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French energy policy
Applied Energy, Vol. 59, No. 1, pp. 39±61, 1998 # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain PII: S0306-2619(97)00055-X 0306-2619/98 $19.00+0.00
French Energy Policy R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert & P. D. Carmo Department of Applied Energy, Cran®eld University, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK
ABSTRACT In the 1970s, being highly dependent on the importation of fossil fuels (e.g. for nearly 80% of its purchased energy-supplies in 1973), France suered more intensely than the majority of other countries from the two crudeoil unit-price crises of 1973!1974 and 1979!1980. Thus, the French Government has chosen to implement vigorously a policy consisting of (i) encouragement of energy thrift; (ii) expansion of indigenous energyharnessing, mainly through a major programme of building and using nuclear-power stations; (iii) substitution by alternative energy-forms not associated with crude mineral-oil; and (iv) diversi®cation of sources of imported fuel supplies. These have simultaneously both reduced France's energy vulnerability and helped protect the environment. During the last 25 years, France's annual energy consumption has grown while the amount of fuel imported per year has declined, mainly because of the vast nuclearpower investment. France's energy policy, like that of its partners in the Community, has an increasing European dimension. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
NOTATION ADEME
CCGT DHYCA EdF FFR GDP
Agence pour le Developpement de l'Environnement et la Maitrise de l'Energie: the French Agency encouraging the more eective and ecient use of energy as well as the implementation of cleaner energy-technologies Combined cycle gas-turbine Direction de Hydrocarbures: Hydrocarbon Department at the Ministry for Industry, Paris Electricite de France French franc Gross domestic product 39
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R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Mtoe
Million tonne(s) of oil equivalent (however, coal is measured in tonnes)
THE FUEL-SUPPLY PROBLEM AND ITS EVOLVING SOLUTION During the period 1960 to 1970, strong economic growth in France resulted in an increasing annual energy-demand (Table 1). Crude mineral-oil, the main substitute to ®ll the gap resulting from the declining annual indigenouscoal extraction, became more widely used for industrial purposes (Table 2). From 1973 onwards (Fig. 1), worries concerning ¯uctuations of unit energyprices led French energy-policy to include (i) the diversi®cation of imported energy-types; (ii) implementation of energy thrift in the industrial and domestic sectors; and (iii) vast ®nancial investment in the nuclear-power programme, which was launched in 1974. Among the results of implementing this policy, the following highlights are mentioned: . The annual consumption of crude oil was reduced, e.g. in 1994 being 30 Mtonnes less than that for 1973 (see also Table 3). . The growth of the annual energy-consumption declined from an average of 5.7% per year during the period 1960 to 1973 to, on average, 1% per year since 1973. . The indigenous energy-supply has increased substantially, for instance from 41.7 Mtoe in 1973 (with 8% of electricity being generated by nuclear power) to 108.5 Mtoe in 1992 (with 70% of electricity being derived from nuclear power) (see also Figs 2 and 3). . The energy ratio for a country is the annual total harnessed primaryenergy (e.g. from coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear and hydro-electric power TABLE 1 Energy consumption (in Mtoe per annum) according to sector in France Year 1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
Steel Other industries industries 11.0 13.6 14.1 13.1 9.3 8.7 8.4 8.1 3.3 7.75
23.8 38.9 44.2 46.4 40.6 44.2 44.8 45.4 45.9 50.0
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Non-energy uses
Total
21.0 47.6 58.6 65.8 68.5 75.5 78.1 79.3 82.9 85.5
1.1 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5
13.3 25.3 32.4 37.2 37.1 43.6 45.3 46.3 47.5 53.5
3.1 8.3 10.9 12.0 11.7 12.7 12.4 13.1 13.6 14.0
73.3 136.7 163.3 177.8 170.3 188.0 192.3 195.6 201.0 214.75
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TABLE 2 Primary-energy harnessing (in Mtoe per annum) in France Year
Coal
Crude-oil
Natural gas
Primary electricity
Renewable energy
Total
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
35.6 24.5 17.3 13.3 10.9 9.7 8.5 8.3 7.7 7.4 7.0 4.5
2.3 3.2 2.2 2.2 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.3 1.0
2.5 5.8 6.2 6.5 4.5 3.2 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.9 2.8 1.0
9.1 14.0 14.0 23.9 64.0 75.2 78.6 78.8 82.6 87.3 91.2 107.5
Ð 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 5.5
49.5 49.5 41.7 48.9 86.7 95.8 97.7 97.6 100.5 105.2 108.5 119.5
Fig. 1. Annual rates of consumption and indigenous production of fuels in France.
as well as measured renewable energies) consumed divided by the gross product for that country during the considered year. France's energyratio decreased by more than 20% from 1973 to 1992 (Fig. 4). . France's degree of energy self-suciency increased from 22.5% in 1973 to 51.5% in 1995 (Fig. 5). . The rates of energy consumption per sector are shown in Fig. 6; consumption in the transport sector has been growing each year.
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R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
TABLE 3 Trends in the uses of various forms of energy in France: annual usage expressed in the form of a percentage of the total primary-energy consumption for the considered year Year
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Electricity
Renewable energy
Total
1973 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
15.2 15.8 8.9 9.3 7.9 6.5 6.2
69.1 56.6 42.5 41.8 42.5 41.6 41.2
7.3 10.8 12.3 12.6 12.5 12.9 13.0
7.3 15.2 34.4 34.4 35.2 37.1 37.8
1.1 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Fig. 2. Relative contributions to the indigenous production of primary energy in France during 1973, expressed in units of Mtoe per annum (i.e. 106 tonnes of oil equivalent per annum). For that year, the total production of primary energy in France amounted to only 41.8 Mtoe, and so satis®ed only 22% of French needs.
CRUDE-OIL Demand During the period 1960 to 1973, crude-oil consumption in France was totally reliant upon imports and grew annually by, on average, 12%, reaching a maximum in 1973 (Table 4 and Figs 7 and 8). From November 1973, i.e. the start of the Arab±Israeli war and the resulting ®rst major increase in the unit price of crude-oil, its annual consumption in France declined until 1976, after which it rose again. However, after 1979Ði.e. the year of the second unit-oil-price increase, due to the Iran±Iraq warÐa further decline (i.e. by
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Fig. 3. As for Fig. 2, but for 1994, (in which the total production of primary energy in France was 99.6 Mtoe, which met 51.5% of French needs).
