ®elds. Even the abandoned agricultural ®elds have been cultivated to maximise the yield. This has not only affected the current status of the forests around villages but would also in¯uence the succession and regeneration processes in the area. Due to the in¯uence of market economy, livestock composition has also altered. Earlier sheep and goats n 2343 composed more than 50% of the livestock (Anonymous, 1970) but now more than 60% of the livestock is composed of bovines and mules. The reason for this is the need of manure for ®elds and transportation of product to road head. An increased cattle to land ratio (8:1) has not only increased pressure on the available grazing grounds but has also increased the demands of lopped fodder from the forest. On the other hand a change in cropping pattern from traditional millets and cereals to potato and French bean has already reduced the availability of agricultural by-products as fodder. Therefore most of the requirements of fodder is now ful®lled from the surrounding forest. This has increased pressure on the forests leading to receding forest boundaries as has been observed in other parts of Himalaya (Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986). With the rise in human and livestock population, patterns of fuel wood and fodder consumption would
also become unsustainable in near future. Annual estimates of the fuel wood burnt (876 kg/capita) and fodder consumed (3.31 t/l.u.) for the present study is comparable with other studies done at Nepal (829 kg/capita/year) (Schmidt-Vogt, 1990) and Sikkim (3.59 t/cow/year) (Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996). This could be due to similar altitudinal range and pattern of resource use. Unlike traditional transhumance, present practice of nuclear transhumance increases the biomass consumption as the resources are used simultaneously at the two settlements. Total consumption of fuel wood, which should otherwise decrease during summer and rainy season, remains same or even increases due to ®rewood burnt at the temporary huts. Studies of Metz (1990) and SchmidtVogt (1990) which are comparable to the present study also reveal that fuel wood consumption at the high altitude temporary huts is greatest due to round the clock burning of fuel wood to keep the place warm. With an annual 3% rise in human population in the area, increased in¯ow of tourists and changed land use practices, the total fuel wood (1342.58 t/year) and fodder (19941.97 t/year) demand would also go up proportionally. This has been observed in the other parts of Himalaya (Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986) where changed lifestyle and commercialised economy has increased the demands for fuel wood (1003.75 kg/capita/year). Increased resource dependency on surrounding forests has affected the status of most preferred species. Available standing biomass, density and regeneration of most intensively lopped Quercus spp. near villages were quite low whereas diversity was high. The reason for this could be coming up of secondary species under lopped oak canopy. At temporary huts, higher biomass of Q. semecarpifolia, which was most intensively lopped, was observed due to old trees still standing and contributing large amount of biomass. However, data on regeneration revealed low number of saplings and seedlings per hectare near temporary huts. This could be due to harsh climatic conditions, germination failure of Q. semecarpifolia under its own canopy and repeated lopping of trees during May±September which is the time for ¯owering and pollination of oaks (Troup, 1921). Repeated lopping of standing trees along with the poor regeneration not only checks the growth of the trees and affects the available biomass but also favours growth of thorny
Parameter
Present study (1996±97), Uttarkashia
Saxena and Singh (1982), Kumaun
Upreti et al. (1985), Kumauna
Rao et al. (1990), Meghalayaa
Adhikari et al. (1995), Kumaun
Singh et al. (1995), Corbett NP
Sundriyal and Sharma (1996), Sikkima
Metz (1997), Nepal
Altitude (m) Density (trees/ha) Biomass (t/ha) Regeneration (No./ha) Diversity (H0 ) Remarks
1700±3400 312±497 141±478 47±241
1200±2523 420±1300 NA NA
1200±2400 NA NA NA
1500±1955 12±453.3 NA 4±892
2300±2650 280±480 502±590 20±300
250±1100 180±860 NA 90±8591
1350±2550 536±756 385±683 1267±6726
2400±2900 408±650 NA 624±72000
1.1±1.9 High diversity, low standing biomass and lack of regeneration at disturbed sites (lower elevation)
0±2.95 Comparable to the present study because of maximum tree diversity and least regeneration at lowest elevation and maximum at mid-elevation
0.52±2.58 Comparable to the present study because of poor regeneration at lower altitude disturbed site
0.6±1 Regeneration of secondary species at disturbed sites is comparable to present study
NA Standing biomass and density of timberline species is comparable to present study
1.8±3.6 Species composition and diversity different due to altitude variation
3.7±4.6 High species diversity and lack of regeneration of canopy species in disturbed sites. Higher biomass due to abundance of big trees is also comparable
