From basins to rivers: Understanding the revitalization and significance of top-down drainage integration mechanisms in drainage basin evolution

Journal Pre-proof From basins to rivers: Understanding the revitalization and significance of top-down drainage integration mechanisms in drainage basin evolution

Zach Hilgendorf, Greta Wells, Phillip H. Larson, Jason J.F. Millett, Melissa A. Kohout PII:

S0169-555X(19)30511-2

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.107020

Reference:

GEOMOR 107020

To appear in:

Geomorphology

Received date:

30 July 2019

Revised date:

22 December 2019

Accepted date:

22 December 2019

Please cite this article as: Z. Hilgendorf, G. Wells, P.H. Larson, et al., From basins to rivers: Understanding the revitalization and significance of top-down drainage integration mechanisms in drainage basin evolution, Geomorphology(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.geomorph.2019.107020

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© 2019 Published by Elsevier.

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From basins to rivers: Understanding the revitalization and significance of top-down drainage integration mechanisms in drainage basin evolution.

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Zach Hilgendorf a,b,, Greta Wellsc Phillip H. Larson b,*, Jason J. F. Millett b, Melissa A. Kohout b

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a) School of Geographical Sciences & Urban Planning, Earth Surface Processes and Geomorphology Lab, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA b) Department of Geography, Earth Science Programs, EARTH Systems Research Laboratory, Minnesota State University, Mankato, MN 56001, USA c) Department of Geography & the Environment, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

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*Corresponding Author: Phillip H. Larson, Minnesota State University, Mankato, Department of Geography, Earth Science Programs, EARTH Systems Research Laboratory, Mankato MN 56001. Email: [email protected]

Journal Pre-proof Abstract The top-down drainage basin integration and drainage network evolutionary processes of lake overflow and aggradational spillover (or aggradational piracy), collectively referred to here as spillover, are undergoing a revitalization in the literature to explain aspects of drainage basin evolution and transverse drainage development across the globe. Spillover processes are commonly unidentified or misidentified as other processes (e.g., piracy/capture via headward

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erosion, superimposition, antecedence). Commonly invoked arguments for stream piracy

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associated with “headward erosion” are discussed in the context of contemporary research

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highlighting the inefficiency of this process. The term “headward erosion” in this context is often misconstrued and confused with headward propagating knickpoints in preexisting drainages that

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are actively evolving. This term is, therefore, misused when discussing basin integration and the

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establishment of new transverse drainages. We propose the term “drainage-head erosion” to

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rectify this and recommend that “headward erosion” only be used when referring to real headward erosion when a preexisting stream has headward propagating knickpoints or a

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knickzone. Recent investigations have pointed to an engrained paradigm and pedagogical bias as

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a possible culprit for the lack of recognition of lake overflow and aggradational spillover. Despite this, spillover is common in a variety of terrestrial and extraterrestrial settings, including geomorphic and geographic settings ranging from post-glacial drainage reorganization to drainage integration processes in extensional tectonic terrains. The focus of this manuscript is to provide a summary of these processes as presented in the scientific literature and to highlight the revitalization of spillover in present research with focus on two prominent geomorphic settings where spillover processes commonly occur: proglacial environments and extensional terrains like those of the southwestern United States.

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Keywords

lake overflow, aggradational piracy, transverse drainage, drainage basin

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evolution

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1. Top-down, spillover-driven transverse drainage

Transverse drainages are fluvial systems that flow across topographic barriers such as

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mountain ranges, geologic structures, or other natural dams (e.g., landslides, moraines, lava

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dams; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009; Larson et al., 2017). Four

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mechanisms have been attributed to the initiation of transverse drainage development in scientific literature since the late eighteenth century – antecedence, superimposition, piracy, and

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overflow (Bishop, 1995; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009; Larson et al.,

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2017; Meek, this issue). Antecedence refers to a preexisting stream that has incised through an uplifting bedrock structure, typical in tectonically or volcanically active regions (e.g., Medlicott,

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1864; Powell, 1875). Antecedence requires that the river predates transverse drainage development. Superimposed streams are those that erode through an easily erodible substrate and into a previously buried bedrock structure. As the surrounding landscape denudes, the bedrock is exposed as a topographic high and the stream is locked in place as it transverses this structure (e.g., Hutton, 1795; Playfair, 1802; Maw, 1866; Powell, 1875; Gilbert, 1880; Dutton, 1882). Superimposition also requires a river that predates transverse drainage development. Piracy, or capture, occurs when the course of a stream is diverted to a steeper path (e.g., Gilbert, 1880; Cobb, 1893; Davis, 1898, 1905; Lane, 1899) - usually through sapping, lateral stream erosion of

Journal Pre-proof a spillover sill, or upstream sediment aggradation spilling over a basin’s margins (e.g., aggradational spillover; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007). Finally, lake overflow (commonly referred to as overspill or fill-and-spill) occurs when a basin fills with enough sediment and water to overtop a sill and spills over into a lower basin (e.g., Fig. 1A; Newberry, 1861, 1862; Davis, 1882). Both piracy and lake overflow require the river to be younger than the barrier it now crosses as a transverse drainage (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009).

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Importantly, these younger transverse drainages driven by lake overflow and piracy often

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represent locations where formerly closed, or endorheic, basins become integrated and develop a

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through-flowing drainage system (e.g., Meek, 1989, this issue; Spencer and Patchett, 1997;

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Scarborough, 2001; Spencer and Pearthree, 2001; House et al., 2005, 2008; Roskowski et al., 2010; Heidarzadeh et al., 2017; Repasch et al., 2017; Geurts et al., 2018, this issue; Jungers and

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Heimsath, 2019; Skotnicki et al., this issue). Transverse drainages like these are commonly

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found in extensional tectonic settings, like the Basin and Range of North America, where structural and topographic controls create internally drained basins that fill with sediment and

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water. They also commonly occur in proglacial and glacial environments where glacial ice,

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glacial deposits (e.g., moraines), or glacially-driven isostatic adjustments dam meltwater and sediment. In the case of piracy and lake overflow processes, these transverse systems also mark the locations where new river courses are established that did not exist prior to the formation of the transverse drainage (Figs. 7-8; Mack et al., 1997; Douglass, 1999; Spencer and Pearthree, 2001; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Reheis and Redwine, 2008; Douglass et al., 2009; Kehew et al., 2009; Baker, 2013; Heidarzadeh et al., 2017; Larson et al., 2017; Geurts et al., 2018, this issue; Meek, this issue). They are, therefore, fundamentally important processes to understand in our attempts to reconstruct drainage basin evolution through time.

Journal Pre-proof The processes that allow for integration of previously disconnected basins can be characterized as top-down or bottom-up processes. Top-down integration involves the filling and spilling of a basin(s) in the downstream direction (e.g., House et al., 2008), extending the drainage downstream in the process. This occurs primarily through lake overflow or through aggradational spillover (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009). We collectively refer to these processes as ―spillover processes.‖ Bottom-up integration requires a stream to

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integrate and extend or capture basins in the upstream direction, through processes such as

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groundwater sapping or erosion of a sill. Bottom-up ―headward erosion‖ is frequently coupled

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with stream piracy to explain transverse systems (e.g., Cobb, 1893; Davis, 1898; Lane, 1899;

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Wells and Enzel, 1994; Bishop, 1995; D’Agostino et al., 2001; Davis et al., 2001; Lucchitta et al., 2001a, 2001b; Enzel et al., 2003; Wells et al., 2003; Lucchitta et al., 2011; Dickinson, 2013,

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2015; van Gorp et al., 2013; Repasch et al., 2017; Carson et al., 2018; Geurts et al., 2018). This

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mechanism may be overprescribed in the literature and may be in error in some locations because of a poor understanding of the process, a stagnant paradigm, and a pedagogical bias

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(Bishop, 1995; Meek, 2002; Larson et al., 2017).