Fig. 4. France's energy-ratio, normalised with respect to the values for 1973. The general trend with time indicates the increasing energy eectiveness of France.
21% between 1979 and 1985) occurred. In 1986, as a result of increased world-wide competition, the cost of imported crude-oil per barrel was cut in some instances, temporarily, by as much as half, and consumption increased once againÐespecially in the transport sector. The Gulf crisis in 1990, because of its short duration, had only a minor impact on the oil market.
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R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Fig. 5. Purchased-energy self-suciency for France, i.e. annual indigenous energy supply divided by demand for that year, and expressed as a percentage.
Fig. 6. Relative consumptions of purchased energy during 1994 according to ®nal demandsector in France.
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TABLE 4 Oil-products consumption (in Mtoe per year) according to sector in France Year
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
Steel Other industry industries
0.7 2.02 2.33 1.66 0.39 0.51 0.30 0.18 0.20 0.40
6.2 18.38 21.79 19.33 9.58 8.97 9.10 8.64 8.3 6.5
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Non-energy uses (e.g. chemical feedstock)
Total
4.1 25.00 32.52 27.63 18.94 18.18 18.14 17.13 18.1 13.5
1.1 2.81 2.85 2.94 2.68 2.72 2.71 2.78 2.80 2.65
10.4 23.74 30.96 35.60 35.45 41.90 43.47 44.43 45.60 51.50
2.2 6.79 9.13 9.45 9.10 10.72 10.26 10.98 11.30 12.00
24.7 78.74 99.58 96.61 76.14 83.00 83.98 84.14 86.30 86.55
Fig. 7. Sources and respective percentages of crude-oil imports into France during 1973 (in which the total crude-oil imports amounted to 134.9 million tonnes, whereas indigenous extraction was 2.3 million tonnes).
Fig. 8. As for Fig. 7, but for 1993 (in which the total crude-oil imports amounted to 78.3 million tonnes and indigenous extraction was 3.4 million tonnes).
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R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Supply When assessing a country's energy-supplies, commercial viability, securityof-supply, national self-suciency, social costs as well as environmental impacts are considered. The crude-oil market provides an example of France's success in diversifying its sources of this fuel (Figs 7 and 8). Annual imports derived from the Near East have declined: viz. 71% of total oilimports in 1973, compared with only 21.7% in 1993. There were no imports from the North Sea ®eld in 1973, but since then supplies from this region have grown signi®cantly. Africa and the former USSR have also increased their oil exports to France. There has been a continuous decline in indigenous French annual crude-oil extraction since 1988 (Table 5). NATURAL GAS Demand In France, natural-gas consumption on a large scale started in 1960 (Fig. 9, Table 6): until 1973, it was used mainly to generate electricity for industrial purposes. From 1973, following the commissioning of the vast nuclearenergy programme, the manufacturing and domestic sectors together have increasingly provided the main market for natural gas, due to its low unitprice, ready availability and relative environmental-friendliness. Natural gas now represents only about one-®fth of the total energy consumed in the tertiary (i.e. services and commercial) as well as the residential sectors. This fraction is much lower than in any other European country due to competition with the electricity supplied by nuclearTABLE 5 Rate of oil production in France (103 tonnes per annum) Year
Oil products
Crude
Total
1950 1960 1965 1973 1979 1985 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
22 268 569 812 808 596 373 382 353 359 344
128 1977 2988 1254 1197 2642 3355 3244 3024 2952 2866
150 2245 3557 2066 2005 3238 3728 3626 3377 3311 3210
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Fig. 9. Variation of the total rate of natural-gas consumption in France. TABLE 6 Natural-gas consumption (in TWh per annum) according to sector in France Year
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2010
Steel Other industry industries
1.3 5.5 8.8 12.7 8.9 8.0 8.6 8.4 7.9 7.0
4.9 26.0 43.1 81.9 100.4 110.5 114.9 121.5 120.9 162.0
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Non-energy uses (e.g. chemical feedstock)
Total
Ð 27.7 57.7 116.8 151.1 174.5 182.0 190.0 199.7 248.5
Ð 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.5 3.0 1.5
0.7 0.2 0.1 0.1 Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð
5.5 12.7 19.4 29.3 29.9 22.0 24.6 24.8 26.3 20.5
12.4 72.2 129.6 241.7 291.7 316.7 332.2 347.2 357.8 439.5
power plants, which is now in France often used for heating (EdF has promoted the use of electricity for heating through a major publicitycampaign). This approach diers from the policies of most other countries, where (i) electricity generation relies much more on the burning of fossil fuels rather than on harnessing nuclear power, and (ii) the use of electricity (i.e. the highest-quality form of energy) for space-heating purposes is in general discouraged. Nevertheless, it has led to far less chemical pollution
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R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
than if fossil fuels had been burnt in generating the same amount of electricity. Supply The French economy was totally self-sucient in natural gas during the 1960s but, due to the subsequent independence of Algeria, is now largely (90%) dependent on its importation (Figs 10 and 11). Indigenous extraction of natural gas has declined by about 60% during the last decade (see also Fig. 12). The sources of natural-gas imports have been diversi®ed deliberately since 1980 and the gas tends to be supplied under long-term (i.e. in this instance, 25 year) contracts, both factors tending to inhibit short-term unit-price ¯uctuations: now (i.e. 1997) approximately one-third comes from what was the former USSR, another third from Algeria and the remainder from The Netherlands.
Fig. 10. Sources and respective percentages of natural-gas imports into France during 1973 (in which the total natural-gas imports amounted to 98.7 TWh, whereas domestic production was 81.3 TWh).
Fig. 11. As for Fig. 10 but for 1993 (in which the total natural-gas imports amounted to 333.5 TWh, and domestic production was 37.4 TWh).
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Fig. 12. Extraction and harnessing rate of natural gas in France.