7±13 Higher tree and sapling density at little disturbed temperate forests compared to the present study
a
Studies carried along altitudinal/disturbance gradient. NA: not available.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Table 7 A comparative account of present study with other studies
23
24
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
and unpalatable species (Upreti et al., 1985; Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986; Singh and Singh, 1991) further degrading the fragile mountain ecosystem. A comparative account of availability of forest resources in the present study area with various other studies is presented in Table 7. 6. Conclusion With trends of unsustainable resource harvesting prevalent in the present area, within next few decades the forests in the vicinity of permanent villages and temporary huts would be used up completely. The unavailability of preferred species near settlements would force people to disperse to relatively undisturbed mid-elevation forests. On the other hand increasing number of trekkers accompanied with summer migration of villagers and transhumants (Gujjars) in the sub-alpine and alpine areas would degrade high altitude forests resulting in the lowering of timberline. Thus, increased and unsustainable land use practices and human activities at lower (1600±2200 m) and higher elevation forests (>2700 m), is likely to shrink relatively undisturbed mid-elevation forest. Acknowledgements We are highly grateful to Shri S.K. Mukherjee, Director Wildlife Institute of India for providing necessary facilities and funds. Thanks are due to Shri Upendra Singh Rana and Shri Brijmohan Panwar for helping us in the ®eld. We would also like to thank two unknown referees for their useful comments and suggestions. References Adhikari, B.S., Rawat, Y.S., Singh, S.P., 1995. Structure and function of high altitude forests of central Himalaya I. Dry matter dynamics. Ann. Bot. 75, 237±248. Anonymous, 1970. Livestock census. Records of Veterinary Department, District Uttarkashi. Champion, H.G., Seth, S.K., 1968. A revised survey of forest types of India, GOI Delhi, 404 pp. Clarke, R., 1986. The handbook of ecological monitoring. Gems/ UNEP, Oxford, 298 pp.
Farooquee, N.A., 1992. Nuclear transhumanceÐa practice at the interphase of sedentarism and transhumance. In: Chadha (Ed.), Environmental Degradation in India. Vinod Publishers, Jammu, pp. 83±96. Magurran, A.E., 1988. Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Croom Helm Limited, London, 179 pp. Metz, J.J., 1990. Conservation practices at an upper-elevation village of west Nepal. Mt. Res. Dev. 10 (1), 7±15. Metz, J.J., 1997. Vegetation dynamics of several little disturbed temperate forests in east central Nepal. Mt. Res. Dev. 17 (4), 333±351. Misra, R., 1973. Ecology Workbook. Oxford & IBH, Calcutta, 244 pp. Moench, M., Bandhyopadhyay, J., 1986. People-forest interaction: a neglected parameter in Himalayan forest management. Mt. Res. Dev. 6 (1), 3±16. Patton, M.Q., 1981. How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. Sage, New Delhi, 176 pp. Rao, P., Barik, S.K., Pandey, H.N., Tripathi, R.S., 1990. Community composition and tree population structure in a sub-tropical broad-leaved forest along a disturbance gradient. Vegetatio 88, 157±162. Ravindranath, S., Premnath, S., 1997. Biomass studies. Field Methods for Monitoring Biomass. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, 206 pp. Sale, J.B., Berkmuller, K., 1988. Manual of Wildlife Techniques for India. WII and FAO, Dehradun. Saxena, A.K., Singh, J.S., 1982. A phytosociological analysis of woody species in forest communities of a part of Kumaun Himalaya. Vegetatio 50, 3±22. Schmidt-Vogt, D., 1990. High altitude forests in the Jugal Himal. Eastern-Central Nepal: Forest Types and Human Impact. Franz Steinar Verlag, Sfuftgart, 210 pp. Singh, T.V., 1983. Tourism in the Himalaya how much is not too much. In: Singh, Kaur (Eds.), Studies in Eco-Development. Himalaya Mountain and Men. Printhouse, Lucknow, pp. 427± 452. Singh, S.P., Singh, J.S., 1991. Analytical conceptual plan to reforest central Himalaya for sustainable development. Environ. Manage. 15 (3), 369±379. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., 1992. Forests of Himalaya. Structure, Functioning and Impact of Man. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, 294 pp. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., Ram, J., 1986. Fuelwood and fodder resources of central Himalaya. Technical Report, Planning Commission, GOI, New Delhi. Singh, A., Reddy, V.S., Singh, J.S., 1995. Analysis of woody vegetation of Corbett National park, India. Vegetatio 120, 69± 79. Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., 1996. Anthropogenic pressure on tree structure and biomass in the temperate forest of mamley watershed in Sikkim. For. Ecol. Manage. 81 (1±3), 113±134. Troup, R.S., 1921. The Silviculture of Indian Trees, Vol. III. International Book Distributors, Dehradun, pp. 785±1195. Upreti, N., Tewari, J.C., Singh, S.P., 1985. The oak forests of the Kumaun Himalaya (India): composition, diversity and regeneration. Mt. Res. Dev. 5 (2), 163±174.