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A pedagogically engrained bias, first identified by Meek (2002) and re-examined by Meek (2013), has led to a general lack of appropriate transverse drainage content in introductory physical geography and geology textbooks. This bias has likely stunted comprehension of these concepts in the formative years of geo-education. Meek (2002) argued that two factors most likely account for this bias: (1) scientists expect to find sedimentary evidence of the lake that breached the basin, but because the lake clays always sit on top and are unprotected after the breach, they are the first evidence eroded in the top-down spillover process (Meek and Douglass, 2001, p. 200), and (2) not a single introductory physical geography, physical geology or

Journal Pre-proof geomorphology textbook he randomly sampled described spillover as a possible explanation for a transverse drainage (Meek, 2002). Rather, he found that six of the 23 different textbooks failed to mention any transverse drainage mechanism (26%). Of the ones that did, 3/9 physical geography, 8/9 physical geology and 5/5 geomorphology textbooks described piracy (16/17) whereas only 12 of these 17 textbooks described antecedence and/or superposition. Meek (2013) re-investigated the situation 11 yr later using textbooks that had been published in the

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intervening years and found that 3/9 of the introductory physical geography textbooks and 3/7

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physical geology textbooks he sampled omitted all transverse drainage hypotheses (38%).

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Interestingly, examples of spillover were featured in three of the newer texts, but in none of those

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cases was spillover described as a potential cause of a transverse drainage. While textbooks cannot be comprehensive for any broad field of study, the increasing omission of transverse

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drainage discussions, and the continued omission of spillover as a possible transverse drainage

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hypothesis hints at a larger problem related to selective textbook content and a constrained

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paradigm that does not inform adequately about fundamental river development mechanisms.

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1.1. Muddled thinking: Piracy and headward erosion Piracy/capture via headward erosion has been used to explain the formation of Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA, and many through-flowing fluvial systems across the globe (e.g., Davis, 1898; Wells and Enzel, 1994; Bishop, 1995; D’Agostino et al., 2001; Davis et al., 2001; Lucchitta et al., 2001a, 2001b; Enzel et al., 2003; Wells et al., 2003; Lucchitta et al., 2011; Dickinson, 2013, 2015; van Gorp et al., 2013; Repasch et al., 2017; Geurts et al., 2018). In these cases, supporters of headward erosion have suggested faster inter-basin subsidence rates (Smith, 2013), a lack of recessional shorelines near the elevation of a potential point of spillover (Enzel

Journal Pre-proof et al., 2003; Lucchitta et al., 2011), differential incision rates across the basin (Davis et al., 2001; Lucchitta et al., 2001a, 2001b), or the presence of bedrock canyon passages (Dickinson, 2015) as proof of headward eroding drainage integration. However, the process of basin integration through headward erosion is rarely efficient enough to adequately explain transverse drainages especially in extensional terrains (Hunt 1969; Bishop, 1995; Spencer and Pearthree, 2001; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al.,

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2009; Meek, 2009; Larson et al., 2017; Geurts et al., 2018). Proponents for the ineffectiveness of

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headward erosion have argued that it is a slow and relatively inefficient process (e.g., Bishop,

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1995; Meek, 2009; Larson et al., 2017; Lai and Anders, 2018), except in regions where mass

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wasting processes are common or regions where uplift is changing the gradient of a stream. In these regions, it is possible that headward erosion can result in the breaching of a drainage divide

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after the development of an asymmetrical ridge (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007). Bishop

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(1995) stated that headward extension of a drainage through rain-splash, sheetwash, or creep is a low-magnitude, high-frequency occurrence (Wolman and Miller, 1960) that would not result in

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net migration of a symmetrical drainage divide to a point of integration. Flume experiments by

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Douglass and Schmeeckle (2007) support this notion and suggest that a strongly asymmetrical scarp ridge and prolonged time of development was required to generate integration through headward erosion. Despite the rarity of true headward erosion causing basin integration, it is still regularly invoked to explain integrated basins and drainage network reorganization without a discussion of its relative ineffectiveness (D’Agostino et al., 2001; Stokes et al., 2002; Young, 2008; Dickinson, 2013, 2015). Meek (2002, 2009) and Larson et al. (2017) attributed the overutilization of headward erosion for explaining basin integration to a pedagogically engrained bias that stems from a

Journal Pre-proof misunderstanding of the inefficiency of headward erosion and the dominant forces at work. As Larson et al. (2017, p. 277) stated:

“… textbooks confuse headward erosion with knickpoint recession, leading to the mistaken belief that stream piracy can be caused by vigorous growth of a “precocious gully”—an issue of muddled thinking recognized more than forty-

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five years ago (Hunt, 1969).”

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Piracy via headward erosion is a ―bottom-up‖ process where a topographically higher

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river is captured by a headward eroding stream. This leads to a diversion of flow into a new and steeper channel (Bishop, 1995). Headward erosion typically requires that a stream is expanding

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headward through in situ weathering, mass wasting, and groundwater sapping in the head

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position of the watershed or interfluve (Bishop, 1995; Spencer and Pearthree, 2001; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009; Marra et al., 2014; Larson et al., 2017). In

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comparison, headward incision resulting from knickpoint or knickzone propagation is typically a

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process driven by autogenic or allogenic forcing (e.g., base level lowering, isostatic adjustment, tectonic movement) of an established, preexisting river that propagates upstream and it may elongate the longitudinal profile of the river (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007). We propose that the process-oriented term "drainage-head erosion" be used in place of "headward erosion" in transverse drainage research to differentiate the growth of one drainage basin at the expense of a neighboring drainage basin by shifting the interfluve and locally reversing the drainage direction, thereby elongating the longitudinal profile of the river. Although "headward erosion" has a history of misuse and misunderstanding, "drainage-head erosion‖ could act as a new term that

Journal Pre-proof requires careful consideration of the actual processes that are responsible for transverse drainage establishment. In using this term, we refer to processes expanding the drainage network in the head position of the drainage through in situ weathering, mass wasting, groundwater sapping, or the concentration of overland flow. Recently, a study in the Wisconsin River basin in Wisconsin, USA, has provided an example of misidentification of the piracy/capture via a headward erosion integration

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mechanism. Carson et al. (2013a, 2013b, 2018) focused on the redirection of the ancestral

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Wisconsin River (the Wyalusing River). At some point (ca. Marine Isotope Stage II) the drainage

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of the Wisconsin River shifted from northeast (into Lake Michigan) to southwest (into the

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Mississippi River). They argue that piracy/capture initiated this flow reversal and support this by citing barbed tributaries, recent deep incision upstream of the confluence of the Mississippi and

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Wisconsin rivers, and a bedrock strath surface dip that is opposite to the modern flow direction.,

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When describing the processes that led to the piracy/capture, however, they invoke a chain of events similar to that of the Teays River, Ohio, USA (Chamberlin and Leverett, 1894; Coffey,

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1958; Goldthwait, 1983). They cite spillover of glacial Lake Tight and Lake Monongahela into

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the Ohio and Pittsburgh rivers, respectively, when ice-dammed lakes filled up and overtopped the lowest point in the drainage divide. Carson et al. (2018, p. 9) propose that it is ―logical and appealing‖ to implement the same formative processes in their study area and argued that it provides a ―single causative agent for reorganization.‖ This conclusion conflicts with their interpretation of stream piracy/capture by concisely describing lake overflow, a top-down transverse drainage process. This highlights the need for a better understanding of transverse drainage processes at work across a variety of environmental settings. More recently, Wickert et al. (2019) investigated a buried bedrock valley floor on the upper Mississippi River, downstream

Journal Pre-proof of the sites examined in Carson et al. (2018), where they propose a forebulge generated by the Laurentide Ice Sheet resulted in ponding and eventual spillover. This novel look at the imprint of glacial isostatic adjustment on the longitudinal profile of a river modeled flow over a forebulge, incorporated drilling logs, used passive seismic surveys and showed how flow could fill and spill over a forebulge and incise a valley similar to that of the modern and paleo-upper Mississippi River. It is important to note that these two studies, although coming to differnet conclusions,

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draw attention to transverse drainage processes in previously glaciated landscapes within the

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continental interior. Accurately describing and attributing these processes is therefore critical to

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developing models of landscape evolution and drainage network reconstruction.