COAL Demand In France, there has been a decline exceeding 50% in the annual consumption of coal over the last 20 years (Table 7): e.g. from 34.1 million tonnes per annum in 1970 to 14.7 million tonnes per annum in 1992. Supply With the implementation of a programme for the closure of French coalmines, there has been a long-term continuous fall in the annual rate of indigenous coal-extraction (Table 8). Imports (Figs 13 and 14 and Table 9) now represent approximately three-quarters of the coal consumed in France. Nevertheless, the Government is well aware that it is desirable to keep abreast of advances in clean coal-technology, and hence its considerable interest in the performance of the ¯uidised-bed combustor at Gardance.
50
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo TABLE 7 Coal consumption (in Mtoe per annum) in France according to sector
Year
Steel industry
Other industries
Residential and tertiary
Transport
Total
1960 1970 1973 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
15.6 14.9 14.3 8.3 8.0 8.5 8.7 8.4 8.2 7.5 8.6
14.2 6.8 4.1 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.1 4.9 4.8 5.0 5.75
17.5 12.0 8.7 4.0 3.5 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.2 3.1
3.2 0.4 0.1 Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð
50.5 34.1 27.2 17.2 16.5 16.5 16.5 15.9 15.7 14.7 17.45
TABLE 8 Rate of coal extraction within France (in million tonnes per annum) Type of coal Year
Houille
Lignite
Others
Total
1960 1970 1973 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
55.9 37.3 26.6 14.4 13.7 12.1 11.5 10.5 10.1 9.5
2.3 2.8 2.8 2.1 2.1 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.0 1.6
Ð 0.5 0.7 1.9 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7
58.2 40.6 30.1 18.4 16.7 14.5 14.4 13.5 12.9 11.8
Fig. 13. Percentage of the total annual amount of coal imported into France from the stated source in 1973 (in which the total amount of coal imported was 16.5 million tonnes and amount mined in France 81.3 TWh).
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51
Fig. 14. As for Fig. 13, but for 1993 (in which the total amount of coal imported was 13.1 million tonnes and the amount mined in France 22.6 TWh). TABLE 9 Origins and respective amounts (in million tonnes per annum) of coal imported into France Year
USA
Australia
South Africa
Germany
Poland
Other countries
Total
1973 1986 1987 1988 1989 1996 1991 1992
1.8 5.0 2.9 4.0 6.2 6.6 8.8 8.6
1.0 4.8 4.8 3.3 2.6 3.6 4.4 4.7
0.6 1.5 0.8 1.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 2.7
9.4 3.4 2.7 2.3 2.2 2.2 1.6 0.6
2.0 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6
1.7 3.7 3.0 3.0 5.5 7.0 6.8 5.5
16.5 18.6 14.8 14.8 17.7 20.7 22.7 22.7
ELECTRICITY Demand Electricity consumption approximately doubled in France during the 20 years from 1973 to 1993 (Table 10). About one-third is employed in manufacturing industry, another third for domestic purposes and the remainder is used in the tertiary sector. The promotion, in France, of electrical spaceheating, has led to adequate indigenous supplies sometimes being unavailable at peak-demand times during winter. Thus cogeneration plants (for supplying heat and electricity simultaneously) as well as imports of electricity from Spain are now used to help satisfy such peak electricity-demands. Very occasionally, electricity is imported from the UK, though the annual net amount is always, to date, in the reverse direction.
52
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo TABLE 10 Rate of electricity consumption (in TWh per annum) in France according to sector
Year
Steel industry
Other industries
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Total
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2010
6.2 10.3 11.7 12.6 9.9 10.2 10.3 10.2 10.1 8.0
35.1 62.1 72.3 82.6 86.6 103.8 105.2 107.7 111.4 158.5
15.3 42.3 59.2 102.6 147.9 173.1 182.6 190.3 199.7 268.5
0.2 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.4 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.0
3.5 5.8 6.4 6.8 7.4 7.8 8.0 8.3 8.5 10.0
60.3 121.3 150.7 206.1 253.2 296.9 308.2 318.7 332.0 448.0
Supply Around 60 nuclear-power plants have now been built to generate electricty in France (Table 11). As a result, electricity exports have ensued since 1980, i.e. after the second oil-price crisis, so revealing that a national over-supply capacity exists for long periods each year (Fig. 15). This excess capability will probably be reduced with the decommissioning of the ®rst nuclear-plants during the ®rst quater of the next century. For electricity generation, the means most likely to be adopted will increasingly be dictated by the probable duration of utilisation of that type of means each year (Table 12). CCTGs are gradually replacing coal-®red plant for semi-base generation, because coal's competitiveness at present (1997) is in decline (Fig. 16). Coal TABLE 11 Net generation of electricity (in GWh per annum) from nuclear power in France Year
Supply
1960 1965 1973 1979 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
130 897 13 969 37 898 181 740 213 087 241 444 251 520 260 287 288 715 297 949 314 978 321 780
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Fig. 15. Trends in the annual trade-balance for electricity with France. TABLE 12 Probable future strategic-mix of the means for electricity generation in France Generation category
Duration that the stated means is likely to be employed per annum
Type of generator recommended
Base Semi-base Peak
Almost all the year Few thousand hours Few hundred hours
Nuclear-power plant Coal-®red CCGTs/wind turbines Stored hydro-power turbines fuelled by natural gas or domestic oil
has to compete against both the relatively low investment-cost CCGT systems (i.e. per kWe output) and the higher eciencies of new nuclear-power plants. All electricity-generating processes are increasing in attainable eciency and availability. So investment costs per kWe of output are in general falling (Table 13). For base generation in France, nuclear power is regarded as the most competitive process.1 However, this advantage has been eroded slightly since 1993, partly because the costs of nuclear-power generated electricity are relatively more stable, whereas CCGT-produced electricity is sensitive to the natural-gas unit-price (which has fallen) and the US dollar to FFR exchange rate. As the cost of nuclear power is immune from fossil-fuels' unit-price
54
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Fig. 16. The large relative share of electricity generated from nuclear power in France. TABLE 13 Average costs, when the stated means was used, for the base generation of electricity Type of generator Nuclear plant CCGT Pulverised-coal combustion Fluidised-bed coal combustion
Average generation cost (FFR/MWh) as at 1993
% reduction in generation cost in 1997 relative to 1993 value
250 326 337 318
16 28 28 24
¯uctuations, its use contributes to electricity-cost stability. Another advantage for France of employing nuclear power rather than classical thermalpower is the resulting increased energy-independence and security-of-supply. Also, using electricity generated by nuclear-power plants has contributed signi®cantly to the reduction of annual emissions of chemical pollutants (e.g. greenhouse gasses), which otherwise would have been emitted. Since 1980, the annual emissions of CO2, NOx and SO2, as measured in 1996, have been reduced by approximately 30, 40 and 60%, respectively (Figs 17±19), a highly commendable performance relative to those of most other countries.
