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Framework for Assessment of Oil Spill Site Remediation options in Developing Countries a Life Cycle Perspective.
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29th International Conference on Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 29th International Conference on Flexible and Intelligent (FAIM2019), June 24-28, Automation 2019, Limerick, Ireland. Manufacturing (FAIM2019), June 24-28, 2019, Limerick, Ireland.
Framework Framework for for Assessment Assessment of of Oil Oil Spill Spill Site Site Remediation Remediation options options in in Developing Countries a Life Cycle Perspective. Developing Countries a Life Cycle Perspective. Obiageli Obiageli S. S. Ugwuoke Ugwuoke a,*, a,*, Chike Chike F F Oduoza Oduoza a, a, ** Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, WV1 1LY Wolverhampton, United Kingdom. Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, WV1 1LY Wolverhampton, United Kingdom.
Abstract Abstract One of the main issues faced by the oil and gas industry in developing countries is that of oil spill and its impacts on the socialOne of the main issues faced by the oil and gas industry in developing countries is that of oil spill and its impacts on the socialcultural, economic and environment. The adverse effects of oil spill on the environment as well as the socio-cultural life of the cultural, economic and environment. The adverse effects of oil spill on the environment as well as the socio-cultural life of the inhabitants in the affected areas make it mandatory for proactive management of oil spills. Oil spill contaminated sites inhabitants in the affected areas make it mandatory for proactive management of oil spills. Oil spill contaminated sites management in developing countries such as; (Venezuela, Libya, Iraq and Nigeria) suffers from a number of limitations: lack of a management in developing countries such as; (Venezuela, Libya, Iraq and Nigeria) suffers from a number of limitations: lack of a clear statutory definition for contaminated sites, life cycle assessment-based approach, inexperience, weak policy frameworks clear statutory definition for contaminated sites, life cycle assessment-based approach, inexperience, weak policy frameworks and limited funding. From the literature on oil spill contaminated sites management, there are different approaches adopted by and limited funding. From the literature on oil spill contaminated sites management, there are different approaches adopted by developed countries to improve the management process as well as the outcome of such processes. However, context specific developed countries to improve the management process as well as the outcome of such processes. However, context specific approaches are sometimes required for successful management decisions to promote efficient policy transfer. In this study we approaches are sometimes required for successful management decisions to promote efficient policy transfer. In this study we propose an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) that monitors and assesses the environmental impacts of oil spill and propose an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) that monitors and assesses the environmental impacts of oil spill and remediation processes applied on the case study environment (Nigeria) with a view to managing them sustainably. Life cycle remediation processes applied on the case study environment (Nigeria) with a view to managing them sustainably. Life cycle thinking approach has been identified as a decision-making tool for remediation of contaminated sites because it presents the thinking approach has been identified as a decision-making tool for remediation of contaminated sites because it presents the opportunity to take into consideration the inputs and outputs to the process of remediation, as well as the activities that take place opportunity to take into consideration the inputs and outputs to the process of remediation, as well as the activities that take place during the remediation process. This research developed a conceptual framework for oil spill sites remediation in the Nigerian. during the remediation process. This research developed a conceptual framework for oil spill sites remediation in the Nigerian. The framework can also be applied to similar oil spill sites whose methodology is currently underdeveloped. The framework can also be applied to similar oil spill sites whose methodology is currently underdeveloped. © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. © 2019 The Authors, by Elsevier B.V. This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V. Peer review under underresponsibility the responsibility the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing Peer-review of theof scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 (FAIM2019 2019) Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 Keywords: Life cycle assessment, Conceptual framework, Life cycle Management Keywords: Life cycle assessment, Conceptual framework, Life cycle Management
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 . * E-mail Corresponding Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 . address:author. [email protected] E-mail address: [email protected] 2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V. 2351-9789 2019the Theresponsibility Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V. of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 Peer review©under of the scientific committee Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019
2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 (FAIM 2019) 10.1016/j.promfg.2020.01.036
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1.1. Background, aim and scope Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been described as a good decision-making tool for government and enterprise concerned with choosing the best product, processes or service from an environmental point of view (Myriam Cadotte et al., 2007). Although, LCA approaches have been typically used for product-based systems, these approaches can be modified for new sectors where systematic consideration of environmental and human health burdens over a life cycle of an activity is required (diamond et al., 1999; Myriam Cadotte et al., 2007). LCA enables the estimation of the hot-spots that causes the most overall impact (Hauschild, 2009; ILCD, 2012; UNEP, 2009). LCA approaches are guided by ISO standards and have four components. Figure (1) shows the generic for life cycle assessment highlighting goal and scope definition, inventory analysis and impact assessment all interfacing with data interpretation and finally improvement of the process.
Figure 1: The framework of life cycle assessment according to ISO 14040 (ISO, 2006). The life cycle thinking provides the means to understand, access, manage and reduce the environmental impacts associated with a product, process or activity by considering all life-cycle stages, from ‘cradle to grave’ (Friedrich, E, et al., 2009). The use of this emerging approach is advancing into other sectors such as the industries for ecolabelling and government for environmental policies. The use of life cycle approach is expanding rapidly; however, this does not appear to be for developing countries (DEAT, 2004). However, the transfer of technology from the developed to the developing world has a bumpy history and is characterized by challenges (Massimo Pizzol, 2013). The use of LCA according to World Bank (2007), in developing and developed countries is still evolving since there is a lack of quality data, inadequate know-how on conduction of LCA and limited LCIA methodologies that address the most pressing environmental problems in these regions. This is in contrast to western countries that have the required skills, high-quality software in addition to good database inventory (World Bank, 2007). The implementation of LCA as a tool for managing environmental impacts is far from becoming a reality in these developing countries. The contextual issues in developing countries (e.g. access to education, health and social amenities) are a contributing factor to the less priority given to environmental issues. Existing challenges facing LCA in developing countries are the absence of a perceived need, lack of LCA expertise and know how, lack of funding (DEAT, 2004) and lack of appropriate data and methodologies (Massimo Pizzol, 2013). Research carried out in one of the developing countries confirmed that companies in developing countries are reluctant to circulate organization data due to issues related to confidentiality, trust and confidence in the ‘how’ and ‘where’ the data will be used (Naughton et al. 2017) This research developed a life cycle-based approach, life cycle framework (LCF), to examine the broader environmental and human health implications associated with oil spill remediation. The use of life cycle thinking approach in oil and gas processing environment can contribute significantly towards the development of practical,