1.2. Spillover processes: A brief history of rejuvenation in historic literature

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Despite a long history of recognition and field identification, top-down drainage basin

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evolutionary processes of lake overflow (Fig. 1A) and aggradational spillover (or aggradational piracy; Fig. 1B-C) have consistently been neglected or misidentified in favor of other transverse

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drainage mechanisms (Meek, 2002, 2009; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al.,

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2009; Larson et al., 2017). Furthermore, our understanding of these spillover processes has seemed to evolve sporadically and only after spillover has been ―rediscovered‖ in the literature. The earliest examples we have found of spillover processes in the literature come from a lavadammed lake overflowing in France (Scrope, 1827). This lake formed when the Veyre River, in the Auvergne region of France, was dammed by lava flows from Monts Dore. The lake eventually overflowed and cut a 24 km-long gorge. Another early reference refers to a landslide dammed lake that existed from 1191-1219 C.E. in the French town of Grenoble. This lake overflowed nearly forty years later and caused widespread destruction in the town (Pilot, 1859).

Journal Pre-proof In addition to landslide and lava-dammed mechanisms driving lake overflow, reference was made to spillover processes in the United States desert southwest (Newberry, 1861, 1862) and in formerly proglacial environments in the North American continental interior (Carll, 1880, 1883; Chamberlin and Leverett, 1894). The Ohio River basin, USA, was the setting for a lake overflow event after glacial ice intersected reaches of the river, blocking it and causing it to overtop the lowest elevation along the bedrock interfluve (Carll, 1880, 1883; Chamberlin and Leverett, 1894;

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Wickert et al., 2019). The new course of the Ohio River flowed into the Mississippi River. Lake

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overflow over a moraine dam was suggested as an explanation for the excavation of the

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Minnesota River valley (glacial River Warren) during Late Wisconsinan glaciation (Warren,

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1874; Upham, 1895), though research has suggested that moraine dam failure is more likely the culprit (Kehew et al., 2009).

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In the southwestern United States, Newberry's (1861) spillover hypothesis for the

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formation of the lower Colorado River was not invoked again until Blackwelder (1934). Following Blackwelder (1934) and Blackwelder and Ellsworth (1936), the concept of spillover

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was virtually lost again until Meek (1989). Meek (1989) helped to reinvigorate the top-down

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spillover concept, especially in the context of endorheic basins in the extensional terrains of the southwestern United States. Meek (1989, 1990, 1999, 2000) attributed lake overflow as the formative process for Afton Canyon of the Mojave River, California, USA. This idea was challenged in favor of the paradigm of piracy/headward eroding drainages (Wells and Enzel, 1994; Enzel et al., 2003; Wells et al., 2003). Corroborative evidence from a study by Reheis and Redwine (2008), however, supported Meek’s findings and favored rapid incision of the Mojave River, the formation of Afton Canyon, and the erosion of relict shorelines. From that point on,

Journal Pre-proof spillover has experienced much greater attention in the Colorado River basin and extensional terrains of the southwestern United States. Thus, this manuscript focuses on providing a summary of the literature regarding mechanisms that drive top-down drainage basin integration and transverse drainage development: lake overflow (e.g., Maag, 1969; Grove and Goudie, 1971; Meek, 1989, 2000, 2004; Raymond and Nolan, 2000; Meek and Douglass, 2001; Scarborough, 2001; Spencer and

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Pearthree, 2001; House et al., 2005, 2008; Spencer et al., 2008; Kehew et al., 2009; Skotnicki et

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al., this issue) and aggradational spillover (or aggradational piracy) (e.g., Douglass and

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Schmeeckle, 2007; Dickinson, 2015; Repasch et al., 2017; Geurts et al., 2018; Jungers and

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Heimsath, 2019; Skotnicki and DePonty, this issue; Skotnicki et al., this issue). Herein, we refer to these terms jointly as spillover as they result from the similar top-down process of an upstream

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basin filling and spilling over into a downstream basin. We explore and review these two

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spillover processes as informed by the literature. We then focus on two prominent settings in which spillover processes are common in order to exemplify their importance in drainage basin

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evolution and transverse drainage development: former glacial and proglacial environments and

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extensional terrains with a focus on the southwestern United States.

2. Understanding spillover: Lake overflow and aggradational spillover 2.1. Geomorphic forces driving spillover Spillover processes occur when a basin is in disequilibrium, where inputs of sediment and/or water exceed the capacity of the basin to store sediment and water. In reality, seldom are there any substantial outputs from basins that later experience spillover. Spillover is not solely a product of water overtopping a divide, but also of sediment raising the floor of the basin and

Journal Pre-proof advancing the system closer to an overflowing state (Fig. 1; Bishop, 1995; Smith, 2013; Geurts et al., 2018). Thus, understanding variables that influence sediment supply and hydrologic inputs into a basin are crucial to understanding why spillover events occur. Spillover of endorheic basins, such as those in the North American Basin and Range province, have been ascribed to internal (e.g., orogenic; Douglass et al., 2009; Repasch et al., 2017) and external (e.g., climatic; Gale, 1912; Blackwelder, 1933; Larson et al., 2017) forcing variables. These forcing variables

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produce the disequilibrium between sediment and water supply as inputs and evaporation, basin

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extension, and subsidence as outputs or means of accommodation (Geurts et al., 2018).

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Integration can therefore be driven by uplift that increases the slope of a basin (Heidarzadeh et

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al., 2017; Repasch et al., 2017), changes in climate (e.g., deglaciation) that increases discharge and/or erosion (Gilbert, 1882; Stearns, 1962; Heidarzadeh et al., 2017), upstream drainage

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reorganization that increases sediment/water supply downstream (Meek, 1989, 2000, 2004;

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House et al., 2005, 2008), or other local conditions. These forcing mechanisms can be coeval. Repasch et al. (2017) attributed spillover and

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basin integration in the Rio Grande to a combination of tectonic uplift, steepening the

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longitudinal profile of the river, increased discharge, and increased sediment supply. Although the tectonic regime that formed these basins set the stage for integration, the other mechanisms probably caused the basin to reach a spillover threshold. In this case, the steepening of the longitudinal profile increases erosion rates throughout the basin, further depositing sediment in endorheic basins and priming them for top-down spillover sequences (Repasch et al., 2017). In the case of dammed basins (e.g., moraines, landslides, glacial ice, etc.), the damming process can be the forcing mechanism and the subsequent overtopping would be the response that progresses the system back towards a graded state. Mack et al. (1997), Dickinson (2015), Repasch et al.

Journal Pre-proof (2017), Geurts et al. (2018), and Jungers and Heimsath (2019) all addressed basin aggradation in the southwestern United States as a method for basin-filling and basin integration. Jungers and Heimsath (2019) explicitly differentiated aggradation and spilling of Aravaipa Creek into the Lower San Pedro Basin from the ―fill-and-spill‖ of a lake, such as in House et al. (2008). Despite different forcing factors that breach a sill in a basin, however, water (lake overflow) and sediment (aggradational spillover) can both result in the overtopping of a topographic divide and,

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by that definition, fall within the basin spillover mechanism.

2.2. Lake overflow

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Lake overflow occurs where hydrologic inputs into a basin exceed basin outputs,

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allowing a lake to form. Water accumulates until it reaches the topographically lowest rim of the

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basin where it then spills over. This process can be reinforced by accumulating sediment on the basin floor. Fig. 1A-1 highlights the initial accumulation of sediment and water in a basin; Fig.