French energy policy
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Fig. 17. Rates of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from various countries during 1990: (a) per GDP in kg/ECU; and (b) per capita in tonnes per annum.
56
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Fig. 18. Emission rates of nitrogen oxides (NOx) for various countries in 1990: (a) per GDP in kg/ECU; and (b) per capita in tonnes per annum.
French energy policy
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Fig. 19. Rates of sulphur-dioxide (SO2) emissions from various countries during 1990: (a) per GDP in kg/ECU; and (b) per capita in tonnes per annum.
58
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Decentralised electricity-generation (e.g. obtained via heat-and-electricity cogeneration plant or a wind turbine) occurring relatively near the demand points is becoming increasingly popular, partly because it avoids some of the losses associated with extensive electricity-distribution networks. RENEWABLE ENERGY-SOURCES In France, energy actively harnessed from renewable sources and sold commercially now comprises approximately one-®fth of the total purchased energy. France is the main such harnesser in Europe, with most being sold in the forms of hydro-electricity and ®rewood, as shown in Table 14. However, this relatively large ®gure for total annual renewable-energy use masks the low rates of investment in, and development of, other renewable sources: French state-support for Research and Development in such renewable technologies is the lowest in Europe (e.g. Table 15). Nevertheless much greater exploitation of wind power in France is likely to be achieved as a result of the Government's ``Eole 2005'' programme, which started in 1997. Recent environmental-protection issues The French Government has supported the implementation of lean-energy technologies and the rational use of the renewable energy through ADEME. There is now strong encouragement for the production and use of bio-fuels through the promotion of non-polluting and low-consumption vehicles. Favourable tax-laws have also been applied to experimental projects encouraging the use of bio-fuels. Furthermore, compulsory energy-audits for new TABLE 14 Renewable energy harnessed in France during 1990 (source ADEME) Form of energy harnessed Hydro-electricity Firewood Industrial wastes Urban wastes Heat-pump extraction of ambient energy Geothermal energy Bio-gas Insolation (thermal) Crop residues Wind power Photovoltiac solar-energy Total
Primary consumption rate (ktoe per annum) 12 950 7611 771 715 589 155 74 38 18 0.07 0.03 22 921
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TABLE 15 Public R&D budget expenditures in the renewable-energy sector during 1993 (in million $US at 1993 values) France 8
Germany
Japan
UK
USA
113
188
23
226
public buildings and the reinforcement of regulations for achieving enhanced thermal-insulation have also been promoted. FACTORS IN THE CONTINUED EVOLUTION OF THE POLICY Renewable-energy technology transfer France promotes the transfer of appropriate technologies (e.g. for photovoltaics and use of geothermal springs) to developing countries. Prospects for the implementation of solar-energy harnessing are excellent in those countries with relatively-high insolation intensities and/or for isolated rural regions. Other technologies, such as those involved with the capturing of geothermal energy, are also being exported. These bring signi®cant ®nancial gains for France. Nuclear power The early part of the 21st century will see the decommissioning of the ®rst few French nuclear-power plants. So a major replacement-programme for reactors will soon be needed if France is to maintain its present reliance on nuclear power. Hence co-operation commenced in 1992, as part of a new Franco-German partnership, to design a new generation of reactor (EPR). This should enhance the safety achieved even further, whilst improving upon the economic competitiveness of the present French designed nuclear-power plant. Also, an increasing proportion of nuclear-power plants in France will be fed with Mox, i.e. mixed oxides of uranium and plutonium derived from radioactive wastes. European Union The energy industry in Europe is a vital part of society, representing as it does 7% of the wealth created annually. It is preferable if the available energy-resources generally are used only when required, and then primarily near where they are located in order to avoid excessive transportation losses.
60
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Nevertheless, a major goal is to achieve a single European market for energy by removing (i) existing obstacles like restrictive national regulations and (ii) distortions in determining costs and process through directives such as the Electricity Transit Directive (1990) and the Energy Price Transparency Directive (1990). The former allows the right of transit for electricity to pass through a country for the purpose of exchange. The latter directive is a publication of statistical data on the unit prices of electricity in various European countries: it in¯uences French policy, e.g. with respect to increasing exports. REFERENCE 1. Ministry of Industry, Mail and Telecommunications, Paris, private communication, 1997.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Controle, La revue de l'autorite de surete nucleaire. Special topic on safety of future reactors, EPR project, No. 105, June 1995. De Groc, M. C., La Correspondence Nucleaire. Societe Francaise d'Energie Nucleaire (SFEN) No. 116/1, 15 November 1995. EDF REP 2000, The next generation of EDF's nuclear reactors. Paris, 1994. Les De®s Du CEA, No. 43, Paris, 1996. Lindberg, L., Comparing National Responses to the Energy Crisis. Lexington, New York, 1997. Lucas, N., Western European Energy Policies: A Comparative Study of the In¯uence of Institutional Structure on Technical Change. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985. Lucas, N., Energy in France: Planning, Politics and Policy. Europa, London, 1979. Ministere de l'Industrie, Obervatoire de l'Energie, Energy 2010. General report, Prospective Energy Group chaired by Michel Pecqueur. Xth plan 1989±1992, Paris, 1992. Ministere de l'Industrie, Observatorie de l'Energie, l'Energie, Les Chires Cles. DGEMP, Paris, 1994. Ministere de l'Industrie et de l'Amenagement du Territoire, L'energie nucleaire en questions. Editions Le cherche midi, Collection Documents, Paris, 1991. Nuclear-Engineering International Special Publications, French PWR Technology, Paris, 1991.
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Royal Society of London, A Future for Energy Use. Royal Society of London, London, 1995. Souviron, J. P., Debat national energie et environment. Rapport de synthese, Paris, 1994.