Forest resource availability and its use by the migratory villages of Uttarkashi, Garhwal Himalaya (India) Anjali Awasthi*, Sanjay Kr. Uniyal, Gopal S. Rawat, Asha Rajvanshi Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248001 (UP), India Received 30 June 2000; received in revised form 15 October 2001; accepted 18 December 2001
Abstract Recognising the ecological importance of Himalayan forests in terms of their intrinsic values as life support system for the local people and as repository of regional biodiversity, the present study was conducted. It aimed at assessing the status of available forest resources, current levels of pressure on them and sustainability of current land use practices in a part of district Uttarkashi in Garhwal Himalaya. We quanti®ed available standing biomass, regeneration and population of highly preferred species and their consumption patterns. The study revealed a spatio-temporal variation in resource extraction. The standing biomass of preferred woody species at low altitude permanent villages and high altitude summer camping sites (Kharaks) were 140:68 26:91 and 477:46 31:8 t/ha, respectively. Average fuel wood consumption per household at permanent villages was 14:65 0:78 kg/day whereas consumption per temporary hut (Chhans) at camping sites was 36:42 3:35 kg/day. Higher per capita consumption of fuel wood in the camping sites due to seasonal migration of local as well as transhumants locally known as Gujjars had put immense pressure on sub-alpine forests. An increase in the demands for natural resources was noticed due to an augmented in¯ux of tourists, which would further lead to the degradation of already scarce resources in the sub-alpine areas. Thus increased resource extraction from the low as well as high altitude forests simultaneously, may not be sustainable in the long run. In near future this might affect the status of the undisturbed forest at middle elevation, which has relatively high available biomass and regeneration capacity. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Biomass; Disturbance; Fuel wood; Migration; Himalaya
1. Introduction The climax forests of the Western Himalaya are characterised by the dominance of one or the other species of oak (Quercus spp.). These forests are not only intricately associated with the hydrological balance but also form the life support system for the local inhabitants (Singh and Singh, 1992). The sustainability of these forests depends greatly on their productivity, *
Corresponding author. Tel.: 91-0135-640112/640115; fax: 91-0135-640117. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Awasthi).
resilience and the human activities. Traditionally people have been using and managing these resources in a sustainable manner, however, since past few decades changes have been observed in the traditional land use practices due to the construction of roads and in¯uence of market forces. One such practice in¯uenced by the changing socio-economic conditions is the nomadic pastoralism. This practice once represented an example of spatio-temporal resource use, which is gradually transforming to nuclear transhumance, i.e., migration by only one or two persons per family (Farooquee, 1992). This leads to simultaneous resource use at permanent as well as temporary huts creating large
0378-1127/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 1 1 2 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 2 6 - 9
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A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
``blanks'' in the forests (Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986; Singh and Singh, 1991). Besides, the in¯ux of tourists has also increased in many parts of the Himalaya, which has not only increased the number of newly constructed hotels and lodges but has also increased the resource dependency on surrounding forests (Singh, 1983). In this paper we present a case study from Garhwal Himalaya which deals with the changing lifestyle of local people, patterns of biomass utilisation, and its conservation implications. 2. Study area The study area lies in district Uttarkashi, which is located between 388280 to 318280 N latitude and 778490 to 798250 E longitude. District Uttarkashi covers an area of 8016 km2. The terrain is mountainous consisting of high hill ranges, plateaus and narrow valleys. The climate of the district varies according to the altitude and aspect and is temperate monsoonal type. The district lies in the upper catchment of two great rivers of India viz, Ganges (called Bhagirathi towards upstream) and the Yamuna. Some of the tributaries of these rivers include Jadhganga, Jalandhari, Pilangana, Duggada, and Assiganga. Of these, the watershed of one rivulet (Duggada) with an altitudinal range 1600± 3400 m was selected for the present study (Fig. 1). The major vegetation types of the study area are Himalayan moist temperate forest, sub-alpine forest and alpine scrub (Champion and Seth, 1968). There are one resident and three migratory villages dependent on these forests for their basic requirements of fuel and fodder. Broad land use categories of the area include permanent settlements (villages), irrigated and rainfed agricultural ®elds, scrub land, mixed broad leaf forests, sub-alpine oak-®r forest, summer camping sites and alpine meadows locally known as ``Kharaks'' and ``bugyals'', respectively. The seasonal transhumants (Gujjars), pilgrims to famous hindu shrines at Gangotri and Kedarnath and trekkers use these forest resources exclusively during summer and rainy seasons whereas the locals use them throughout the year. 3. Methods The present study was undertaken during July 1996±January 1998. To assess availability of woody