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1A-2 the filling and initial overtopping and establishment of a transverse drainage; and Fig. 1A-3

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incision of the newly integrated river through the former topographic barrier as it adjusts to a new base level condition. Flume experiments by Douglass and Schmeeckle (2007) suggested that

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upon reaching a spillover threshold, incision begins when a knickpoint retreats to the location of initial overflow. Lake drainage continues after further knickpoint retreat into the former lake basin and is controlled by downstream base level. It is also important to note that the draining of the lake does not always need to be catastrophic. Erosion over and into the barrier can be a slow, prolonged process that results in sustained periods of high discharge. Douglass and Schmeeckle (2007) and Douglass et al. (2009) provided a criteria-based method for identifying locations where lake overflow may have occurred. The criteria are based on flume experiments and a synthesis of transverse drainage literature (e.g., Meek, 1989; Meek

Journal Pre-proof and Douglass, 2001; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009). Their approach begins by determining whether the drainage network in question is younger or older than the topographic barrier it crosses. In other words, was the river there before the topographic barrier existed (e.g., superimposition or antecedence) or did the river cut across the topographic barrier creating a new drainage path (e.g., overflow or piracy). Younger drainages will have sediment downstream of a bedrock high that records rapid drainage initiation, incision across the low point

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in a topographic barrier, and evidence of regional reorganization (Douglass and Schmeeckle,

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2007). Older drainages will likely have sediment predating the most recent exposure or uplift of

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a sill, wind gaps (relict flow paths) across bedrock highs, and gravels from the drainage

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preserved on top of the bedrock high (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007). Further evidence used to identify lake overflow in a landscape include: (1) development of the drainage across what was

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probably the topographic low point in the now integrated basin, (2) the existence of a paleobasin

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upstream of the topographic high, (3) ponded deposits and paleoshorelines in the paleobasin, and (4) sedimentary and geomorphic evidence of the rapid arrival of water followed by sediment (an

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erosional contact overlain with alluvium possibly having an exotic provenance). Instances of

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lake overflow have been recorded across a variety of geomorphic and environmental settings across the globe (Figs. 2-8). Endorheic basin overflow examples have been noted in the Atacama Desert (Ritter et al., 2018), Iranian Plateau (Heidarzadeh et al., 2017), Iberian Peninsula (Arche et al., 2010; Geurts et al., 2018), Mediterranean basin (Garcia-Castellanos et al., 2009), English Channel (Gupta et al., 2017), East African Rift (Grove and Goudie, 1971; Butzer et al., 1972; Crossley, 1984; Talbot and Brendeland, 2001; Beuning et al., 2002) and throughout the North American Basin and Range physiographic province (Meek, 1989, 2000; Spencer and Patchett, 1997; Meek and Douglass, 2001; Spencer and Pearthree, 2001; Anderson, 2005; House et al.,

Journal Pre-proof 2005, 2008; Menges and Anderson, 2005; Orme, 2008; Spencer et al., 2008; Smith, 2009; Larson et al., 2010, 2014; Machette et al., 2013; Hood et al., 2014; Reheis et al., 2014; Howard et al., 2015; Repasch et al., 2017; Douglass et al., this issue; Skotnicki and DePonty, this issue; Skotnicki et al., this issue). Glacial/proglacial spillover examples include the Canadian Arctic (Maag, 1969), Alaska, USA (Raymond and Nolan, 2000), the Channeled Scablands, USA (Bretz, 1923, 1969), and the Siberian Altai Mountains (Baker et al., 1993; Rudoy, 2002; Carrivick and

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Tweed, 2013). Examples of mass wasting-dammed spillover include Zion National Park, USA

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(Grater, 1945; Castleton et al., 2016), the Calabria region of Italy (Cotecchia et al., 1969, 1986)

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and East New Britain province in Papua New Guinea (King, 1986, 1987; King et al., 1989).

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Instances of lava-dammed (volcanogenic) spillover include examples from France (Scrope, 1827), the Phillipines (Umbal and Rodolfo, 1996; Antonia et al., 2003; Lagmay et al., 2007), and

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Washington, USA (Ely et al., 2012). Even extraterrestrial basins on Mars have been studied and

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attributed to basin spillover (Fig. 6; Warner et al., 2013; Marra et al., 2014; Goudge and Fassett, 2018; Goudge et al., 2018). A more comprehensive list of suggested spillover locations from the

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literature can be found in Supplemental Table 1 and geographically represented in Figs. 7-8 and

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the supplemental shapefile provided. 2.3. Aggradational spillover

Similar to lake overflow, aggradational spillover (or aggradational piracy) is the spillover of sediment and water over the topographic low point of a barrier to flow (Fig. 1B-1C). However, instead of being driven primarily by relatively deep, ponding water (a lake) that overtops a low point in a topographic barrier to flow, this process occurs in one of two ways, as suggested in the literature: (1) the floor of a basin aggrades with enough sediment via flowing water (Fig. 1B) to a point of spilling across a barrier (e.g., an alluvial fan that aggrades/progrades

Journal Pre-proof across the barrier), or (2) when the elevation of the floor of an aggrading channel reaches a sill, and the stream spills laterally over the divide (Fig. 1C). This process is a form of piracy, but it is important to note that the spillover occurs because of aggradation in the stream that gets captured, rather than by what is often invoked as vigorous drainage-head erosion of the pirating stream. The process naturally leads to the classic elbows of capture that are misinterpreted as evidence of piracy caused by drainage-head erosion, rather than spillovers (Fig. 1B and 1C;

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Mack et al., 1997; Douglass, 1999; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009;

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Dickinson, 2013, 2015; Repasch et al., 2017).

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Aggradational spillover has been invoked in locations where descriptions of sediment

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ramp deposits are found (e.g., Dickinson, 2015; Jungers and Heimsath, 2019; Skotnicki and DePonty, this issue; Skotnicki et al., this issue). For example, sediment ramps have been invoked

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along the Gila River, Arizona (Dickinson, 2015), along with alluvial fan ramps along the course

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of the Salt River, Arizona (Skotnicki et al., this issue), and by Jungers and Heimsath (2019) who suggested a spillover ramp in the Aravaipa Creek basin of Arizona and set it apart from

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conventional ―fill-and-spill‖ (i.e., lake overflow) of a lake, and Geurts et al. (2018; this issue)

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highlighted ―basin spillover‖ (i.e., aggradational spillover) in the Italian Apennines. Flume experiments by Douglass and Schmeeckle (2007) modeled aggradational spillover by inducing channel aggradation to a point of spillover (Fig. 1C). An aggradational ramp was created, and after lateral spillover across the interfluve occurred, knickpoint retreat downstream of the spillover point rapidly incised the stream channel resulting in a transverse gorge with an elbow of capture. These results are similar to results presented by Geurts et al. (2018; this issue) in the Italian Apennines, where regional and fault-block uplift produced sufficient sediment to fill basins and result in spillover. Ultimately, this would occur where the basin fills to near

Journal Pre-proof capacity with sediment and flowing water to carry that sediment across the divide. Basin controls for aggradational spillover have been better constrained through these modeled experiments and field work. In endorheic basins, integration is controlled by local factors that drive the influx of sediment and water. Basins will remain endorheic until sediment supply and/or the influx of water reaches a critical threshold for spillover, which will then begin to integrate the basin with the downstream landscape. Douglass et al. (2009) argued that the key difference between

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piracy/capture and spillover is that sediment mobilized during basin spillover is from within the

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upstream basins, whereas the flow of sediment from a piracy/capture switches from one stream

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channel to another without significant long-term storage of sediment.

2.4. Geomorphic impact and effectiveness of lake overflow versus aggradational piracy

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The efficacy and geomorphic impact of the top-down spillover processes are driven by

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the potential energy stored in the upstream basin prior to integration. Aggradational spillover events lack large volumes of stored water and have less potential energy to be converted to

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kinetic energy upon integration. Therefore, they lack the same erosive capacity and take longer

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to progress than lake overflow. Potential energy in these systems is equivalent to the volume of water in the upstream basin and relief between upstream and downstream basins (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009; John Douglass, personal communication). In addition, it is important to consider the resistance of the sill lithology in understanding the integration process. Lithologies that may be more resistant to erosion can retard the progress of a headward retreating knickpoint, thus slowing the integration process and geomorphic impact throughout the newly integrated basins (John Douglass, personal communication).