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economic and sustainable action plans and programmes to address environmental burdens in remediation processes in oil producing countries. Climate change and other environmental threats such as (global warming, ecosystem quality, and ozone layer depletion) have received increasing attention in the last years. To address these threats, decision makers are beginning to integrate environmental considerations into the design of their products (Nilsson and Eckerberg, 2007). For example, the decision maker has shifted from traditional to “Green” products and the use of “Green” processes (Hauschild, 2009). Several companies are investigating ways to minimize their emission footprint causing environmental impacts, using pollution prevention strategies and environmental management systems. As far as the Nigerian oil and gas industry is concerned, there are several aspects of their activities that could be associated with environmental damage, degradation, and even risk of catastrophe. Contamination of total environment (air, soil, water, and biota) by hydrocarbon in the Niger Delta of Nigeria has become a paramount interest in the region. Previous studies have revealed variable impacts of oil toxicity on the environment and exposed populations. For instance, in 2011 the release of Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland report by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). This mounted local and international pressures for urgent clean-up and restoration of the degraded bio-resource rich environment of the Niger Delta, starting from Ogoniland. Integration of LCA approach into the activities of oil and gas sector will explore and assess the consequences of each of these activities on the environment across the region. 2.0. GLOBAL OIL SPILL INCIDENCE. Crude oil is the main global source of energy and the main stay of economies of oil producing nations. However, as the exploration and exploitation of crude oil continues to rise, there is a corresponding increase in environmental pollution due to these activities. Whilst the incidents of oil spill during oil company operations contribute to major oil spill incidents offshore and onshore, the use and distribution of crude oil around the world continues to pose a threat to the environment (Prendergast, 2014). Oil spillages occur during transportation of crude oil and refined products from the location of production to that of usage or processing. The risk of oil spillage during transportation is dependent on one of the factors such as the mode of transport, health and safety policies, training (Brachner, M and Hvattum, 2017). Oil spill can be described as a ‘discrete event in which oil is accidentally or, occasionally, intentionally released into an environmental media like water or land/soil over a relatively short duration’ (SchmidtEtkins 2011).’ Hence, oil leakages over a relatively longer duration and oil discharges during the course of operation (within the allowed limits by international and national regulators) of oil companies and subsidiaries is excluded from this definition as oil spills Whereas oil spill incidences are widely perceived as major environmental problems only, Burgher (2007) argues that another important problem of oil spill is the socio-economic impact. He went further to suggest that the magnitude of these impacts would most likely depend on certain factors; the amount of oil spilled, the rate of release of the oil into the environment, the type/property of the oil spilled, the location (considering the geographical, political and legal issues) of the spill, the proximity of the spill to sensitive receptors and the choice and effectiveness of remedial technique. Oil spills can occur from a variety of sources such as natural oil seeps, accidents during oil transportation, oil well blowouts, and collision of oil vessels, pipeline vandalism and mechanical/operational failures such as explosions at oil storage facilities (Burgherr 2007). Table (1) above gives the average yearly (1990-1999) contribution of spills from major petroleum sources in kilo tonnes per year (kt/yr) to marine water bodies worldwide. Table 1: Average yearly oil spills into water bodies’ worldwide (National Research Council 1985) Source of spill Natural seeps Petroleum extraction Spills from pipelines Spills from oil vessels Other spills during oil transportation Operational discharges Land-based spills All other spills
Volume of spill (kt/yr) 600 38 12 100 41 270 140 67
Percentage contribution (%) 47 3 1 8 3 21 11 6
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2.1. Nigeria Coastline and Oil Exploration The Nigerian coastline and the oil exploration activities it undertakes. It sets the tone for reviewing literature on the problems associated with oil exploration in the region. Nigeria (comprises) of an estimated population of about 170 million people as at 2017 according to the last census figure (OPEC, 2015), which is the largest country in Africa and accounts for 47% of West Africa population (World bank 2005), with 36 states as its administrative delineations and a federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja as indicated in Figure 1.0, (Anifowose et al.2011). Nigerian is a maritime state with a coastline of approximately 853km. it lies between 4o and 14o N, between 3o E in Western Africa (Nwilo and Badejo 2007). Nigeria is bordered to the North by the Republic of Niger and Chad, to the West by the Republic of Benin, to the East by the Republic of Cameroon and to the South by the Atlantic Ocean (Dublin green et al 1999). CIA World fact Book, 2005) stated that km^ Nigeria’s land and water is comprising a total area of 923,768km2 (occupying mostly 910, 768 km2 land and 13,00km2 water). Nigerian climate can be characterized by high temperature and humidity. It is marked as wet and dry seasons while the annual rainfall is between 1,500 and 4000m (kuruk, 2004). The principal mineral resources of Nigeria include fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal, and lignite), metallic minerals (tin, columbite, iron, lead, zinc, gold), radioactive minerals (uranium, monazite, and zircon), and non-metallic minerals (limestone, marble, gravel, clay, shale, feldspar, etc.) Figure (2) below is the geographical map of Nigeria.
Figure 2.0: Map of Nigeria with its administrative delineations which include 36 states, a Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja and its border countries in Africa (Shaaban and Petinrin 2014).
2.2. Remediation of oil spill using LCA From the review of different remediation approaches, it has been identified that the best approach to remediation would require analyses of the impact of the process in the long term. Although site remediation is often considered to be a completely positive process because of the reduction or removal of contaminants (Cappuyns, V., 2013), the overall consequences and impacts of the oil spill remediation process should be considered. This forms the basis for considering and applying life cycle assessment to the process of remediation. Life- cycle assessment’s (LCA) conceptual basis, often termed life cycle thinking, involves analysing and minimizing burdens associated with a product, service, or activity over its life cycle (Page, et al., 1999). LCA offers a systematic method for evaluating product- based systems, traditionally in the manufacturing and processing sectors (EPA, 1992). Taking advantage of the life cycle thinking associated with LCA has evolved as a systematic approach to conceptualize and structure
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decision making, and often to associate economic efficiency with environmental improvement. Although LCA approach has been typically used for product-based systems, this approach can be modified for new sectors where systematic consideration of environmental and human health burdens over the life cycle of an activity is required. This chapter discuss a new application of LCA to contaminated site remediation activities. These activities, directed towards minimizing short and long terms risks posed by contaminants on-site, have characteristic burdens that differ according to the technology. Presently government and corporate policies that are directed towards protecting public and ecological health by minimizing liability and risks at contaminated sites focus their attention on the site only, and do not consider the total risk or environmental effects in broader geographic and temporal context. Often time the choice of remediation option is predominated by the financial and/or technical considerations, rather than environmental and health protection. The aim of this research is to develop a life cycle-based approach (framework), to examine the broader environmental and human health implications associated with remediation processes in Niger Delta Nigeria environment. Below is a case study of different remediation technologies application using LCA processes 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This section reviews case studies where life cycle assessment techniques have been adopted for environment treatment and remediation of spill sites. 