species, vegetation parameters were quanti®ed in 1 ha plots n 62 marked at an interval of 100 m elevation using 10 m 10 m quadrats n 10 (Misra, 1973). Data were collected on species, number of individuals of woody plants, their GBH (1.37 m above the ground), height and canopy cover. Diversity and above ground biomass of the three sites were calculated using the Shannon±Wiener diversity index (Magurran, 1988): H0 SPi ln Pi , where H0 is the diversity, Pi the proportion of individuals of ith species and regression equation (Singh and Singh, 1992; Adhikari et al., 1995), respectively: ln Y a b ln X, X, where Y is the dry weight of the component, X the DBH (cm), a the Y intercept, b the slope or regression coef®cient, and ln the natural log. A door-to-door survey was conducted in the four villages (n 229 households) of the study area to illicit information on socio-economic status, land use and resource use pattern. Structured questionnaires (Patton, 1981; Clarke, 1986) were used to interview members of the each household. Based on the initial survey, 20% of the households were selected randomly for monthly monitoring of biomass (fuel wood and fodder) consumption. There were seven summer camping sites (Kharaks) in the alpine meadows of which, four were selected for the present study. In these four summer camping sites, there were a total of 80 temporary huts (Chhans) of which 34 temporary huts were selected randomly for quantifying biomass use. Biomass consumption was quanti®ed using the displacement method (Ravindranath and Premnath, 1997). Parameters selected for biomass estimation included species, weight, and composition of fodder fed, species, weight and size (length (L) and circumference at base, CAB) of the fuel wood burnt were also recorded. For fodder consumption one sheep equivalent was de®ned as one livestock unit (Singh et al., 1986). To assess the biotic pressure on forest, three different sites viz, near villages, near temporary huts and least disturbed sites were identi®ed and in each site three trails of 3 km each were laid. In each trail, belt transects n 60 of 30 m 5 m were marked permanently at every 150 m following Sale and Berkmuller (1988). These belts were monitored on a monthly basis for 1 year and parameters such as number and GBH (1.37 m above ground) of cut and lopped trees were noted.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
15
Fig. 1. Map of the study area.
4. Results 4.1. Resource availability The density (individuals per hectare) of preferred (for fuel wood and fodder) woody species was least near village (311:34 11:44) located at the lower altitudes and highest in the middle elevation least disturbed site (496:99 10:37). Diversity (H0 ) of woody species was (1.6) in the least disturbed sites whereas it was maximum (1.9) near villages and minimum (1.1) near temporary huts situated in the
sub-alpine and alpine camping sites. The available aboveground woody biomass of preferred species was maximum near temporary huts (477:5 52:25 t/ha) whereas minimum near village (140:68 7:14 t/ha) (Table 1). 4.2. Resource use There were 229 families in the study area of which 160 were migratory. A general pro®le of the area prepared on the basis of door-to-door survey (Table 2) revealed that the study area had a total
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A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Table 1 Density, biomass and regeneration of preferred species at three sites Species
Density (No./ha) a
V
Biomass (t/ha)
b
c
C
d
Regeneration (No./ha)
LD
V
C
LD
V
C
LD
Cedrus deodara Pinus roxburghii Q. leucotrichophora Lyonia ovalifolia Rhododendron arboreum Litsea spp. Symplocos chinensis Aesculus indica Quercus floribunda Abies pindrow Ilex dipyrena Quercus semecarpofolia Juglans regia
97.04 57.06 63.6 50.4 6.6 29.1 7 0.2 0.34 NA NA NA NA
NA NA NA NA 14 NA 1 1 5 78 1 297 NA
8.12 NA 93.25 34 54.75 8.75 21 55.12 122 50.75 11.5 16.75 21
58.02 53.41 22.9 6.2 7.1 2.6 0.3 0.04 0.12 NA NA NA NA
NA NA NA NA 1.8 NA 0.04 1.5 5.4 NA 0.04 371 NA
1.9 NA 33.25 4.2 7.9 0.4 0.65 78.3 141.3 64.11 0.6 32.9 12.32
NA NA 71.62 37.74 24.11 NA NA NA 0 NA NA NA NA
NA NA NA NA 26.6 NA NA 0 0 NA 0 19.99 NA
NA NA 7.85 0.7 98.14 NA NA NA 118.96 NA NA 15.71 NA
Total
311.34
397
496.9
140.68
477.48
377.73
133.47
46.59
241.36
a
Near villages. Near Chhans. c Least disturbed site. d Not available. b
Table 2 A general pro®le of the study villagesa Parameter
Villages of the study area Saura
Saari
Saalu
Syaba
Altitude (m) Distance from motor road (km) School Temporary settlements (No.) Migratory distance (km) Households (No.) Population (No.) Literate (No.)
1700 2 P 0 0 69 580 162
2100 3.5 P 40 12 65 390 79
2000 4 P 31 15 30 200 79
2300 8 P 49 9 65 325 90
Occupation (No. of households) Agriculture daily wages Agriculture service Agriculture business Livestock population (No.)