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3. Spillover in glacial/proglacial environments 3.1. Processes conducive to spillover in glacial environments Spillover processes, and specifically glacial lake overflow, in glacial environments operate via the same fundamental processes as in non-glacial settings: a basin fills with enough sediment and/or water to breach its impoundment. Proglacial environments contain abundant sources of meltwater and sediment to fill basins. Although lakes in non-glaciated settings are fed

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by groundwater, meteoric water, and/or seasonal snowmelt, ice-contact lakes are additionally

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sourced from glacial meltwater (Tweed and Russell, 1999; Clague and Evans, 2000; Korup and

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Tweed, 2007; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013). Furthermore, glaciated mountainous regions may

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experience increased orographic precipitation and snowpack relative to non-glacial environments

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(Korup and Tweed, 2007). Glacial environments also contain abundant sediment sources, including glacial erosion, paraglacial mass wasting, and glacial lake outburst floods. These

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sources can result in enormous quantities of sediment input, which can be deposited directly in basins via subglacial conduits, or mass wasting events into the lake, or deposited indirectly by

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glaciofluvial transportation through the watershed. This sediment influx can infill basins and

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raise water levels, sometimes rapidly, towards the threshold necessary to trigger spillover (Ballantyne, 2002; Korup and Tweed, 2007; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013). Numerous processes condition glacial landscapes for lake basin development. Glacial erosion can create deep depressions, which are frequently occupied by lakes impounded by a bedrock rim, or riegel, following glacial front retreat (Benn and Evans, 2010; Carrivick, 2011; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013). Glacier lobes and moraines can also impound meltwater, with many contemporary lakes across the globe dammed by terminal or lateral moraines formed during a glacial advance (Figs. 5, 7 and 8; Evans and Clague, 1994; Clague and Evans, 2000; O’Connor

Journal Pre-proof and Beebee, 2009; Carrivick, 2011; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013; Westoby et al., 2014). Glacial lakes may also form in volcanic calderas (Waythomas et al., 1996; O’Connor and Beebee, 2009; Manville, 2010; Carrivick, 2011). Finally, landslides, rock falls, and other mass wasting events can impound glacial meltwater. These slope failures often result from paraglacial adjustment caused by oversteepened and debuttressed slopes, rock wall destabilization via freeze-thaw processes in joints, and permafrost thaw (Evans and Clague, 1994; Ballantyne, 2002; Korup and

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Tweed, 2007; O’Connor and Beebee, 2009; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013; Westoby et al., 2014;

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Carrivick and Heckmann, 2017; Haeberli et al., 2017). On a regional scale, ice sheets

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isostatically depress land surfaces, creating basins where meltwater can accumulate following

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glacier retreat. These lakes can overfill and spill into topographically lower basins, such as occurred during Laurentide Ice Sheet retreat in the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene (Kehew

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et al., 2009; Baker, 2013; Wickert et al., 2019).

3.2. Mechanisms for basin spillover in glacial/proglacial settings

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Top-down drainage integration, reorganization, and transverse drainage development in

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glacial settings typically occurs via two main processes: (1) glacial lake overflow; and 2) dam breaching. The resulting drainage event is called a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)—also known as a jökulhlaup, the Icelandic term for ―glacier leap‖ (although some publications strictly define jökulhlaups as floods generated by subglacial volcanic melting, most literature uses the terms ―GLOF‖ and ―jökulhlaup‖ interchangeably, as does this review) (Evans and Clague, 1994; Marren, 2005; Carrivick, 2011; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013, 2016; Westoby et al., 2014). GLOFs can also result from failure of an ice, moraine, or landslide-debris dam or from immediate meltwater drainage without prior reservoir storage, such as during a subglacial volcanic eruption.

Journal Pre-proof However, as these processes do not fall within the strict definition of basin overflow, this review will not address them (Costa and Schuster, 1988; Tweed and Russell, 1999; Korup and Tweed, 2007; O’Connor and Beebee, 2009; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013, 2016; Westoby et al., 2014).

3.2.1. Top-down drainage integration, reorganization, and transverse drainage development in glacial/proglacial settings

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Basin overfill typically occurs in lakes with moraine, landslide, or bedrock dams, as ice

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dams tend to float or fail before lake levels exceed dam height. However, ice-dammed lake

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overflow resulting from supraglacial thermal incision has been documented on Axel Heiberg

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Glacier in the Canadian Arctic (Maag, 1969), as well as at a supraglacial lake on Black Rapids Glacier in Alaska, USA (Raymond and Nolan, 2000). Ice-dammed lake overflow can also occur

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if water drains over the lowest interfluve bounding the lake, like a bedrock col. Cold-based

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glaciers may also prove an exception because the glacier is frozen to its bed and the ice dam is

Roberts, 2005).

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stronger because of lower water content (Costa and Schuster, 1988; Tweed and Russell, 1999;

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Lake basins can also overflow from an influx of floodwater from a jökulhlaup, or from rapid melting of a glacier. Though the Kuray floods in the Siberian Altai Mountains were initially triggered by glacial lake ice dam failure, floodwater overfilled a series of intermontane lake basins and valleys, generating a network of spillways (Rudoy, 2002; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013). This chain of events is important to consider because, regardless of the initial mechanism, it still results in downstream basin overflow. The glacial Lake Missoula floods that formed the Channeled Scablands, USA (Bretz, 1923, 1969) and the glacial Lake Agassiz southern outlet

Journal Pre-proof floods that incised the Minnesota River valley, USA (Kehew et al., 2009), are also considered to share these characteristics.

3.2.2. Basin overfill during subglacial volcanogenic jökulhlaups Subglacial volcanic eruptions generate enormous quantities of meltwater that either pools in subglacial lakes until ice dam flotation or failure or exits the glacier immediately without prior

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reservoir storage (Björnsson, 2002). Though neither process qualifies as basin spillover, the

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supraglacial lakes with water and sediments.

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resulting jökulhlaup can trigger basin spillover by infilling proglacial, ice-marginal, or

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In April 2010, a subglacial eruption at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland generated a jökulhlaup that infilled Gígjökulslón proglacial lake with enough sediment to raise the water level above the

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moraine dam. The resulting overflow event incised a 6.2-m-deep spillway in the moraine and

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displaced enough lake water to increase flood volume by 35%. Over the following month, ~140 additional jökulhlaups deposited enough volcanic material and tephra to completely infill the

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lake basin, with a net sediment volume of 17 million cubic meters and aggradation of up to 60 m.

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This significantly altered Gígjökull’s proglacial drainage pattern, and Gígjökulslón lake has not reformed since the event (Dunning et al., 2013). Glacial lake overflow also occurred during a 1999 jökulhlaup generated by geothermal activity beneath Sólheimajökull glacier at Iceland’s Mýrdalsjökull ice cap. Meltwater drained from a subglacial caldron to an ice-dammed former (dry) lake basin at the glacier margin. Floodwater rapidly overfilled the basin and spilled into Jökulsárgil, another empty ice-dammed basin downstream, where it ponded for ~15 min before draining back into the glacier via ice conduits (Roberts et al., 2003). Although floodwater depth exceeded the threshold for ice dam

Journal Pre-proof flotation, Roberts et al. (2003) hypothesized that Jökulsárgil filled too rapidly for the ice dam to adjust and fail or float. This sequence of events highlights the potential complexity of spillover processes and the difficulty of modeling overflow mechanisms (Roberts et al., 2003). 3.2.3. Dam breaching Basin overflow can also occur when glacial lake dams are breached by overtopping waves. This typically occurs when mass wasting events such as avalanches, glacier calving,

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landslides, or rock falls (often triggered by paraglacial slope instability) enter a supraglacial,

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proglacial, or ice-marginal lake, generating waves that overtop and incise the lake dam and allow

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the lake to drain in a GLOF (Costa and Schuster, 1988; Evans and Clague, 1994; Clague and

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Evans, 2000; Ballantyne, 2002; Korup and Tweed, 2007; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013; Westoby et al., 2014). Earthquake-generated seiche waves may also overtop a dam, though there are no

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documented examples of this phenomenon (Tweed and Russell, 1999; Korup and Tweed, 2007).