3.1. Description of case studies Oil spill is a global concern because of the potential risks to human health and ecosystem quality. In Europe alone, there are 340 000 potentially contaminated sites, and this number is forecasted to increase even more by 2025 (Cappuyns, V., 2013). As at 2008, oil related processing activities in the Niger Delta alone have resulted in the contamination of an estimated 2000 sites (Ite et al., 2013; UNEP, 2011; Sam et al., 2016). The huge amount of contaminated sites needing to be remediated in the coming years has increased attention to secondary environmental impacts (i.e. the environmental impacts caused by the site remediation activities themselves) of the remediation (Huysegoms et al., 2017). Although site remediation is often considered to be a completely positive process because of the reduction or removal of contaminants Cappuyns, V., 2013), the overall consequences and impacts of the oil spill remediation process should be considered. During the last ten years, there have been a number of publications from different authors that used LCA framework for remediation of different kinds of contaminants examples (Beinat et al., 1997; Diamond et al., 1999; Page et al., 1999; Volkwein et al., 1999) studied the remediation of (Lead, PAH, mineral oil and chromium) using in-situ and ex-situ technology. ScanRail Consult et al., 2000; Vignes, 2001; Ribbenhed et al., 2002; Blanc et al., 2004; Godin et al., 2004, studied (Chlorinated solvents, hydrocarbons, TCP and total xylenes, mix of organic contaminants, PAH, mercury, and sulfur). Toffoletto et al., 2005; Bayer and Finkel 2006; Cadotte et al 2007; Hauschild et al., 2010; Huysegoms et al., 2017, (Diesel oil, Trichloroethene, poly Aromatic hydrocarbon and PAH tar) they all have been analysed using LCA framework. LCA has been described as a good decision tool for managers concerned with choosing the best product, services or process from an environmental point of view (Cadotte, M., et al., 2007). During remediation, structuring environmental activities and life cycle assessment for a quantitative examination can be helpful in choosing the best technology to reduce the environmental burden (Myriam Cadotte et al. 2007; Cappuyns, V., 2013; Lemming, G., et al., 2010). Case studies of LCA in remediation of hydrocarbon are described in the next section to provide a background to the successful application of LCA in remediation processes of polluted environment to understand the environmental burden from secondary impact from different remediation technologies. 3.1.1. Case II. Life cycle assessment approach in In-situ bioremediation of contaminated sites Diamond et al. (1999) investigated the burdens associated with contaminated sites was developed. LCM approach is a qualitative and quantitative method for investigating remediation activities from a life cycle perspective. In his study, six generic remediation technologies options were investigated: such as; No action, encapsulation, excavation and disposal, vapor extraction, in situ bioremediation, and soil washing. The result offers insight into potential
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environmental and human health impacts arising from the six technologies investigated beyond those identified, for example, risk assessment, which estimates toxicity impacts only. 3.1.2 Case 1II. LCA of Ex-situ Bioremediation of diesel- Contaminated soil in Canada In the studies of Myriam Cadotte et al. (2007), a comparison of in situ and ex-situ treatment scenarios for dieselcontaminated site was performed using LCA. The study has performed a site where a 375 m 3 diesel tank spill occurred. The contaminated area was located 600m from river shore in the northern part of the province of Quebec, Canada. The spill covered an area of 480 m2 in the vadose zone and reached the groundwater and the Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) thickness of 1m, a diesel soil contraction of 10.500mg/kg and a residual contamination in groundwater. In this case, it was site specific, and four methods of treatment were considered: (1) pump and treat biospluring, (2) bioventing and biosparging, (3) bioslurping, bioventing and chemical oxidation and (4) ex-situ treatment using biopiles. Based on the results obtained, two scenarios were proposed; one with low environmental impacts but with a long treatment time and another with short treatment time but with high environmental impacts. The LCA of treatment scenario for both soil and groundwater gave a better environmental outcome than ex-situ treatment scenario. From the case studies above, conducting of life cycle assessment of site remediation has been applied in a number of studies and the tool have been identified as suitable for decision making within this field. Cappuyns, V., 2013 & Hauschild et al., (2010), stated that application of LCIA results as a decision-making tool to select the most adequate option for a specific contaminated site remediation has also been identified. The ultimate use of this approach will come in rationalizing site remediation activities and policies to minimize overall ecosystem and human health impacts using a broad and holistic analysis. 4.0 MODEL FOR THE USE OF LCA TO SUPPORT DECISION MAKING IN THE REMEDIATION OF OIL SPILL CONTAMINATED SITES 4.1. Identifying inputs and outputs of the LCA process Application of LCA to the options for the remediation of the case study sites will require the accounting for all the inputs that go into the process of remediating these sites and the outputs generated from the process including long term and short term impact on the environment. For the purposes of modelling the use of LCA in decision making on remediation options of the case study sites shown above, the flow diagram developed by Diamond et al (1999) is used as the basis to capture the relationship between the sites, the inputs into the process and the outputs of the remediation processes 4.2. Boundary System of oil spill remediation. The boundary system, as presented in Diamond et al (1999) represents the temporal, geographical and process boundaries of the remediation process to be taken into consideration as part of the LCA. In terms of process boundaries, all the processes undertaken during the remediation process are included in the boundary system and the time line ranges from the beginning of the remediation process to about 35 years after the process. This timeline is selected to provide both short term and long term impacts of the processes. 4.3. Inputs into the remediation process The processes captured as part of the LCA covers all activities involved in the remediation process from the initial processes on and off site and beyond the duration of the remediation. The inputs will generally include all raw materials, the use of energy and water. Inputs will also cover all transportation of materials including the quantities of diesel, fuel or electricity used and other materials. The specific types and quantities of inputs will be determined by the remediation processes to be tested based on data collected.
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. Figure 3.0: Flow diagram depicting the relationship between site remediation life-cycle stages and inventory items (Diamond et el., 1999). 4.4. Remediation Processes (Activities) To ensure the LCA presents very objective and helpful information on the remediation processes for the selected sites, all the activities involved in the remediation process such as site cleaning and ground water treatment was taken into consideration in this study. These include activities taking place on the site (site processes), post-site processing activities and the monitoring of all remediation activities on the site. The specifics and details of the site and post site activities are determined by the choice of remediation undertaken. For this research, all activities until the site becomes a clear site (See Cadotte et al., 2007) and beyond (post site activities) due to the life cycle nature of the analysis to be undertaken. Similar remediation approaches will be adopted for all sites. Processes will also include the management of waste from these sites. 4.5 Outputs of the Remediation process A major advantage of the use of the LCA for supporting decision making in remediation is the ability to capture the long term implications of the processes. For this research, LCA will help in identifying the outputs of the remediation processes in terms of airborne emissions, water borne emissions and solid waste (See Diamond et al., 1999) in the form of CO2 emissions, solid waste, oils, and dissolved soils. From the remediation scenario presented by Cadotte et al (2007), the outputs of the mediation process include Biogenic CO 2, Fossil, Calcium, Chloride, dissolved solids, Silicon, Sodium, Sulphate and water. 4.6. Measuring of Life cycle Impacts A key aspect of this research is the measuring of the life cycle impacts of the remediation options adopted. These include impact on the environment (habitat degradation), human health impacts, and socio-economic impacts. These impacts will be measured on a long-term basis spanning the whole of the time boundary (25 years for this research). Each site will be tested for the options of remediation, the length of time required to complete the remediation process and the primary as well as secondary impacts of the processes.