51 8 10 300
57 6 2 312
28 2 0 253
60 2 3 403
Fuel use (No. of households) LPG Kerosene Firewood Income (Rs.)/capita
8 0 69 1249.52
1 0 65 1115.64
1 0 30 873.33
0 0 65 1079.23
Landholding (ha)
133.76
483.663
180.274
190.115
a
P: present.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
human population of 1495. Primary occupation of the people was agriculture (85.59%). In the kharif season (April±November) irrigated land was devoted to paddy cultivation whereas in rainfed land, potato cultivation was given priority (406:44 175:85 quintals per year per village). Three agricultural ®elds' (each of ca. 40 m 50 m) per year per village were added after clearing the forest or abandoned land (personal observations) to grow potato, soybean or French beans. Interviews with the local people revealed that till last decade, 96.51% n 221 families grew indigenous crops such as amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), millet (Oplismenus frumentaceus Link.), kodu or ®nger millet (Eleusine coracona Linn.), cheena (Panicum miliaceum Linn.), phaphara or buck wheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Goertn.) and bhatt (Glycine soja Sieb.). Now only 48.47% n 111 of the families cultivate these crops that too in low proportion. All the villagers preferred to grow cash yielding crops such as potato, French beans and soybean. This has not only affected the traditional knowledge of people and genetic diversity of crops but has also put additional pressure on the surrounding forests. Livestock (n 1268, where n is number of livestock) were kept basically for draught power and manure. Livestock comprised mainly of buffaloes, cows, oxen and mules. Very few families own sheep and goats now. Change in livestock numbers and composition has also increased the demands of lopped fodder and grazing grounds, which has further deteriorated the regeneration of preferred species. The seasonal calendar (Fig. 2) of various activities revealed that the villagers were involved in two interrelated activities viz, extraction of biomass from forests and agriculture. Three villages follow nuclear transhumance to the summer camping sites with their livestock. At permanent villages as well as camping sites, villagers depend on the forests for their basic needs of fuel, fodder, leaf-litter and non-timber forest products (NTFPs). There was a seasonal variation in the nature of resources extracted from the forest. Firewood being the major source of fuel was extracted throughout the year whereas lopping for leaf fodder mostly occurred during months of February±May and leaf-litter was collected during winter season when cattle were kept in the sheds. Extraction of bamboo (Arundinaria falcata) culms occurred during the
17
months of April±July when it was required for supporting French bean seedlings. There was a spatio-temporal variation in fuel wood and fodder extraction. At permanent villages, fuel wood was either cut directly from the forest or dead wood of any kind was collected. Fuel wood consumption at permanent villages varied signi®cantly with the season (1-way ANOVA, F-value 7:16, ***p < 0:001, n 4). It was maximum during winter (20:18 0:44 kg/day/h.hold) and least in the summer (9:86 0:83 kg/day/h.hold). Whereas at temporary huts the fuel wood consumption was restricted between April and September, but due to low temperature at higher elevations fuel wood burnt was quite high when compared to permanent villages (Fig. 3). Also a signi®cant difference in the size (L and CAB) of the fuel wood burnt at two settlements was found. At village medium sized branches (CAB standard error S:E: 14:93 0:7 cm, L 83:78 3:45 cm) from full canopy trees were mainly lopped whereas at summer camping sites, along with one or two thick branch (CAB 25:77 3:68 cm, L 315:55 66:54 cm), few loads of medium size branches (CAB 16:30 2:1 cm, L 91:45 6:07 cm) were also burnt. At permanent villages where most of the livestock remained from October to April, they were strictly stall-fed during the periods of snowfall else stallfeeding was accompanied with grazing. Fodder demands were basically ful®lled through leaf fodder, agricultural by-products and grass fodder (green and dried). There was a seasonal variation in the type of fodder fed. Agricultural by-products constituted the major feed in winter while leaf fodder lopped from nearby forest was fed during summer (Table 3). There was a variety of leaf fodder species available around the villages. The most preferred leaf fodder species are shown in Table 4. At summer camping sites, most of the time animals were left free for grazing. Only calves and milk cows were stall-fed. This greatly reduced the demand (7:91 0:66 kg/day/l.u.). Consumption of leaf fodder per livestock unit varied signi®cantly at the two settlements in the rainy season (Fig. 4). Along with the local villagers, ca. 1000 families of seasonal migrants (Gujjars) from the foothills of Himalaya also visit the sub-alpine and alpine areas during summer±rainy season. They too utilise an average of 43 kg/day of fuel wood and 1.5 kg/l.u./day
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Fig. 2. Seasonal calendar of villagers activities.
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A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
19
Fig. 3. Per capita fuel wood consumption at two settlements in rainy season. Table 3 Seasonal variation in fodder composition at villages Fodder type (kg/l.u.a/day)
Summer n 4
Rainy n 4
Winter n 4
Leaf fodder Agriculture by-product Grass fodder
11.81 2.8b 0.9 0.42
1.94 1.04 4.13 1.7
5.54 1.25 9.49 1
1.7 0.59
0.39 0.16
5.36 0.62
a b
Livestock unit. S.E.
of lopped fodder. With an average of four families coming to the study area, the total demand per day becomes 172 kg. Similarly with an average of 128 l.u. in a family the total livestock unit becomes 512 and Table 4 Species preferred as leaf fodder at two settlements Villages
Chhans (temporary huts)
Q. leucotrichophora Q. floribunda Q. semecarpifolia Carpinus viminea Debregeasia longifolia Ulmus wallichiana Desmodium sp. A. falcata Swida macrophylla Acer spp.