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Glacial lake dam breaches have occurred across the globe throughout the Quaternary. Dam breaching from rock and ice falls into proglacial lakes is particularly widespread in alpine

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regions, and events have been extensively documented in the European Alps (Haeberli, 1983;

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Huggel et al., 2002; Haeberli et al., 2017); Peruvian Cordilleran Blanca (Lliboutry et al., 1977; Hubbard et al., 2005; Carey et al., 2012; Emmer and Vilímek, 2013); Bolivian Andes (Cook et al., 2016); Patagonian Andes (Wilson et al., 2018); and British Columbia (Clague and Evans, 2000). One of the deadliest events occurred in 1941 in the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca, when an avalanche into Lake Palcacocha generated a wave that overtopped the moraine dam. The resulting GLOF destroyed one-third of the city of Huaraz and killed over 5000 people (Lliboutry et al., 1977; Evans and Clague, 1994; Carey et al., 2012; Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2015).

Journal Pre-proof Glacial lake dam breaches also occur frequently in high mountains of Asia, including the Himalayas (Richardson and Reynolds, 2000), Hindu Kush (Ives et al., 2010), and Karakoram (Hewitt, 1982). In 1985, an ice avalanche into Dig Tsho glacial lake in the Nepal Himalayas triggered a GLOF with an estimated peak discharge of 2350 m3 s-1 (Cenderelli and Wohl, 2001, 2003). More recently, a 2017 rock fall and ice avalanche into Langmale Lake in the Upper Barun Valley, Nepal, generated a 25-30 m-high wave that overtopped the lake’s terminal and lateral

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moraines, releasing a GLOF with an approximate peak discharge of 4400 m3 s-1 (Byers et al.,

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2019).

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In 1967, a rock fall on Steinsholtsjökull glacier in Iceland propelled ice and rock into proglacial lake Steinsholtslón, displacing enough lake water to overtop the moraine dam and

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trigger a jökulhlaup with an estimated peak discharge of 2100 m3 s-1 (Kjartansson, 1967;

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Ballantyne, 2002; Björnsson, 2017). Interestingly, this wave did not incise the moraine dam,

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allowing the lake to re-form a few days following the flood (Kjartansson, 1967). Steinsholtsjökull shows that mass wasting events do not have to fall directly into a lake to initiate

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wave overtopping and dam breaching.

3.3. Landscape impacts and geomorphologic evidence of top-down drainage integration processes in glacial/proglacial settings Because of their high stream power and competence relative to fluvial and meteorological flood processes, jökulhlaups leave a distinctive suite of geomorphologic features on the landscape. Generally, floodwaters erode material in zones of high stream power (such as steep slopes or confined channels) and deposit material where stream power and competence decrease (such as valley floors, backponded areas, or during waning flood stages). Catastrophic flood

Journal Pre-proof erosional features include canyons, cataracts, anastomosing bedrock channels, linear streamlined hills, scoured bedrock, and spillways. Depositional evidence includes bars, slackwater deposits, boulder erratics, megaripples (giant gravel dunes), kettle holes from ice block melt, and sandar (glacial outwash plains) (O’Connor, 1993; Maizels, 1997; Carrivick et al., 2004; Marren, 2005; Russell et al., 2005; Carrivick and Rushmer, 2006; Baker, 2009). Resultant features are controlled by topography, lithology, flow hydraulics, breach morphometry, and sediment

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concentration, so not all landforms will appear along every flood drainage route (Clague and

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Evans, 2000; Marren, 2005; Carrivick and Rushmer, 2006; O’Connor and Beebee, 2009;

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Carrivick, 2011).

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Jökulhlaups can significantly impact downstream hydrologic networks. Floods can enlarge channels through lateral and vertical incision, reducing the inundation of areas outside

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the channel during subsequent flooding. They may remove finer-grained sediments, armoring

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channel beds and lowering shear stress, which will increase subsequent flow velocities. Floods can also aggrade channels and deposit larger clasts (such as boulders), which may remain

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emplaced until another flood occurs that is large enough to transport them. Rivers may change

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course and abandon pre-flood routes, flowing through newly flood-sculpted channels or laterally migrating in response to channel sediment infilling (Clague and Evans, 2000; Cenderelli and Wohl, 2001; Marren, 2005; Korup and Tweed, 2007; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013). GLOF drainage also typically decreases glacial lake size, modifies the damming substrate, and/or alters outlet channel morphology, changing downstream hydrologic patterns. For example, an incised moraine dam may allow a higher background discharge to drain from a glacial lake. Alternatively, an incised or collapsed dam may not reform or be strong enough to impound water (Evans and Clague, 1994; Clague and Evans, 2000; Korup and Tweed, 2007).

Journal Pre-proof Identifying and reconstructing glacial basin processes can present numerous challenges. Equifinality can significantly challenge geomorphologic interpretation, because multiple processes (notably glacial, fluvial, and flood) generate similar landforms. Furthermore, large floods may erase evidence of previous, smaller events; and post-flood geologic processes can modify, remove, or bury flood-formed features (Marren, 2005; Carrivick and Rushmer, 2006). Nonetheless, some features are diagnostic of glacial lake outburst floods. Volcanogenic

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jökulhlaups typically contain high concentrations of volcanic material and tephra, distinguishing

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them in the sedimentological record (Marren, 2005). Glaciolacustrine sediments may also

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contain diagnostic evidence of ice contact lakes, such as ice-rafted debris, dripstones, and ice-

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contact fans (Korup and Tweed, 2007; Benn and Evans, 2010; Carrivick and Tweed, 2013). Though jökulhlaup and glacial lake evidence provide clues to flow dynamics and lake

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characteristics, they yield little insight into the flood triggering mechanism. This raises the

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question: how can we distinguish glacial lake basin spillover in the geomorphologic record? Lake dam remnants are perhaps the most obvious line of evidence. Ice dams have likely melted

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away, but moraine, landslide, and bedrock dams may contain spillways or incisions (Costa and

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Schuster, 1988; Korup and Tweed, 2007; O’Connor and Beebee, 2009). This evidence could indicate spillover via basin overflow or dam breaching—but it could also result from dam failure without basin overflow. The best solution to unraveling these equifinalities is to reconstruct as much paleoenvironmental context as possible. Can we reconstruct lake depth from paleolake shorelines? Is there evidence of mass wasting events (such as rock fall scarps) that correlates in age to downstream flood features? What was glacier extent at the time of the floods? How frequently did floods occur? These data yield insight into lake extent and damming substrate, which may help reconstruct the failure mechanism. It is crucial to recognize, however, that

Journal Pre-proof paleoshorelines, glaciolacustrine sediments, and flood-deposited material may have been eroded by subsequent geologic processes, including subsequent jökulhlaups (Costa and Schuster, 1988; Cenderelli and Wohl, 2001; Korup and Tweed, 2007; Westoby et al., 2014). Basin spillover has significantly modified glacial landscapes across the globe throughout the Quaternary. Glacial overflow events are typically of high magnitude and low frequency, leaving a geomorphic legacy that millennia of subsequent geologic forces are unable to erase

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(Wolman and Miller, 1960; O’Connor and Costa, 2004; Carrivick, 2011). Landscape recovery

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time to pre-flood conditions varies from annual to millennial scales. Catastrophic floods may

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also vault the system into a new equilibrium state and hydrologic regime, demonstrating the

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significance of glacial spillover over a range of temporal, spatial, and magnitude scales (Evans

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and Clague, 1994; Clague and Evans, 2000; Marren, 2005; Korup and Tweed, 2007).