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4.7. Selection of remediation options As presented in Lemming et al (2010), there are a number of key considerations in deciding on the choice of remediation process for contaminated sites. These considerations cover: technical, environmental, economic and other considerations. As shown in table 2.0, the choice of method should consider all the factors below. To ensure this choice is made appropriately, the life cycle assessment method is proposed as a basis for helping to analyse the considerations based on site specific factors (Lemming et al., 2010). Table 2.0 Criteria for selecting remediation options.
Technical considerations Applicability and accessibility of technology Remediation efficiency Remediation time
Environmental Considerations Local toxic impacts at site (primary impacts)
Economic Considerations Cost of remediation
Other Considerations Disruption of site residents/neighbours
Environmental impacts stemming from remediation (secondary impacts)
5.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF Oil SPILL REMEDIATION IN NIGERIA. In building a conceptual framework for oil spill remediation, it is important to take into consideration all the relevant concepts relating to the process of remediation, including all the actors and the assumed relationship between them. The literature review showed that only a few studies have been conducted on the remediation of contaminated sites. In all cases, the remediation process itself is known to generate impacts (See Beinatet al. 1997, Bender et al. 1998, Diamond et al. 1999, Page et al. 1999, Volkwein et al. 1999, Toffoletto et al. 2005, Blanc et al. 2004, Cadotte et al. 2007). Clean up generally can lead to transfer of local contamination from soil to other compartments through the use of resources, materials and energy. These authors established that LCA as a tool can be used to support decision making on the best remediation option for contaminated sites based on their environmental impacts. In this present study, the aim is to develop a framework that integrates LCA to assess and monitor and evaluate remediation processes to restore contaminated sites in Ogoniland, Niger Delta of Nigeria. 5.1 KEY ELEMENTS OF THE FRAMEWORK 5.1.1. Sustainability assessment of remediation options The trend in contaminated sites management is towards sustainability, whereby decisions about contaminated site management integrate socio-economic and environmental concerns (Bardos et al., 2016; Sam et al., 2016). Sustainable approaches are intended to ensure long-term benefits and to avoid unsustainable clean-up decisions (Kiel, 2013; Kapp, 2014). Both UK and USA regimes have developed initiatives that integrate sustainability principles into their contaminated sites management decision-making processes (Bardos, 2009; P. Bardos et al., 2011; Bardos et al., 2011; CLAIRE, 2015). For example, the USA encourages operators to reduce the environmental footprint of remediation strategies (Hou et al., 2014; Hou and Al-Tabbaa, 2014). With the benefit of time, the UK and USA have been able to incrementally improve their contaminated site management programs, but Nigeria has the opportunity to rapidly advance their program by integrating sustainability principles from the onset. Introducing frameworks like the UK’s protocol for sustainability appraisal, or the USA’s approach for minimizing the environmental footprint of remediation practice (Bardos et al., 2012; Hou et al., 2014), would provide a step-change advancement that would benefit Nigeria and other developing countries by ensuring that solutions consider social, economic, and environmental factors fairly (UNEP,2011). Implementation will require education, for example, communication amongst stakeholder groups affected by
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contaminated sites (Booth, 2015). Sustainability forums that encourage the exchange of innovative ideas might also be considered, for example, the Sustainable Remediation Forum US. To ensure sustainable assessment of the options available for remediation of contaminated sites, this research proposes the use of LCA as a good basis. This will ensure both short and long term implications of the processes are taken into consideration.
Figure 4.0. Conceptual Framework for oil spill remediation in Nigeria. The conceptual framework developed for this research considers the issue of oil spill contamination in Nigeria and the different problems associated with remediation of oil spills. The framework suggests that the use of LCA as an avenue for helping in the decision making process for oil spill remediation is lacking in the Nigerian context and this presents a gap for this research to fill. 6.0. CONCLUSION Oil spill contaminated site management in Nigeria suffers from a number of limitations: lack of a clear statutory definition for contaminated sites, poor coordination of governance, non-life cycle assessment-based approach, inexperience, weak policy frameworks, and limited funding, yet there is opportunity for Nigeria to learn lessons from other countries (e.g. Europe UK, USA) to improve their system. In this paper, we reported on a number of recommendations that Nigeria could adopt from Europe, UK and the USA regimes. Specifically, Nigeria could benefit from an improved definition of contaminated sites, better regulatory coordination, adoption of life cycle
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assessment- based decision tools, and the integration of a sustainability assessment such as LCA. Progress to develop and implement contaminated site management regulation in Nigeria has been slow, yet despite Nigeria’s urgent need for clear regulatory policy we do not believe it should rush into the transfer of policy from elsewhere. This is because success will depend on how well Nigeria is able to contextualize policy to meet their unique environmental, economic, cultural, and political needs. This paper has discussed the different issues impacting on the management of contaminated sites in Nigeria and presented a conceptual linkage between these factors Reference 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
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Bassey, N., (2012). Leaving the Oil in the Soil: Communities Connecting to Resist Oil Extraction and Climate Change. Development Dialogue, 61, pp.332-339. Brent, A.C., Rohwer, M.B., Friedrich, E. and Von Blottnitz, H., (2002). Status of life cycle assessment and engineering research in South Africa. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 7(3), pp.167-172. Buckley, C., Friedrich, E. and Blottnitz, H.V., (2011). Life-cycle assessments in the South African water sector: A review and future challenges. Water Sa, 37(5), pp.719-726. Cappuyns, V., (2013). LCA based evaluation of site remediation Opportunities and limitations. Chimica OggiChemistry Today, 31(2), pp.18-21. Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guinée, J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., De Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A. and Sala, S., (2013). Identifying best existing practice for characterization modelling in life cycle impact assessment. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 18(3), pp.683-697. Huysegoms, L. and Cappuyns, V., (2017), June. Monetization coupled with Life Cycle Assessment compared to Cost Benefit Analysis: a site remediation case study. In 14th International Conference on Sustainability Use and Management of Soil, Sediment and Water Resources-Book of abstracts (p. 247). F&U confirm. Laurent, A. and Martinez, N.E., (2016). LCA as a support for energy-policy-making: Multi-scale analysis of environmental impacts of electricity generation in the world from 1980 to 2010. In 22nd SETAC Europe LCA Case Study Symposium. Lemming, G., Hauschild, M.Z., Chambon, J., Binning, P.J., Bulle, C., Margni, M. and Bjerg, P.L., (2010). Environmental impacts of remediation of a trichloroethene-contaminated site: life cycle assessment of remediation alternatives. Environmental science & technology, 44(23), pp.9163-9169. Levasseur, A. et al., (2016). Enhancing life cycle impact assessment from climate science: Review of recent findings and recommendations for application to LCA. Ecological Indicators, 71, pp.163–174. Maepa, M., Bodunrin, M.O., Burman, N.W., Croft, J., Engelbrecht, S., Ladenika, A.O., MacGregor, O.S. and Harding, K.G., (2017). life cycle assessments in Nigeria, Ghana, and Ivory Coast. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, pp.1-6. Montewka, J., Weckström, M. and Kujala, P., (2013). A probabilistic model estimating oil spill clean-up costs–a case study for the Gulf of Finland. Marine pollution bulletin, 76(1), pp.61-71. Pizzol, M. et al., (2011). Impacts of “metals” on human health: a comparison between nine different methodologies for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). Journal of Cleaner Production, 19(6), pp.646–656. Sam, K. and Zabbey, N., 2018. Contaminated land and wetland remediation in Nigeria: Opportunities for sustainable livelihood creation. Science of the Total Environment, 639, pp.1560-1573. Sam, K., Coulon, F. and Prpich, G., 2016. Working towards an integrated land contamination management framework for Nigeria. Science of the Total Environment, 571, pp.916-925. Sam, K., Prpich, G. and Coulon, F., (2015). Environmental and Societal Management of contaminated land in Nigeria: the need for policy and guidance changes. In 4th International Contaminated Site Remediation Conference: Program and Proceedings (pp. 427-428). Melbourne Australia. UNEP, (2009). Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products. United Nations Environment Programme. Xiao, R., Zhang, Y. and Yuan, Z., (2016). Environmental impacts of reclamation and recycling processes of refrigerators using life cycle assessment (LCA) methods. Journal of Cleaner Production, 131, pp.52-59. Zabbey, N., Sam, K. and Onyebuchi, A.T., 2017. Remediation of contaminated lands in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: Prospects and challenges. Science of the Total Environment, 586, pp.952-965.