Q. semecarpifolia Q. floribunda Thamnocalamus sp. Acer spp.
total consumption of lopped fodder becomes 768 kg/ day. They also depend on the surrounding forest for their biomass needs. After the construction of road to Gangotri in 1960's and opening up of Garhwal for tourism in 1970's, the in¯ux of tourists has gone up with ca. 10,000 domestic and international tourists coming to the valley seasonally. Around 20% of the total tourists also trek to surrounding nature trails and depend on the surrounding forests for their fuel wood needs. A party of ®ve people on an average burns 20 kg/day of fuel wood. Indirect impacts on forests are also on rise due to increased tourism. Every year there is an increase in the number of temporary huts/hotels (ca. 1±2) in the sensitive sub-alpine zone. These hotels are constructed from logs/planks of wood cut from the surrounding forests. Fuel wood burnt in these hotels is quite high (35 kg/day). It also varies with the weather conditions and number of tourists. There was a spatial difference in the composition of fuel wood and fodder species consumed. At lower altitudes, there was a choice of species available as fuel wood and fodder whereas at sub-alpine areas, where Quercus semecarpifolia±Abies forms the timberline, the choice was limited. Therefore due to its burning and heating quality Q. semecarpifolia was the most preferred fuel wood species (Figs. 5 and 6). Q. semecarpifolia was also preferred as leaf fodder at
20
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
Fig. 4. Leaf fodder consumption at two settlements expressed as per livestock unit.
temporary huts followed by Thamnocalamus sp. and Q. ¯oribunda (Table 4). Repeated lopping and cutting of preferred species has in¯uenced their standing biomass and regeneration. 4.3. Assessment of biotic pressure During the initial survey (October 1996), a total of 1004 woody plants representing 40 species were marked in total 180 belt transects. Of the total trees,
35.96% were found near villages, 28.98% near temporary huts and 35.06% in least disturbed sites (Table 5). Near villages, of the total 31 species, 54.84% were preferred as fuel wood, 9.68% as leaf fodder and 22.58% as both whereas near temporary huts of the total 14 species, 42.86% were preferred as fuel wood, 7.14% as leaf fodder and 28.57% as both (Table 6). During the initial survey in October 1996, 23.61% trees were found to have cut signs. By December 1997, of the total trees in each site, 21.05%
Fig. 5. Species preferred at temporary huts.
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
21
Fig. 6. Species preferred at village. Table 5 Trees lopped at different sites between October 1996 and December 1997a Location
Total trees
Near villages Least disturbed site Near Chhans
361 (35.96) 352 (35.06) 291 (28.98)
Total a
Number of species
1004 (100)
Trees lopped/cut between October 1996 and December 1997
31 21 14
76 (21.05) 43 (12.22) 74 (25.43)
40
193 (19.22)
Value in parenthesis represent % of the total.
were found cut near villages, 25.43% near temporary huts and 12.22% in the least disturbed site (Table 5). Most of the trees found cut were of the preferred species. There was a spatio-temporal variation in resource extraction at the two settlements. At villages, maximum biomass was extracted during winter season (11.36%) whereas at temporary huts maximum extraction was during rainy season (22.34%) (Fig. 7). This could be because during rainy season local people,
seasonal transhumants and trekkers depend on these forests for their biomass needs. On the other hand during winter season the area becomes inaccessible due to heavy snowfall. A positive correlation was
Table 6 Use of different species at two settlementsa Location
Villages Chhans a
Total Species
Number of species Fuel wood
Leaf fodder
Both
31 14
17 (54.84) 06 (42.86)
03 (9.68) 01 (7.14)
07 (22.58) 04 (28.57)
Value in parenthesis indicate % of total.
Fig. 7. Spatio-temporal variation in resource extraction.