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4. Case Study: Spillover processes in the southwestern United States The landscapes of the southwestern United States have long served an integral role in our

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understanding of drainage integration processes (Newberry, 1861, 1862; Powell, 1875; Gilbert,

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1880, 1890; Dutton, 1882; Russell, 1885; Gale, 1912, 1914; Buwalda, 1914; Blackwelder, 1934). This literary history and the unique geomorphic history of the Colorado Plateau and Basin and Range physiographic provinces make the Southwest a key location for developing our understanding of the geomorphic factors at work that shape a drainage basin (Larson et al., 2017). Basin spillover is one of the first, if not the first, basin integration mechanism suggested in the Southwest, applied to the Colorado River by J.S. Newberry (1861, 1862). Newberry described a landscape where the basins in the region would have been filled to the point of overtopping the lowest elevation in their basins. Once this breach occurred, deep incision would

Journal Pre-proof follow, and a canyon would form as the river adjusted to its new base level. He supported this concept by noting the presence of lake clays, which require periods of slack water conditions to deposit and a sufficient supply of water to fill the basin. Some of these lake clays would later be called the Bidahochi Formation, and their presence would initiate a debate that continues to the present regarding landscape genesis and evolution of the Colorado River basin through Grand Canyon and within the southwestern United States (Lucchitta et al., 2011; Dickinson, 2013;

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Larson et al., 2017; Douglass et al., this issue).

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Future work throughout the southwestern United States began to utilize much of the

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evidence we still consider today to explain basin spillover. G.K. Gilbert (1880, 1882, 1890)

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provided evidence in the Lake Bonneville basin and Henry Mountains of Utah, USA, which included lacustrine deposits, relict shorelines, sharp erosional contacts, an incised outlet, and

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basalt flows that constrained when the lake could have existed. Buwalda (1914) described a

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gorge at the sill of the Manix Basin, incision through lacustrine beds, and freshwater and quadrupedal fossils as evidence for the existence of a Pleistocene lake that overflowed. Gale

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(1912, 1914) discussed the factors that caused certain basins in the western United States to fill

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and potentially spillover, while other basins preserved no records of ever filling. Gale reasoned that, to argue for overflow, one had to find the presence of preserved higher shorelines. Gale also suggested the need for a wetter climate to account for perennial flow into the basin that would cause it to fill. He highlighted Owens Valley, Indian Wells Valley, Salt Wells Valley, Searles Valley, and Panamint Valley, which formed a successive chain of lakes, overflowing one basin and depositing sediments into the next. Blackwelder (1933, 1934) and Blackwelder and Ellsworth (1936) later drew on Gale and Newberry’s descriptions when describing their hypothesis for the origin of the Colorado River.

Journal Pre-proof They suggested that basin filling initiated as the Colorado Plateau was uplifting. Once filled, these basins would overflow and deposit into the next basin, successively, until they reached the Gulf of California. Blackwelder (1934) speculated that, in some cases, evidence of overflow may not be apparent because all relicts of the former lakes could be eroded if they were not high enough in the landscape. Like Gale, Blackwelder also required an increase in precipitation and upstream flows to account for terminal basin overflows.

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Recent research has continued to challenge the pervasive nature of piracy/drainage-head

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erosion in the southwestern United States (Dorn et al., this issue (a), this issue (b); Douglass et

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al., this issue; Meek, this issue; Skotnicki and DePonty, this issue; Skotnicki et al., this issue).

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We suggest that the southwestern United States be viewed as a case study for the extent and magnitude of the spillover process. Basin spillover, while historically not viewed as such, is a

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common mechanism for basin integration and transverse drainage formation. Features such as

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Grand Canyon (McKee et al., 1967; Hunt, 1969; Lucchitta et al., 2001a. 2001b; Polyak et al., 2008; Lucchitta et al., 2011; Dickinson, 2013; Crossey et al., 2015), Afton Canyon (Wells and

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Enzel, 1994; Enzel et al., 2003; Wells et al., 2003), and the Gila River (Dickinson, 2015) have

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been attributed to drainages eroding headward. It is clear that our understanding of these landscapes is incomplete and that basin spillover may serve as a better explanation for landscape development.

4.1. Arguments against spillover in the southwestern United States A major issue invoked by geoscientists who disregard lake overflow is their conceptual and physical requirement of lacustrine sediments near the elevation of a breached sill in a basin. The absence of such sediments at some adequate elevation, which is not well defined in these

Journal Pre-proof studies, is often invoked as a way to invalidate a lake overflow hypothesis (e.g., Dickinson, 2013, 2015). For example, the Colorado River’s integration through the Kaibab Plateau carving Grand Canyon, which arguably was the birthplace of the spillover concept in endorheic basins, has been the subject of considerable debate concerning the lacustrine sediments of the Bidahochi Formation. The Bidahochi Formation has been attributed to a paleolake, termed Hopi Lake, which is hypothesized to have formed on the east side of the Kaibab Plateau and, upon filling,

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spilled over the plateau and led to the initial incision of Grand Canyon (Meek and Douglass,

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2001; Spencer and Pearthree, 2001). Lucchitta et al. (2011) argued that it is difficult to reconcile

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the existence of Hopi Lake near the Crooked Ridge River of northern Arizona, which they

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hypothesized as a developed drainage network and had incised lower than the possible lake level prior to the existence of the hypothesized Hopi Lake. They expect that a lake, had it existed,

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would have preferentially drained down the Crooked Ridge River and not Grand Canyon. Later

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work invalidated this hypothesis by revealing that the Crooked Ridge River, previously thought to be Paleogene in age, was actually early Pleistocene in age (Hereford et al., 2016) and the

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hypothesized lake overflow event initiating Grand Canyon would have occurred several million

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years prior to this (e.g., Meek and Douglass, 2001). Dickinson (2013) took issue with Meek and Douglass (2001) and their interpretation of the Bidahochi Formation as deposited by a paleoHopi Lake and concluded that Hopi Lake was likely a shallow playa incapable of producing catastrophic incision across a topographic divide during the proposed timeframe of Grand Canyon formation. Dickinson cited evidence from lacustrine, volcanic, and fluvial lithologic members within the Bidahochi Formation derived from sedimentological and morphological evidence (Dallegge et al., 2001; Pederson, 2008; Lucchitta et al., 2011). They argue that the existing members of the Bidahochi Formation were not high enough in elevation and were not

Journal Pre-proof representative of a lake deep enough to have resulted in spillover. Concerns about the lack of evidence of a deep-water Hopi Lake have also been evoked in more recent publications (Karlstrom et al., 2017). Research is still ongoing to further elucidate on this controversy of Bidahochi Formation’s sedimentological significance in the context of lake overflow (Douglass et al., this issue). It is important to note that the lack of sufficiently high lake sediments should not

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preclude an overflow hypothesis in any setting. As shown in both field and physical modeling

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evidence, it is inherent to spillover events that, immediately following a closed basin’s

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integration, the upstream basin becomes highly dissected as the lake sediments and basin fill are

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easily and rapidly eroded (e.g., Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; House et al., 2008; Douglass et al., 2009). Subsequent erosion of remaining fine-grained lake sediments would likely occur

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responding to a lowered base level.

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rapidly as they are unprotected from what is assuredly a much more energic system that is

Similar arguments against spillover have been extrapolated to other locations exhibiting

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integrated drainages within former endorheic basins (Dickinson, 2015). The Gila River, which

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drains a portion of the Basin and Range province south of the Colorado Plateau, traverses numerous formerly endorheic basins before its confluence with the Colorado River (Dickinson, 2015). Dickinson (2015) discarded the spillover hypothesis for all parts of the Gila River drainage basin, citing a climate unfavorable for deep water lake formation capable of overtopping basins and the lack of adequately high fluvial to lacustrine deposits. For example, he described the absence of sufficiently high lacustrine sediments near the vicinity of the overtopping point within the Safford basin. Dickinson concluded that, following the opening of the Gulf of California and subsequent upstream knickpoint migration, the Gila River incised and

Journal Pre-proof integrated basins through drainage-head erosion. However, the processes driving headward erosion are inherently inefficient (Bishop, 1995; Larson et al., 2017; Lai and Anders, 2018) and it is difficult to reconcile how headward propagating erosion of the magnitude needed to breach multiple basins at the rate necessary to account for entire length of the Gila River drainage network would have occurred. In fact, recent research has pointed to more top-down, spillover driven mechanisms driving integration and drainage network evolution in the Gila River basin

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(e.g., Jungers and Heimsath, 2019;Skotnicki et al., this issue.