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29th International Conference on Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 29th International Conference on Flexible and Intelligent (FAIM2019), June 24-28, Automation 2019, Limerick, Ireland. Manufacturing (FAIM2019), June 24-28, 2019, Limerick, Ireland.
Framework Framework for for Assessment Assessment of of Oil Oil Spill Spill Site Site Remediation Remediation options options in in Developing Countries a Life Cycle Perspective. Developing Countries a Life Cycle Perspective. Obiageli Obiageli S. S. Ugwuoke Ugwuoke a,*, a,*, Chike Chike F F Oduoza Oduoza a, a, ** Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, WV1 1LY Wolverhampton, United Kingdom. Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, WV1 1LY Wolverhampton, United Kingdom.
Abstract Abstract One of the main issues faced by the oil and gas industry in developing countries is that of oil spill and its impacts on the socialOne of the main issues faced by the oil and gas industry in developing countries is that of oil spill and its impacts on the socialcultural, economic and environment. The adverse effects of oil spill on the environment as well as the socio-cultural life of the cultural, economic and environment. The adverse effects of oil spill on the environment as well as the socio-cultural life of the inhabitants in the affected areas make it mandatory for proactive management of oil spills. Oil spill contaminated sites inhabitants in the affected areas make it mandatory for proactive management of oil spills. Oil spill contaminated sites management in developing countries such as; (Venezuela, Libya, Iraq and Nigeria) suffers from a number of limitations: lack of a management in developing countries such as; (Venezuela, Libya, Iraq and Nigeria) suffers from a number of limitations: lack of a clear statutory definition for contaminated sites, life cycle assessment-based approach, inexperience, weak policy frameworks clear statutory definition for contaminated sites, life cycle assessment-based approach, inexperience, weak policy frameworks and limited funding. From the literature on oil spill contaminated sites management, there are different approaches adopted by and limited funding. From the literature on oil spill contaminated sites management, there are different approaches adopted by developed countries to improve the management process as well as the outcome of such processes. However, context specific developed countries to improve the management process as well as the outcome of such processes. However, context specific approaches are sometimes required for successful management decisions to promote efficient policy transfer. In this study we approaches are sometimes required for successful management decisions to promote efficient policy transfer. In this study we propose an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) that monitors and assesses the environmental impacts of oil spill and propose an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) that monitors and assesses the environmental impacts of oil spill and remediation processes applied on the case study environment (Nigeria) with a view to managing them sustainably. Life cycle remediation processes applied on the case study environment (Nigeria) with a view to managing them sustainably. Life cycle thinking approach has been identified as a decision-making tool for remediation of contaminated sites because it presents the thinking approach has been identified as a decision-making tool for remediation of contaminated sites because it presents the opportunity to take into consideration the inputs and outputs to the process of remediation, as well as the activities that take place opportunity to take into consideration the inputs and outputs to the process of remediation, as well as the activities that take place during the remediation process. This research developed a conceptual framework for oil spill sites remediation in the Nigerian. during the remediation process. This research developed a conceptual framework for oil spill sites remediation in the Nigerian. The framework can also be applied to similar oil spill sites whose methodology is currently underdeveloped. The framework can also be applied to similar oil spill sites whose methodology is currently underdeveloped. © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. © 2019 The Authors, by Elsevier B.V. This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V. Peer review under underresponsibility the responsibility the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing Peer-review of theof scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 (FAIM2019 2019) Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 Keywords: Life cycle assessment, Conceptual framework, Life cycle Management Keywords: Life cycle assessment, Conceptual framework, Life cycle Management
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 . * E-mail Corresponding Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 . address:author. [email protected] E-mail address: [email protected] 2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V. 2351-9789 2019the Theresponsibility Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V. of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 Peer review©under of the scientific committee Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019
2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 (FAIM 2019) 10.1016/j.promfg.2020.01.036
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1.1. Background, aim and scope Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been described as a good decision-making tool for government and enterprise concerned with choosing the best product, processes or service from an environmental point of view (Myriam Cadotte et al., 2007). Although, LCA approaches have been typically used for product-based systems, these approaches can be modified for new sectors where systematic consideration of environmental and human health burdens over a life cycle of an activity is required (diamond et al., 1999; Myriam Cadotte et al., 2007). LCA enables the estimation of the hot-spots that causes the most overall impact (Hauschild, 2009; ILCD, 2012; UNEP, 2009). LCA approaches are guided by ISO standards and have four components. Figure (1) shows the generic for life cycle assessment highlighting goal and scope definition, inventory analysis and impact assessment all interfacing with data interpretation and finally improvement of the process.