22
A. Awasthi et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 174 (2003) 13±24
found between fuel wood species burnt and species lopped at forests near villages (r 0:36) and near temporary huts (r 0:94). The most intensively lopped tree was banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora) near village and kharsu oak (Q. semecarpifolia) near temporary huts. 5. Discussion Transformation in the traditional lifestyle due to changing socio-economic conditions also leads to transition in the resource use. Patterns of resource and land use by human beings bring about alteration of the vegetation structure and composition. In the present study we have observed that one of the major causes of forest degradation is the expansion of agricultural land, intensi®cation of agriculture and increase in livestock population under the in¯uence of market economy coupled with transformed traditional practices. Almost all the villagers now go for the cultivation of cash crops such as potato, French bean and cucumber. Annually 24,000 m2 of areas under forest and scrub are converted to agricultural ®elds. Even the abandoned agricultural ®elds have been cultivated to maximise the yield. This has not only affected the current status of the forests around villages but would also in¯uence the succession and regeneration processes in the area. Due to the in¯uence of market economy, livestock composition has also altered. Earlier sheep and goats n 2343 composed more than 50% of the livestock (Anonymous, 1970) but now more than 60% of the livestock is composed of bovines and mules. The reason for this is the need of manure for ®elds and transportation of product to road head. An increased cattle to land ratio (8:1) has not only increased pressure on the available grazing grounds but has also increased the demands of lopped fodder from the forest. On the other hand a change in cropping pattern from traditional millets and cereals to potato and French bean has already reduced the availability of agricultural by-products as fodder. Therefore most of the requirements of fodder is now ful®lled from the surrounding forest. This has increased pressure on the forests leading to receding forest boundaries as has been observed in other parts of Himalaya (Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986). With the rise in human and livestock population, patterns of fuel wood and fodder consumption would
also become unsustainable in near future. Annual estimates of the fuel wood burnt (876 kg/capita) and fodder consumed (3.31 t/l.u.) for the present study is comparable with other studies done at Nepal (829 kg/capita/year) (Schmidt-Vogt, 1990) and Sikkim (3.59 t/cow/year) (Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996). This could be due to similar altitudinal range and pattern of resource use. Unlike traditional transhumance, present practice of nuclear transhumance increases the biomass consumption as the resources are used simultaneously at the two settlements. Total consumption of fuel wood, which should otherwise decrease during summer and rainy season, remains same or even increases due to ®rewood burnt at the temporary huts. Studies of Metz (1990) and SchmidtVogt (1990) which are comparable to the present study also reveal that fuel wood consumption at the high altitude temporary huts is greatest due to round the clock burning of fuel wood to keep the place warm. With an annual 3% rise in human population in the area, increased in¯ow of tourists and changed land use practices, the total fuel wood (1342.58 t/year) and fodder (19941.97 t/year) demand would also go up proportionally. This has been observed in the other parts of Himalaya (Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986) where changed lifestyle and commercialised economy has increased the demands for fuel wood (1003.75 kg/capita/year). Increased resource dependency on surrounding forests has affected the status of most preferred species. Available standing biomass, density and regeneration of most intensively lopped Quercus spp. near villages were quite low whereas diversity was high. The reason for this could be coming up of secondary species under lopped oak canopy. At temporary huts, higher biomass of Q. semecarpifolia, which was most intensively lopped, was observed due to old trees still standing and contributing large amount of biomass. However, data on regeneration revealed low number of saplings and seedlings per hectare near temporary huts. This could be due to harsh climatic conditions, germination failure of Q. semecarpifolia under its own canopy and repeated lopping of trees during May±September which is the time for ¯owering and pollination of oaks (Troup, 1921). Repeated lopping of standing trees along with the poor regeneration not only checks the growth of the trees and affects the available biomass but also favours growth of thorny
Parameter
Present study (1996±97), Uttarkashia
Saxena and Singh (1982), Kumaun
Upreti et al. (1985), Kumauna
Rao et al. (1990), Meghalayaa
Adhikari et al. (1995), Kumaun
Singh et al. (1995), Corbett NP
Sundriyal and Sharma (1996), Sikkima
Metz (1997), Nepal
Altitude (m) Density (trees/ha) Biomass (t/ha) Regeneration (No./ha) Diversity (H0 ) Remarks
1700±3400 312±497 141±478 47±241
1200±2523 420±1300 NA NA
1200±2400 NA NA NA
1500±1955 12±453.3 NA 4±892
2300±2650 280±480 502±590 20±300
250±1100 180±860 NA 90±8591
1350±2550 536±756 385±683 1267±6726
2400±2900 408±650 NA 624±72000
1.1±1.9 High diversity, low standing biomass and lack of regeneration at disturbed sites (lower elevation)
0±2.95 Comparable to the present study because of maximum tree diversity and least regeneration at lowest elevation and maximum at mid-elevation
0.52±2.58 Comparable to the present study because of poor regeneration at lower altitude disturbed site
0.6±1 Regeneration of secondary species at disturbed sites is comparable to present study
NA Standing biomass and density of timberline species is comparable to present study
1.8±3.6 Species composition and diversity different due to altitude variation
3.7±4.6 High species diversity and lack of regeneration of canopy species in disturbed sites. Higher biomass due to abundance of big trees is also comparable
7±13 Higher tree and sapling density at little disturbed temperate forests compared to the present study
a
Studies carried along altitudinal/disturbance gradient. NA: not available.