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5. Conclusion

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Transverse drainage mechanisms have long been the subject of scientific debate.

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Although it is impossible to provide a truly comprehensive discussion of the entire body of literature on this topic, the following conclusions summarize our current state of understanding:

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1. We term lake overflow and aggradational spillover as ―basin spillover‖ mechanisms. They are globally occurring, top-down drainage integration mechanisms found in a wide

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array of landscapes (e.g., extensional, proglacial, mass wasting, and volcanic terrains).

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2. Though regularly mistaken or misidentified, basin spillover can offer a more plausible explanation for drainage integration in comparison to the relatively slow, geomorphically ineffective process of a headward growing drainage basin moving the interfluve at the expense of an adjacent drainage basin, a process we term "drainage-head erosion.‖ This term describes the process of the head of the drainage eroding (via groundwater sapping, overland flow concentration), instead of the term ―headward erosion,‖ which more correctly refers to the process of upstream knickpoint migration or other basin extension mechanisms.

Journal Pre-proof 3. Glacial/proglacial terrains provide a unique comparison to the endorheic basins common in extensional terrains that illustrate how basin spillover can function with dramatically different driving forces at work. A number of previously endorheic basins of the extensional southwestern United States have integrated through the filling and spilling of upstream basins, resulting in chains of integrated basins, expanding the drainage network, and increasing sediment/water downstream that carries the signature of the upstream

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basins. Glacial lake outburst floods can be derived from both dam failure and spillover,

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significantly modifying downstream drainage networks and producing landforms that are

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often indistinguishable. It is necessary to carefully assess evidence throughout the basin

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to determine if the process at work is derived from a spilling basin or a dam failure. 4. Basin spillover in extensional terrains, particularly those in the Basin and Range, USA,

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have long served to develop our understanding of young transverse drainage mechanisms.

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Although early researchers (e.g., Newberry, 1861, 1862; Gale, 1912, 1914; Buwalda, 1914; Blackwelder, 1934) laid much of the groundwork for our understanding of basin

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spillover processes, others (e.g., Meek, 1989; Meek and Douglass, 2001; Douglass and

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Schmeeckle, 2007; House et al., 2008; Douglass et al., 2009; Jungers and Heimsath, 2019; Geurts et al., this issue; Skotnicki et al., this issue) have reinvigorated interest and refined our understanding of these important processes. Though the main focus of this article has been on basin spillover in endorheic basins within extensional terrains and in glacial environments, other syntheses in a wide array of geomorphic and anthropogenic settings can be found in Costa and Schuster (1988, 1991), Wahl (1998), O’Connor and Beebee (2009), Goudge et al. (2018), Lee (2019), and within the supplemental material provided with this article. Our understanding of spillover has long been

Journal Pre-proof driven by scientific advancement (geochronologic dating methods, computer simulations, provenance studies and paleolandscape reconstruction). As our methods continue to improve, we will be able to better understand and recreate the evolutionary history of transverse drainages and basin spillover across a wider array of environmental conditions.

Acknowledgements

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The authors thank the 2017 Minnesota State University, Mankato, Geography 610:

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Desert Geomorphology class for help in laying the groundwork for this review, as well as Ronald

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Dorn, Andrew Wickert, Rosemary Huck, Madeline Kelley, Colin Marvin, and Craig Turner for

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comments. Finally, the authors thank two anonymous reviewers, whose comments greatly

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improved this manuscript.

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Fig. 1. Three generalized versions of top-down drainage integration collectively termed as ―spillover.‖ A) Lake overflow (e.g., Meek, 1989; Douglass, 1999; Meek and Douglass, 2001; Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; House et al., 2008; Douglass et al., 2009, 2019): Sediment and water fill an upstream basin. Water ponds within the basin forming a lake. Eventually sediment and water fill the basin until it overtops the lowest point, or sill, spilling over to the lower basin. A knickpoint then develops and erodes into the upstream basin excavating sediment and releasing water stored within that basin into the basin downstream. B) Aggradational spillover through

Journal Pre-proof basin aggradation (Dickinson, 2015; Geurts et al., 2018; Jungers and Heimsath, 2019; Skotnicki et al., this issue): A closed basin fills with sediment shed for the bounding uplands until flowing water-transported sediment eventually overtops the basin and spills over into a neighboring basin. In this example, an alluvial fan aggrades and progrades across a drainage divide like that hypothesized along the Salt River, Arizona, by Skotnicki et al. (this issue). C) Aggradational spillover through fluvial aggradation (Douglass and Schmeeckle, 2007; Douglass et al., 2009; Skotnicki and DePonty, this issue)): A basin-axial channel aggrades and elevates the channel to a point where spillover of water and sediment into a lower basin is possible. This is a unique form of stream piracy where the geomorphic forces driving integration are through aggradation and sediment spilling over a low point in the topographic barrier resulting in a new drainage rerouted into the lower basin.

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Fig. 2. Satellite image of the Kashmir Valley (34.181286°N, 74.541542°E, India), as studied by Ganjoo (2014) and Dar et al. (2014). This true-color MODIS satellite image is from December 10, 2014 (NASA, 2014). Haze in this image effectively mimics a filled basin that overtopped (ca. 4.5 Ma). The overflow channel drained to the northwest and can also be seen, covered in haze.

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Fig. 3. Digital elevation model of the Lower Aterno valley, Sulmona basin, and San Venanzio Gorge in the Italian Apennines (42.117307°N, 13.772711°E, Italy). The San Venanzio Gorge is referred to as an example of a spillover channel in Geurts et al. (2018) rather than as an example of piracy through headward erosion, as in D’Agostino et al. (2001).

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Fig. 4. Digital elevation map of Roosevelt Lake (33.686518°N, 111.123538°W, Arizona, United States). The point of spillover and excavated canyon can be seen on the southwestern edge of the lake for this previously endorheic basin (Larson et al., 2017).

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Fig. 5. Google Earth Pro image of the Gígjökull (63.675651°N, -19.623331°W, Iceland). This method of infilling and overtopping is common near the edges of glaciers, where local barriers (e.g., mass movement, terminal or recessional moraines) capture the input of sediment and water moved by the glacier. This type of lake can be responsible for glacial lake outburst floods and is a natural hazard commonly observed in Iceland and the Andes Mountains.

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Fig. 6. Satellite image of the Martian surface from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (NASA, 2018). During wetter times, this crater was full to the point of overflow. The resulting channel can be seen flowing towards the right of the image before diminishing.

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Fig. 7. Global map of spillover discussed in this article. It should be noted that some ―Glacially-Related Spillover‖ locations are speculative. Many of the ―Basin Spillover‖ locations, primarily those in the southwestern United States and eastern Africa are clustered within extensional terrains (e.g., the Basin and Range, United States, and the East African Rift). An extended list of spillover instances can be found in the supplemental table provided.

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Fig. 8. United States map of spillover discussed in this article and Supplemental Table 1. It should be noted that some ―GlaciallyRelated Spillover‖ locations are speculative. The large clustering of ―Basin Spillover‖ locations in the southwestern United States is the result of the extensional tectonic movement that formed the Basin and Range. These represent endorheic basins that were filled and overtopped, sometimes in successive chains. Locations are approximate.

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Fig. 9. Bartlett Reservoir on the Verde River in Arizona, United States (Skotnicki et al., this issue). The evidence provided in the figure is based on of the work of Douglass and Schmeeckle (2007) and Douglass et al. (2009) and discussed by Skotnicki et al. (this issue). This DEM, overlying digital orthoimagery, is used to show the zones and general locations that previous

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studies have used to provide evidence for a spillover-based genesis for the canyons downstream of the basin. The ponded lake deposits, high stands of fluvial deposits downstream of the paleodivide, and the incised canyon provide evidence for basin spillover within this previously endorheic basin.