Figure 1: The framework of life cycle assessment according to ISO 14040 (ISO, 2006). The life cycle thinking provides the means to understand, access, manage and reduce the environmental impacts associated with a product, process or activity by considering all life-cycle stages, from ‘cradle to grave’ (Friedrich, E, et al., 2009). The use of this emerging approach is advancing into other sectors such as the industries for ecolabelling and government for environmental policies. The use of life cycle approach is expanding rapidly; however, this does not appear to be for developing countries (DEAT, 2004). However, the transfer of technology from the developed to the developing world has a bumpy history and is characterized by challenges (Massimo Pizzol, 2013). The use of LCA according to World Bank (2007), in developing and developed countries is still evolving since there is a lack of quality data, inadequate know-how on conduction of LCA and limited LCIA methodologies that address the most pressing environmental problems in these regions. This is in contrast to western countries that have the required skills, high-quality software in addition to good database inventory (World Bank, 2007). The implementation of LCA as a tool for managing environmental impacts is far from becoming a reality in these developing countries. The contextual issues in developing countries (e.g. access to education, health and social amenities) are a contributing factor to the less priority given to environmental issues. Existing challenges facing LCA in developing countries are the absence of a perceived need, lack of LCA expertise and know how, lack of funding (DEAT, 2004) and lack of appropriate data and methodologies (Massimo Pizzol, 2013). Research carried out in one of the developing countries confirmed that companies in developing countries are reluctant to circulate organization data due to issues related to confidentiality, trust and confidence in the ‘how’ and ‘where’ the data will be used (Naughton et al. 2017) This research developed a life cycle-based approach, life cycle framework (LCF), to examine the broader environmental and human health implications associated with oil spill remediation. The use of life cycle thinking approach in oil and gas processing environment can contribute significantly towards the development of practical,
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economic and sustainable action plans and programmes to address environmental burdens in remediation processes in oil producing countries. Climate change and other environmental threats such as (global warming, ecosystem quality, and ozone layer depletion) have received increasing attention in the last years. To address these threats, decision makers are beginning to integrate environmental considerations into the design of their products (Nilsson and Eckerberg, 2007). For example, the decision maker has shifted from traditional to “Green” products and the use of “Green” processes (Hauschild, 2009). Several companies are investigating ways to minimize their emission footprint causing environmental impacts, using pollution prevention strategies and environmental management systems. As far as the Nigerian oil and gas industry is concerned, there are several aspects of their activities that could be associated with environmental damage, degradation, and even risk of catastrophe. Contamination of total environment (air, soil, water, and biota) by hydrocarbon in the Niger Delta of Nigeria has become a paramount interest in the region. Previous studies have revealed variable impacts of oil toxicity on the environment and exposed populations. For instance, in 2011 the release of Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland report by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). This mounted local and international pressures for urgent clean-up and restoration of the degraded bio-resource rich environment of the Niger Delta, starting from Ogoniland. Integration of LCA approach into the activities of oil and gas sector will explore and assess the consequences of each of these activities on the environment across the region. 2.0. GLOBAL OIL SPILL INCIDENCE. Crude oil is the main global source of energy and the main stay of economies of oil producing nations. However, as the exploration and exploitation of crude oil continues to rise, there is a corresponding increase in environmental pollution due to these activities. Whilst the incidents of oil spill during oil company operations contribute to major oil spill incidents offshore and onshore, the use and distribution of crude oil around the world continues to pose a threat to the environment (Prendergast, 2014). Oil spillages occur during transportation of crude oil and refined products from the location of production to that of usage or processing. The risk of oil spillage during transportation is dependent on one of the factors such as the mode of transport, health and safety policies, training (Brachner, M and Hvattum, 2017). Oil spill can be described as a ‘discrete event in which oil is accidentally or, occasionally, intentionally released into an environmental media like water or land/soil over a relatively short duration’ (SchmidtEtkins 2011).’ Hence, oil leakages over a relatively longer duration and oil discharges during the course of operation (within the allowed limits by international and national regulators) of oil companies and subsidiaries is excluded from this definition as oil spills Whereas oil spill incidences are widely perceived as major environmental problems only, Burgher (2007) argues that another important problem of oil spill is the socio-economic impact. He went further to suggest that the magnitude of these impacts would most likely depend on certain factors; the amount of oil spilled, the rate of release of the oil into the environment, the type/property of the oil spilled, the location (considering the geographical, political and legal issues) of the spill, the proximity of the spill to sensitive receptors and the choice and effectiveness of remedial technique. Oil spills can occur from a variety of sources such as natural oil seeps, accidents during oil transportation, oil well blowouts, and collision of oil vessels, pipeline vandalism and mechanical/operational failures such as explosions at oil storage facilities (Burgherr 2007). Table (1) above gives the average yearly (1990-1999) contribution of spills from major petroleum sources in kilo tonnes per year (kt/yr) to marine water bodies worldwide. Table 1: Average yearly oil spills into water bodies’ worldwide (National Research Council 1985) Source of spill Natural seeps Petroleum extraction Spills from pipelines Spills from oil vessels Other spills during oil transportation Operational discharges Land-based spills All other spills
Volume of spill (kt/yr) 600 38 12 100 41 270 140 67
Percentage contribution (%) 47 3 1 8 3 21 11 6
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2.1. Nigeria Coastline and Oil Exploration The Nigerian coastline and the oil exploration activities it undertakes. It sets the tone for reviewing literature on the problems associated with oil exploration in the region. Nigeria (comprises) of an estimated population of about 170 million people as at 2017 according to the last census figure (OPEC, 2015), which is the largest country in Africa and accounts for 47% of West Africa population (World bank 2005), with 36 states as its administrative delineations and a federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja as indicated in Figure 1.0, (Anifowose et al.2011). Nigerian is a maritime state with a coastline of approximately 853km. it lies between 4o and 14o N, between 3o E in Western Africa (Nwilo and Badejo 2007). Nigeria is bordered to the North by the Republic of Niger and Chad, to the West by the Republic of Benin, to the East by the Republic of Cameroon and to the South by the Atlantic Ocean (Dublin green et al 1999). CIA World fact Book, 2005) stated that km^ Nigeria’s land and water is comprising a total area of 923,768km2 (occupying mostly 910, 768 km2 land and 13,00km2 water). Nigerian climate can be characterized by high temperature and humidity. It is marked as wet and dry seasons while the annual rainfall is between 1,500 and 4000m (kuruk, 2004). The principal mineral resources of Nigeria include fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal, and lignite), metallic minerals (tin, columbite, iron, lead, zinc, gold), radioactive minerals (uranium, monazite, and zircon), and non-metallic minerals (limestone, marble, gravel, clay, shale, feldspar, etc.) Figure (2) below is the geographical map of Nigeria.
Figure 2.0: Map of Nigeria with its administrative delineations which include 36 states, a Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja and its border countries in Africa (Shaaban and Petinrin 2014).