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Table 7 A comparative account of present study with other studies
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and unpalatable species (Upreti et al., 1985; Moench and Bandhyopadhyay, 1986; Singh and Singh, 1991) further degrading the fragile mountain ecosystem. A comparative account of availability of forest resources in the present study area with various other studies is presented in Table 7. 6. Conclusion With trends of unsustainable resource harvesting prevalent in the present area, within next few decades the forests in the vicinity of permanent villages and temporary huts would be used up completely. The unavailability of preferred species near settlements would force people to disperse to relatively undisturbed mid-elevation forests. On the other hand increasing number of trekkers accompanied with summer migration of villagers and transhumants (Gujjars) in the sub-alpine and alpine areas would degrade high altitude forests resulting in the lowering of timberline. Thus, increased and unsustainable land use practices and human activities at lower (1600±2200 m) and higher elevation forests (>2700 m), is likely to shrink relatively undisturbed mid-elevation forest. Acknowledgements We are highly grateful to Shri S.K. Mukherjee, Director Wildlife Institute of India for providing necessary facilities and funds. Thanks are due to Shri Upendra Singh Rana and Shri Brijmohan Panwar for helping us in the ®eld. We would also like to thank two unknown referees for their useful comments and suggestions. References Adhikari, B.S., Rawat, Y.S., Singh, S.P., 1995. Structure and function of high altitude forests of central Himalaya I. Dry matter dynamics. Ann. Bot. 75, 237±248. Anonymous, 1970. Livestock census. Records of Veterinary Department, District Uttarkashi. Champion, H.G., Seth, S.K., 1968. A revised survey of forest types of India, GOI Delhi, 404 pp. Clarke, R., 1986. The handbook of ecological monitoring. Gems/ UNEP, Oxford, 298 pp.
Farooquee, N.A., 1992. Nuclear transhumanceÐa practice at the interphase of sedentarism and transhumance. In: Chadha (Ed.), Environmental Degradation in India. Vinod Publishers, Jammu, pp. 83±96. Magurran, A.E., 1988. Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Croom Helm Limited, London, 179 pp. Metz, J.J., 1990. Conservation practices at an upper-elevation village of west Nepal. Mt. Res. Dev. 10 (1), 7±15. Metz, J.J., 1997. Vegetation dynamics of several little disturbed temperate forests in east central Nepal. Mt. Res. Dev. 17 (4), 333±351. Misra, R., 1973. Ecology Workbook. Oxford & IBH, Calcutta, 244 pp. Moench, M., Bandhyopadhyay, J., 1986. People-forest interaction: a neglected parameter in Himalayan forest management. Mt. Res. Dev. 6 (1), 3±16. Patton, M.Q., 1981. How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. Sage, New Delhi, 176 pp. Rao, P., Barik, S.K., Pandey, H.N., Tripathi, R.S., 1990. Community composition and tree population structure in a sub-tropical broad-leaved forest along a disturbance gradient. Vegetatio 88, 157±162. Ravindranath, S., Premnath, S., 1997. Biomass studies. Field Methods for Monitoring Biomass. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi, 206 pp. Sale, J.B., Berkmuller, K., 1988. Manual of Wildlife Techniques for India. WII and FAO, Dehradun. Saxena, A.K., Singh, J.S., 1982. A phytosociological analysis of woody species in forest communities of a part of Kumaun Himalaya. Vegetatio 50, 3±22. Schmidt-Vogt, D., 1990. High altitude forests in the Jugal Himal. Eastern-Central Nepal: Forest Types and Human Impact. Franz Steinar Verlag, Sfuftgart, 210 pp. Singh, T.V., 1983. Tourism in the Himalaya how much is not too much. In: Singh, Kaur (Eds.), Studies in Eco-Development. Himalaya Mountain and Men. Printhouse, Lucknow, pp. 427± 452. Singh, S.P., Singh, J.S., 1991. Analytical conceptual plan to reforest central Himalaya for sustainable development. Environ. Manage. 15 (3), 369±379. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., 1992. Forests of Himalaya. Structure, Functioning and Impact of Man. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, 294 pp. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., Ram, J., 1986. Fuelwood and fodder resources of central Himalaya. Technical Report, Planning Commission, GOI, New Delhi. Singh, A., Reddy, V.S., Singh, J.S., 1995. Analysis of woody vegetation of Corbett National park, India. Vegetatio 120, 69± 79. Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., 1996. Anthropogenic pressure on tree structure and biomass in the temperate forest of mamley watershed in Sikkim. For. Ecol. Manage. 81 (1±3), 113±134. Troup, R.S., 1921. The Silviculture of Indian Trees, Vol. III. International Book Distributors, Dehradun, pp. 785±1195. Upreti, N., Tewari, J.C., Singh, S.P., 1985. The oak forests of the Kumaun Himalaya (India): composition, diversity and regeneration. Mt. Res. Dev. 5 (2), 163±174.