French Energy Policy R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert & P. D. Carmo Department of Applied Energy, Cran®eld University, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK
ABSTRACT In the 1970s, being highly dependent on the importation of fossil fuels (e.g. for nearly 80% of its purchased energy-supplies in 1973), France suered more intensely than the majority of other countries from the two crudeoil unit-price crises of 1973!1974 and 1979!1980. Thus, the French Government has chosen to implement vigorously a policy consisting of (i) encouragement of energy thrift; (ii) expansion of indigenous energyharnessing, mainly through a major programme of building and using nuclear-power stations; (iii) substitution by alternative energy-forms not associated with crude mineral-oil; and (iv) diversi®cation of sources of imported fuel supplies. These have simultaneously both reduced France's energy vulnerability and helped protect the environment. During the last 25 years, France's annual energy consumption has grown while the amount of fuel imported per year has declined, mainly because of the vast nuclearpower investment. France's energy policy, like that of its partners in the Community, has an increasing European dimension. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
NOTATION ADEME
CCGT DHYCA EdF FFR GDP
Agence pour le Developpement de l'Environnement et la Maitrise de l'Energie: the French Agency encouraging the more eective and ecient use of energy as well as the implementation of cleaner energy-technologies Combined cycle gas-turbine Direction de Hydrocarbures: Hydrocarbon Department at the Ministry for Industry, Paris Electricite de France French franc Gross domestic product 39
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R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Mtoe
Million tonne(s) of oil equivalent (however, coal is measured in tonnes)
THE FUEL-SUPPLY PROBLEM AND ITS EVOLVING SOLUTION During the period 1960 to 1970, strong economic growth in France resulted in an increasing annual energy-demand (Table 1). Crude mineral-oil, the main substitute to ®ll the gap resulting from the declining annual indigenouscoal extraction, became more widely used for industrial purposes (Table 2). From 1973 onwards (Fig. 1), worries concerning ¯uctuations of unit energyprices led French energy-policy to include (i) the diversi®cation of imported energy-types; (ii) implementation of energy thrift in the industrial and domestic sectors; and (iii) vast ®nancial investment in the nuclear-power programme, which was launched in 1974. Among the results of implementing this policy, the following highlights are mentioned: . The annual consumption of crude oil was reduced, e.g. in 1994 being 30 Mtonnes less than that for 1973 (see also Table 3). . The growth of the annual energy-consumption declined from an average of 5.7% per year during the period 1960 to 1973 to, on average, 1% per year since 1973. . The indigenous energy-supply has increased substantially, for instance from 41.7 Mtoe in 1973 (with 8% of electricity being generated by nuclear power) to 108.5 Mtoe in 1992 (with 70% of electricity being derived from nuclear power) (see also Figs 2 and 3). . The energy ratio for a country is the annual total harnessed primaryenergy (e.g. from coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear and hydro-electric power TABLE 1 Energy consumption (in Mtoe per annum) according to sector in France Year 1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
Steel Other industries industries 11.0 13.6 14.1 13.1 9.3 8.7 8.4 8.1 3.3 7.75
23.8 38.9 44.2 46.4 40.6 44.2 44.8 45.4 45.9 50.0
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Non-energy uses
Total
21.0 47.6 58.6 65.8 68.5 75.5 78.1 79.3 82.9 85.5
1.1 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5
13.3 25.3 32.4 37.2 37.1 43.6 45.3 46.3 47.5 53.5
3.1 8.3 10.9 12.0 11.7 12.7 12.4 13.1 13.6 14.0
73.3 136.7 163.3 177.8 170.3 188.0 192.3 195.6 201.0 214.75
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TABLE 2 Primary-energy harnessing (in Mtoe per annum) in France Year
Coal
Crude-oil
Natural gas
Primary electricity
Renewable energy
Total
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
35.6 24.5 17.3 13.3 10.9 9.7 8.5 8.3 7.7 7.4 7.0 4.5
2.3 3.2 2.2 2.2 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.3 1.0
2.5 5.8 6.2 6.5 4.5 3.2 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.9 2.8 1.0
9.1 14.0 14.0 23.9 64.0 75.2 78.6 78.8 82.6 87.3 91.2 107.5
Ð 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 5.5
49.5 49.5 41.7 48.9 86.7 95.8 97.7 97.6 100.5 105.2 108.5 119.5
Fig. 1. Annual rates of consumption and indigenous production of fuels in France.
as well as measured renewable energies) consumed divided by the gross product for that country during the considered year. France's energyratio decreased by more than 20% from 1973 to 1992 (Fig. 4). . France's degree of energy self-suciency increased from 22.5% in 1973 to 51.5% in 1995 (Fig. 5). . The rates of energy consumption per sector are shown in Fig. 6; consumption in the transport sector has been growing each year.
42
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
TABLE 3 Trends in the uses of various forms of energy in France: annual usage expressed in the form of a percentage of the total primary-energy consumption for the considered year Year
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Electricity
Renewable energy
Total
1973 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
15.2 15.8 8.9 9.3 7.9 6.5 6.2
69.1 56.6 42.5 41.8 42.5 41.6 41.2
7.3 10.8 12.3 12.6 12.5 12.9 13.0
7.3 15.2 34.4 34.4 35.2 37.1 37.8
1.1 1.6 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Fig. 2. Relative contributions to the indigenous production of primary energy in France during 1973, expressed in units of Mtoe per annum (i.e. 106 tonnes of oil equivalent per annum). For that year, the total production of primary energy in France amounted to only 41.8 Mtoe, and so satis®ed only 22% of French needs.
CRUDE-OIL Demand During the period 1960 to 1973, crude-oil consumption in France was totally reliant upon imports and grew annually by, on average, 12%, reaching a maximum in 1973 (Table 4 and Figs 7 and 8). From November 1973, i.e. the start of the Arab±Israeli war and the resulting ®rst major increase in the unit price of crude-oil, its annual consumption in France declined until 1976, after which it rose again. However, after 1979Ði.e. the year of the second unit-oil-price increase, due to the Iran±Iraq warÐa further decline (i.e. by
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43
Fig. 3. As for Fig. 2, but for 1994, (in which the total production of primary energy in France was 99.6 Mtoe, which met 51.5% of French needs).