2.2. Remediation of oil spill using LCA From the review of different remediation approaches, it has been identified that the best approach to remediation would require analyses of the impact of the process in the long term. Although site remediation is often considered to be a completely positive process because of the reduction or removal of contaminants (Cappuyns, V., 2013), the overall consequences and impacts of the oil spill remediation process should be considered. This forms the basis for considering and applying life cycle assessment to the process of remediation. Life- cycle assessment’s (LCA) conceptual basis, often termed life cycle thinking, involves analysing and minimizing burdens associated with a product, service, or activity over its life cycle (Page, et al., 1999). LCA offers a systematic method for evaluating product- based systems, traditionally in the manufacturing and processing sectors (EPA, 1992). Taking advantage of the life cycle thinking associated with LCA has evolved as a systematic approach to conceptualize and structure
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decision making, and often to associate economic efficiency with environmental improvement. Although LCA approach has been typically used for product-based systems, this approach can be modified for new sectors where systematic consideration of environmental and human health burdens over the life cycle of an activity is required. This chapter discuss a new application of LCA to contaminated site remediation activities. These activities, directed towards minimizing short and long terms risks posed by contaminants on-site, have characteristic burdens that differ according to the technology. Presently government and corporate policies that are directed towards protecting public and ecological health by minimizing liability and risks at contaminated sites focus their attention on the site only, and do not consider the total risk or environmental effects in broader geographic and temporal context. Often time the choice of remediation option is predominated by the financial and/or technical considerations, rather than environmental and health protection. The aim of this research is to develop a life cycle-based approach (framework), to examine the broader environmental and human health implications associated with remediation processes in Niger Delta Nigeria environment. Below is a case study of different remediation technologies application using LCA processes 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This section reviews case studies where life cycle assessment techniques have been adopted for environment treatment and remediation of spill sites. 3.1. Description of case studies Oil spill is a global concern because of the potential risks to human health and ecosystem quality. In Europe alone, there are 340 000 potentially contaminated sites, and this number is forecasted to increase even more by 2025 (Cappuyns, V., 2013). As at 2008, oil related processing activities in the Niger Delta alone have resulted in the contamination of an estimated 2000 sites (Ite et al., 2013; UNEP, 2011; Sam et al., 2016). The huge amount of contaminated sites needing to be remediated in the coming years has increased attention to secondary environmental impacts (i.e. the environmental impacts caused by the site remediation activities themselves) of the remediation (Huysegoms et al., 2017). Although site remediation is often considered to be a completely positive process because of the reduction or removal of contaminants Cappuyns, V., 2013), the overall consequences and impacts of the oil spill remediation process should be considered. During the last ten years, there have been a number of publications from different authors that used LCA framework for remediation of different kinds of contaminants examples (Beinat et al., 1997; Diamond et al., 1999; Page et al., 1999; Volkwein et al., 1999) studied the remediation of (Lead, PAH, mineral oil and chromium) using in-situ and ex-situ technology. ScanRail Consult et al., 2000; Vignes, 2001; Ribbenhed et al., 2002; Blanc et al., 2004; Godin et al., 2004, studied (Chlorinated solvents, hydrocarbons, TCP and total xylenes, mix of organic contaminants, PAH, mercury, and sulfur). Toffoletto et al., 2005; Bayer and Finkel 2006; Cadotte et al 2007; Hauschild et al., 2010; Huysegoms et al., 2017, (Diesel oil, Trichloroethene, poly Aromatic hydrocarbon and PAH tar) they all have been analysed using LCA framework. LCA has been described as a good decision tool for managers concerned with choosing the best product, services or process from an environmental point of view (Cadotte, M., et al., 2007). During remediation, structuring environmental activities and life cycle assessment for a quantitative examination can be helpful in choosing the best technology to reduce the environmental burden (Myriam Cadotte et al. 2007; Cappuyns, V., 2013; Lemming, G., et al., 2010). Case studies of LCA in remediation of hydrocarbon are described in the next section to provide a background to the successful application of LCA in remediation processes of polluted environment to understand the environmental burden from secondary impact from different remediation technologies. 3.1.1. Case II. Life cycle assessment approach in In-situ bioremediation of contaminated sites Diamond et al. (1999) investigated the burdens associated with contaminated sites was developed. LCM approach is a qualitative and quantitative method for investigating remediation activities from a life cycle perspective. In his study, six generic remediation technologies options were investigated: such as; No action, encapsulation, excavation and disposal, vapor extraction, in situ bioremediation, and soil washing. The result offers insight into potential
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environmental and human health impacts arising from the six technologies investigated beyond those identified, for example, risk assessment, which estimates toxicity impacts only. 3.1.2 Case 1II. LCA of Ex-situ Bioremediation of diesel- Contaminated soil in Canada In the studies of Myriam Cadotte et al. (2007), a comparison of in situ and ex-situ treatment scenarios for dieselcontaminated site was performed using LCA. The study has performed a site where a 375 m 3 diesel tank spill occurred. The contaminated area was located 600m from river shore in the northern part of the province of Quebec, Canada. The spill covered an area of 480 m2 in the vadose zone and reached the groundwater and the Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) thickness of 1m, a diesel soil contraction of 10.500mg/kg and a residual contamination in groundwater. In this case, it was site specific, and four methods of treatment were considered: (1) pump and treat biospluring, (2) bioventing and biosparging, (3) bioslurping, bioventing and chemical oxidation and (4) ex-situ treatment using biopiles. Based on the results obtained, two scenarios were proposed; one with low environmental impacts but with a long treatment time and another with short treatment time but with high environmental impacts. The LCA of treatment scenario for both soil and groundwater gave a better environmental outcome than ex-situ treatment scenario. From the case studies above, conducting of life cycle assessment of site remediation has been applied in a number of studies and the tool have been identified as suitable for decision making within this field. Cappuyns, V., 2013 & Hauschild et al., (2010), stated that application of LCIA results as a decision-making tool to select the most adequate option for a specific contaminated site remediation has also been identified. The ultimate use of this approach will come in rationalizing site remediation activities and policies to minimize overall ecosystem and human health impacts using a broad and holistic analysis. 4.0 MODEL FOR THE USE OF LCA TO SUPPORT DECISION MAKING IN THE REMEDIATION OF OIL SPILL CONTAMINATED SITES 4.1. Identifying inputs and outputs of the LCA process Application of LCA to the options for the remediation of the case study sites will require the accounting for all the inputs that go into the process of remediating these sites and the outputs generated from the process including long term and short term impact on the environment. For the purposes of modelling the use of LCA in decision making on remediation options of the case study sites shown above, the flow diagram developed by Diamond et al (1999) is used as the basis to capture the relationship between the sites, the inputs into the process and the outputs of the remediation processes 4.2. Boundary System of oil spill remediation. The boundary system, as presented in Diamond et al (1999) represents the temporal, geographical and process boundaries of the remediation process to be taken into consideration as part of the LCA. In terms of process boundaries, all the processes undertaken during the remediation process are included in the boundary system and the time line ranges from the beginning of the remediation process to about 35 years after the process. This timeline is selected to provide both short term and long term impacts of the processes. 4.3. Inputs into the remediation process The processes captured as part of the LCA covers all activities involved in the remediation process from the initial processes on and off site and beyond the duration of the remediation. The inputs will generally include all raw materials, the use of energy and water. Inputs will also cover all transportation of materials including the quantities of diesel, fuel or electricity used and other materials. The specific types and quantities of inputs will be determined by the remediation processes to be tested based on data collected.