Fig. 4. France's energy-ratio, normalised with respect to the values for 1973. The general trend with time indicates the increasing energy eectiveness of France.
21% between 1979 and 1985) occurred. In 1986, as a result of increased world-wide competition, the cost of imported crude-oil per barrel was cut in some instances, temporarily, by as much as half, and consumption increased once againÐespecially in the transport sector. The Gulf crisis in 1990, because of its short duration, had only a minor impact on the oil market.
44
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Fig. 5. Purchased-energy self-suciency for France, i.e. annual indigenous energy supply divided by demand for that year, and expressed as a percentage.
Fig. 6. Relative consumptions of purchased energy during 1994 according to ®nal demandsector in France.
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45
TABLE 4 Oil-products consumption (in Mtoe per year) according to sector in France Year
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
Steel Other industry industries
0.7 2.02 2.33 1.66 0.39 0.51 0.30 0.18 0.20 0.40
6.2 18.38 21.79 19.33 9.58 8.97 9.10 8.64 8.3 6.5
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Non-energy uses (e.g. chemical feedstock)
Total
4.1 25.00 32.52 27.63 18.94 18.18 18.14 17.13 18.1 13.5
1.1 2.81 2.85 2.94 2.68 2.72 2.71 2.78 2.80 2.65
10.4 23.74 30.96 35.60 35.45 41.90 43.47 44.43 45.60 51.50
2.2 6.79 9.13 9.45 9.10 10.72 10.26 10.98 11.30 12.00
24.7 78.74 99.58 96.61 76.14 83.00 83.98 84.14 86.30 86.55
Fig. 7. Sources and respective percentages of crude-oil imports into France during 1973 (in which the total crude-oil imports amounted to 134.9 million tonnes, whereas indigenous extraction was 2.3 million tonnes).
Fig. 8. As for Fig. 7, but for 1993 (in which the total crude-oil imports amounted to 78.3 million tonnes and indigenous extraction was 3.4 million tonnes).
46
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Supply When assessing a country's energy-supplies, commercial viability, securityof-supply, national self-suciency, social costs as well as environmental impacts are considered. The crude-oil market provides an example of France's success in diversifying its sources of this fuel (Figs 7 and 8). Annual imports derived from the Near East have declined: viz. 71% of total oilimports in 1973, compared with only 21.7% in 1993. There were no imports from the North Sea ®eld in 1973, but since then supplies from this region have grown signi®cantly. Africa and the former USSR have also increased their oil exports to France. There has been a continuous decline in indigenous French annual crude-oil extraction since 1988 (Table 5). NATURAL GAS Demand In France, natural-gas consumption on a large scale started in 1960 (Fig. 9, Table 6): until 1973, it was used mainly to generate electricity for industrial purposes. From 1973, following the commissioning of the vast nuclearenergy programme, the manufacturing and domestic sectors together have increasingly provided the main market for natural gas, due to its low unitprice, ready availability and relative environmental-friendliness. Natural gas now represents only about one-®fth of the total energy consumed in the tertiary (i.e. services and commercial) as well as the residential sectors. This fraction is much lower than in any other European country due to competition with the electricity supplied by nuclearTABLE 5 Rate of oil production in France (103 tonnes per annum) Year
Oil products
Crude
Total
1950 1960 1965 1973 1979 1985 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
22 268 569 812 808 596 373 382 353 359 344
128 1977 2988 1254 1197 2642 3355 3244 3024 2952 2866
150 2245 3557 2066 2005 3238 3728 3626 3377 3311 3210
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Fig. 9. Variation of the total rate of natural-gas consumption in France. TABLE 6 Natural-gas consumption (in TWh per annum) according to sector in France Year
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2010
Steel Other industry industries
1.3 5.5 8.8 12.7 8.9 8.0 8.6 8.4 7.9 7.0
4.9 26.0 43.1 81.9 100.4 110.5 114.9 121.5 120.9 162.0
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Non-energy uses (e.g. chemical feedstock)
Total
Ð 27.7 57.7 116.8 151.1 174.5 182.0 190.0 199.7 248.5
Ð 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.5 3.0 1.5
0.7 0.2 0.1 0.1 Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð
5.5 12.7 19.4 29.3 29.9 22.0 24.6 24.8 26.3 20.5
12.4 72.2 129.6 241.7 291.7 316.7 332.2 347.2 357.8 439.5
power plants, which is now in France often used for heating (EdF has promoted the use of electricity for heating through a major publicitycampaign). This approach diers from the policies of most other countries, where (i) electricity generation relies much more on the burning of fossil fuels rather than on harnessing nuclear power, and (ii) the use of electricity (i.e. the highest-quality form of energy) for space-heating purposes is in general discouraged. Nevertheless, it has led to far less chemical pollution
48
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
than if fossil fuels had been burnt in generating the same amount of electricity. Supply The French economy was totally self-sucient in natural gas during the 1960s but, due to the subsequent independence of Algeria, is now largely (90%) dependent on its importation (Figs 10 and 11). Indigenous extraction of natural gas has declined by about 60% during the last decade (see also Fig. 12). The sources of natural-gas imports have been diversi®ed deliberately since 1980 and the gas tends to be supplied under long-term (i.e. in this instance, 25 year) contracts, both factors tending to inhibit short-term unit-price ¯uctuations: now (i.e. 1997) approximately one-third comes from what was the former USSR, another third from Algeria and the remainder from The Netherlands.
Fig. 10. Sources and respective percentages of natural-gas imports into France during 1973 (in which the total natural-gas imports amounted to 98.7 TWh, whereas domestic production was 81.3 TWh).
Fig. 11. As for Fig. 10 but for 1993 (in which the total natural-gas imports amounted to 333.5 TWh, and domestic production was 37.4 TWh).
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49
Fig. 12. Extraction and harnessing rate of natural gas in France.
COAL Demand In France, there has been a decline exceeding 50% in the annual consumption of coal over the last 20 years (Table 7): e.g. from 34.1 million tonnes per annum in 1970 to 14.7 million tonnes per annum in 1992. Supply With the implementation of a programme for the closure of French coalmines, there has been a long-term continuous fall in the annual rate of indigenous coal-extraction (Table 8). Imports (Figs 13 and 14 and Table 9) now represent approximately three-quarters of the coal consumed in France. Nevertheless, the Government is well aware that it is desirable to keep abreast of advances in clean coal-technology, and hence its considerable interest in the performance of the ¯uidised-bed combustor at Gardance.
50
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo TABLE 7 Coal consumption (in Mtoe per annum) in France according to sector
Year
Steel industry
Other industries
Residential and tertiary
Transport
Total
1960 1970 1973 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 2000
15.6 14.9 14.3 8.3 8.0 8.5 8.7 8.4 8.2 7.5 8.6
14.2 6.8 4.1 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.1 4.9 4.8 5.0 5.75
17.5 12.0 8.7 4.0 3.5 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.2 3.1
3.2 0.4 0.1 Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð
50.5 34.1 27.2 17.2 16.5 16.5 16.5 15.9 15.7 14.7 17.45
TABLE 8 Rate of coal extraction within France (in million tonnes per annum) Type of coal Year
Houille
Lignite
Others
Total
1960 1970 1973 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
55.9 37.3 26.6 14.4 13.7 12.1 11.5 10.5 10.1 9.5
2.3 2.8 2.8 2.1 2.1 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.0 1.6
Ð 0.5 0.7 1.9 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7
58.2 40.6 30.1 18.4 16.7 14.5 14.4 13.5 12.9 11.8
Fig. 13. Percentage of the total annual amount of coal imported into France from the stated source in 1973 (in which the total amount of coal imported was 16.5 million tonnes and amount mined in France 81.3 TWh).
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Fig. 14. As for Fig. 13, but for 1993 (in which the total amount of coal imported was 13.1 million tonnes and the amount mined in France 22.6 TWh). TABLE 9 Origins and respective amounts (in million tonnes per annum) of coal imported into France Year
USA
Australia
South Africa
Germany
Poland
Other countries
Total
1973 1986 1987 1988 1989 1996 1991 1992
1.8 5.0 2.9 4.0 6.2 6.6 8.8 8.6
1.0 4.8 4.8 3.3 2.6 3.6 4.4 4.7
0.6 1.5 0.8 1.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 2.7
9.4 3.4 2.7 2.3 2.2 2.2 1.6 0.6
2.0 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6
1.7 3.7 3.0 3.0 5.5 7.0 6.8 5.5
16.5 18.6 14.8 14.8 17.7 20.7 22.7 22.7
ELECTRICITY Demand Electricity consumption approximately doubled in France during the 20 years from 1973 to 1993 (Table 10). About one-third is employed in manufacturing industry, another third for domestic purposes and the remainder is used in the tertiary sector. The promotion, in France, of electrical spaceheating, has led to adequate indigenous supplies sometimes being unavailable at peak-demand times during winter. Thus cogeneration plants (for supplying heat and electricity simultaneously) as well as imports of electricity from Spain are now used to help satisfy such peak electricity-demands. Very occasionally, electricity is imported from the UK, though the annual net amount is always, to date, in the reverse direction.
52
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo TABLE 10 Rate of electricity consumption (in TWh per annum) in France according to sector
Year
Steel industry
Other industries
Residential and tertiary
Agriculture
Transport
Total
1960 1970 1973 1979 1985 1989 1990 1991 1992 2010
6.2 10.3 11.7 12.6 9.9 10.2 10.3 10.2 10.1 8.0
35.1 62.1 72.3 82.6 86.6 103.8 105.2 107.7 111.4 158.5
15.3 42.3 59.2 102.6 147.9 173.1 182.6 190.3 199.7 268.5
0.2 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.4 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.0
3.5 5.8 6.4 6.8 7.4 7.8 8.0 8.3 8.5 10.0
60.3 121.3 150.7 206.1 253.2 296.9 308.2 318.7 332.0 448.0
Supply Around 60 nuclear-power plants have now been built to generate electricty in France (Table 11). As a result, electricity exports have ensued since 1980, i.e. after the second oil-price crisis, so revealing that a national over-supply capacity exists for long periods each year (Fig. 15). This excess capability will probably be reduced with the decommissioning of the ®rst nuclear-plants during the ®rst quater of the next century. For electricity generation, the means most likely to be adopted will increasingly be dictated by the probable duration of utilisation of that type of means each year (Table 12). CCTGs are gradually replacing coal-®red plant for semi-base generation, because coal's competitiveness at present (1997) is in decline (Fig. 16). Coal TABLE 11 Net generation of electricity (in GWh per annum) from nuclear power in France Year
Supply
1960 1965 1973 1979 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
130 897 13 969 37 898 181 740 213 087 241 444 251 520 260 287 288 715 297 949 314 978 321 780
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53
Fig. 15. Trends in the annual trade-balance for electricity with France. TABLE 12 Probable future strategic-mix of the means for electricity generation in France Generation category
Duration that the stated means is likely to be employed per annum
Type of generator recommended
Base Semi-base Peak
Almost all the year Few thousand hours Few hundred hours
Nuclear-power plant Coal-®red CCGTs/wind turbines Stored hydro-power turbines fuelled by natural gas or domestic oil
has to compete against both the relatively low investment-cost CCGT systems (i.e. per kWe output) and the higher eciencies of new nuclear-power plants. All electricity-generating processes are increasing in attainable eciency and availability. So investment costs per kWe of output are in general falling (Table 13). For base generation in France, nuclear power is regarded as the most competitive process.1 However, this advantage has been eroded slightly since 1993, partly because the costs of nuclear-power generated electricity are relatively more stable, whereas CCGT-produced electricity is sensitive to the natural-gas unit-price (which has fallen) and the US dollar to FFR exchange rate. As the cost of nuclear power is immune from fossil-fuels' unit-price
54
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Fig. 16. The large relative share of electricity generated from nuclear power in France. TABLE 13 Average costs, when the stated means was used, for the base generation of electricity Type of generator Nuclear plant CCGT Pulverised-coal combustion Fluidised-bed coal combustion
Average generation cost (FFR/MWh) as at 1993
% reduction in generation cost in 1997 relative to 1993 value
250 326 337 318
16 28 28 24
¯uctuations, its use contributes to electricity-cost stability. Another advantage for France of employing nuclear power rather than classical thermalpower is the resulting increased energy-independence and security-of-supply. Also, using electricity generated by nuclear-power plants has contributed signi®cantly to the reduction of annual emissions of chemical pollutants (e.g. greenhouse gasses), which otherwise would have been emitted. Since 1980, the annual emissions of CO2, NOx and SO2, as measured in 1996, have been reduced by approximately 30, 40 and 60%, respectively (Figs 17±19), a highly commendable performance relative to those of most other countries.