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. Figure 3.0: Flow diagram depicting the relationship between site remediation life-cycle stages and inventory items (Diamond et el., 1999). 4.4. Remediation Processes (Activities) To ensure the LCA presents very objective and helpful information on the remediation processes for the selected sites, all the activities involved in the remediation process such as site cleaning and ground water treatment was taken into consideration in this study. These include activities taking place on the site (site processes), post-site processing activities and the monitoring of all remediation activities on the site. The specifics and details of the site and post site activities are determined by the choice of remediation undertaken. For this research, all activities until the site becomes a clear site (See Cadotte et al., 2007) and beyond (post site activities) due to the life cycle nature of the analysis to be undertaken. Similar remediation approaches will be adopted for all sites. Processes will also include the management of waste from these sites. 4.5 Outputs of the Remediation process A major advantage of the use of the LCA for supporting decision making in remediation is the ability to capture the long term implications of the processes. For this research, LCA will help in identifying the outputs of the remediation processes in terms of airborne emissions, water borne emissions and solid waste (See Diamond et al., 1999) in the form of CO2 emissions, solid waste, oils, and dissolved soils. From the remediation scenario presented by Cadotte et al (2007), the outputs of the mediation process include Biogenic CO 2, Fossil, Calcium, Chloride, dissolved solids, Silicon, Sodium, Sulphate and water. 4.6. Measuring of Life cycle Impacts A key aspect of this research is the measuring of the life cycle impacts of the remediation options adopted. These include impact on the environment (habitat degradation), human health impacts, and socio-economic impacts. These impacts will be measured on a long-term basis spanning the whole of the time boundary (25 years for this research). Each site will be tested for the options of remediation, the length of time required to complete the remediation process and the primary as well as secondary impacts of the processes.
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4.7. Selection of remediation options As presented in Lemming et al (2010), there are a number of key considerations in deciding on the choice of remediation process for contaminated sites. These considerations cover: technical, environmental, economic and other considerations. As shown in table 2.0, the choice of method should consider all the factors below. To ensure this choice is made appropriately, the life cycle assessment method is proposed as a basis for helping to analyse the considerations based on site specific factors (Lemming et al., 2010). Table 2.0 Criteria for selecting remediation options.
Technical considerations Applicability and accessibility of technology Remediation efficiency Remediation time
Environmental Considerations Local toxic impacts at site (primary impacts)
Economic Considerations Cost of remediation
Other Considerations Disruption of site residents/neighbours
Environmental impacts stemming from remediation (secondary impacts)
5.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF Oil SPILL REMEDIATION IN NIGERIA. In building a conceptual framework for oil spill remediation, it is important to take into consideration all the relevant concepts relating to the process of remediation, including all the actors and the assumed relationship between them. The literature review showed that only a few studies have been conducted on the remediation of contaminated sites. In all cases, the remediation process itself is known to generate impacts (See Beinatet al. 1997, Bender et al. 1998, Diamond et al. 1999, Page et al. 1999, Volkwein et al. 1999, Toffoletto et al. 2005, Blanc et al. 2004, Cadotte et al. 2007). Clean up generally can lead to transfer of local contamination from soil to other compartments through the use of resources, materials and energy. These authors established that LCA as a tool can be used to support decision making on the best remediation option for contaminated sites based on their environmental impacts. In this present study, the aim is to develop a framework that integrates LCA to assess and monitor and evaluate remediation processes to restore contaminated sites in Ogoniland, Niger Delta of Nigeria. 5.1 KEY ELEMENTS OF THE FRAMEWORK 5.1.1. Sustainability assessment of remediation options The trend in contaminated sites management is towards sustainability, whereby decisions about contaminated site management integrate socio-economic and environmental concerns (Bardos et al., 2016; Sam et al., 2016). Sustainable approaches are intended to ensure long-term benefits and to avoid unsustainable clean-up decisions (Kiel, 2013; Kapp, 2014). Both UK and USA regimes have developed initiatives that integrate sustainability principles into their contaminated sites management decision-making processes (Bardos, 2009; P. Bardos et al., 2011; Bardos et al., 2011; CLAIRE, 2015). For example, the USA encourages operators to reduce the environmental footprint of remediation strategies (Hou et al., 2014; Hou and Al-Tabbaa, 2014). With the benefit of time, the UK and USA have been able to incrementally improve their contaminated site management programs, but Nigeria has the opportunity to rapidly advance their program by integrating sustainability principles from the onset. Introducing frameworks like the UK’s protocol for sustainability appraisal, or the USA’s approach for minimizing the environmental footprint of remediation practice (Bardos et al., 2012; Hou et al., 2014), would provide a step-change advancement that would benefit Nigeria and other developing countries by ensuring that solutions consider social, economic, and environmental factors fairly (UNEP,2011). Implementation will require education, for example, communication amongst stakeholder groups affected by
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contaminated sites (Booth, 2015). Sustainability forums that encourage the exchange of innovative ideas might also be considered, for example, the Sustainable Remediation Forum US. To ensure sustainable assessment of the options available for remediation of contaminated sites, this research proposes the use of LCA as a good basis. This will ensure both short and long term implications of the processes are taken into consideration.
Figure 4.0. Conceptual Framework for oil spill remediation in Nigeria. The conceptual framework developed for this research considers the issue of oil spill contamination in Nigeria and the different problems associated with remediation of oil spills. The framework suggests that the use of LCA as an avenue for helping in the decision making process for oil spill remediation is lacking in the Nigerian context and this presents a gap for this research to fill. 6.0. CONCLUSION Oil spill contaminated site management in Nigeria suffers from a number of limitations: lack of a clear statutory definition for contaminated sites, poor coordination of governance, non-life cycle assessment-based approach, inexperience, weak policy frameworks, and limited funding, yet there is opportunity for Nigeria to learn lessons from other countries (e.g. Europe UK, USA) to improve their system. In this paper, we reported on a number of recommendations that Nigeria could adopt from Europe, UK and the USA regimes. Specifically, Nigeria could benefit from an improved definition of contaminated sites, better regulatory coordination, adoption of life cycle
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assessment- based decision tools, and the integration of a sustainability assessment such as LCA. Progress to develop and implement contaminated site management regulation in Nigeria has been slow, yet despite Nigeria’s urgent need for clear regulatory policy we do not believe it should rush into the transfer of policy from elsewhere. This is because success will depend on how well Nigeria is able to contextualize policy to meet their unique environmental, economic, cultural, and political needs. This paper has discussed the different issues impacting on the management of contaminated sites in Nigeria and presented a conceptual linkage between these factors Reference 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
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