French energy policy
55
Fig. 17. Rates of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from various countries during 1990: (a) per GDP in kg/ECU; and (b) per capita in tonnes per annum.
56
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Fig. 18. Emission rates of nitrogen oxides (NOx) for various countries in 1990: (a) per GDP in kg/ECU; and (b) per capita in tonnes per annum.
French energy policy
57
Fig. 19. Rates of sulphur-dioxide (SO2) emissions from various countries during 1990: (a) per GDP in kg/ECU; and (b) per capita in tonnes per annum.
58
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Decentralised electricity-generation (e.g. obtained via heat-and-electricity cogeneration plant or a wind turbine) occurring relatively near the demand points is becoming increasingly popular, partly because it avoids some of the losses associated with extensive electricity-distribution networks. RENEWABLE ENERGY-SOURCES In France, energy actively harnessed from renewable sources and sold commercially now comprises approximately one-®fth of the total purchased energy. France is the main such harnesser in Europe, with most being sold in the forms of hydro-electricity and ®rewood, as shown in Table 14. However, this relatively large ®gure for total annual renewable-energy use masks the low rates of investment in, and development of, other renewable sources: French state-support for Research and Development in such renewable technologies is the lowest in Europe (e.g. Table 15). Nevertheless much greater exploitation of wind power in France is likely to be achieved as a result of the Government's ``Eole 2005'' programme, which started in 1997. Recent environmental-protection issues The French Government has supported the implementation of lean-energy technologies and the rational use of the renewable energy through ADEME. There is now strong encouragement for the production and use of bio-fuels through the promotion of non-polluting and low-consumption vehicles. Favourable tax-laws have also been applied to experimental projects encouraging the use of bio-fuels. Furthermore, compulsory energy-audits for new TABLE 14 Renewable energy harnessed in France during 1990 (source ADEME) Form of energy harnessed Hydro-electricity Firewood Industrial wastes Urban wastes Heat-pump extraction of ambient energy Geothermal energy Bio-gas Insolation (thermal) Crop residues Wind power Photovoltiac solar-energy Total
Primary consumption rate (ktoe per annum) 12 950 7611 771 715 589 155 74 38 18 0.07 0.03 22 921
French energy policy
59
TABLE 15 Public R&D budget expenditures in the renewable-energy sector during 1993 (in million $US at 1993 values) France 8
Germany
Japan
UK
USA
113
188
23
226
public buildings and the reinforcement of regulations for achieving enhanced thermal-insulation have also been promoted. FACTORS IN THE CONTINUED EVOLUTION OF THE POLICY Renewable-energy technology transfer France promotes the transfer of appropriate technologies (e.g. for photovoltaics and use of geothermal springs) to developing countries. Prospects for the implementation of solar-energy harnessing are excellent in those countries with relatively-high insolation intensities and/or for isolated rural regions. Other technologies, such as those involved with the capturing of geothermal energy, are also being exported. These bring signi®cant ®nancial gains for France. Nuclear power The early part of the 21st century will see the decommissioning of the ®rst few French nuclear-power plants. So a major replacement-programme for reactors will soon be needed if France is to maintain its present reliance on nuclear power. Hence co-operation commenced in 1992, as part of a new Franco-German partnership, to design a new generation of reactor (EPR). This should enhance the safety achieved even further, whilst improving upon the economic competitiveness of the present French designed nuclear-power plant. Also, an increasing proportion of nuclear-power plants in France will be fed with Mox, i.e. mixed oxides of uranium and plutonium derived from radioactive wastes. European Union The energy industry in Europe is a vital part of society, representing as it does 7% of the wealth created annually. It is preferable if the available energy-resources generally are used only when required, and then primarily near where they are located in order to avoid excessive transportation losses.
60
R. H. Taylor, S. D. Probert, P. D. Carmo
Nevertheless, a major goal is to achieve a single European market for energy by removing (i) existing obstacles like restrictive national regulations and (ii) distortions in determining costs and process through directives such as the Electricity Transit Directive (1990) and the Energy Price Transparency Directive (1990). The former allows the right of transit for electricity to pass through a country for the purpose of exchange. The latter directive is a publication of statistical data on the unit prices of electricity in various European countries: it in¯uences French policy, e.g. with respect to increasing exports. REFERENCE 1. Ministry of Industry, Mail and Telecommunications, Paris, private communication, 1997.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Controle, La revue de l'autorite de surete nucleaire. Special topic on safety of future reactors, EPR project, No. 105, June 1995. De Groc, M. C., La Correspondence Nucleaire. Societe Francaise d'Energie Nucleaire (SFEN) No. 116/1, 15 November 1995. EDF REP 2000, The next generation of EDF's nuclear reactors. Paris, 1994. Les De®s Du CEA, No. 43, Paris, 1996. Lindberg, L., Comparing National Responses to the Energy Crisis. Lexington, New York, 1997. Lucas, N., Western European Energy Policies: A Comparative Study of the In¯uence of Institutional Structure on Technical Change. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985. Lucas, N., Energy in France: Planning, Politics and Policy. Europa, London, 1979. Ministere de l'Industrie, Obervatoire de l'Energie, Energy 2010. General report, Prospective Energy Group chaired by Michel Pecqueur. Xth plan 1989±1992, Paris, 1992. Ministere de l'Industrie, Observatorie de l'Energie, l'Energie, Les Chires Cles. DGEMP, Paris, 1994. Ministere de l'Industrie et de l'Amenagement du Territoire, L'energie nucleaire en questions. Editions Le cherche midi, Collection Documents, Paris, 1991. Nuclear-Engineering International Special Publications, French PWR Technology, Paris, 1991.
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Royal Society of London, A Future for Energy Use. Royal Society of London, London, 1995. Souviron, J. P., Debat national energie et environment. Rapport de synthese, Paris, 1994.