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From cleaner production to sustainable production and consumption in Australia and New Zealand: achievements, challenges, and opportunities
Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715 www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Editorial
From cleaner production to sustainable production and consumption in Australia and New Zealand: achievements, challenges, and opportunities Abstract The objective of this special issue is to showcase what Cleaner Production (CP) practitioners and scholars in Australia and New Zealand have accomplished to date, and how they hope to progress in the coming decades. The contributions to this special issue have been grouped under three main categories: sectoral, regional, and CP methods and tools. These contributions suggest that the CP debate has moved on from anecdotal justification of CP through case studies to diffusing and broadening CP practices so that they fulfil their role as effective components of a viable, sustainable society. The continued evolution of CP methods and tools in Australia and New Zealand is a good indicator of such a trend. Papers in all three categories identify and present responses to the challenges faced in ensuring that CP activities are both linked to and informed by policy-making and that they support and enhance decisions made in pursuit of sustainable production. Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Cleaner Production; Sustainable production and consumption; Australia; New Zealand
1. Introduction The idea for this issue was proposed by Prof. Don Huisingh, Editor-in-Chief of the JCP, in July 2004. This was partly influenced by similar country and region specific JCP issues that were being developed by others in Canada and elsewhere as well as through the papers published and discussed during second and sixth AsiaePacific Cleaner Production Roundtables that took place in Brisbane in 1999 [1] and Melbourne in 2005 [2], respectively. In addition, informal and formal networks that exist among CP practitioners and scholars in both Australia and New Zealand have been important vehicles for mobilising, strengthening, and sustaining the flow of scholarly contributions in CP in various sectors. In this special issue, we showcase some of the work they have undertaken. When the concept of CP was first introduced to this region in the late eighties, the focus was on the use of case studies from elsewhere to demonstrate its potential and to encourage uptake by companies within this region. Since then, CP activities have been focused on applying the concept in sector- and context-specific ways, and on identifying and responding to the challenges that unique regional imperatives and 0959-6526/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.06.011
parameters present. The emphasis now is not so much on ‘selling’ the concept, but on making it work and on enhancing the contribution it can make to the evolution of viable, sustainable societies. Activities within the region draw attention to the wide range of ways in which the CP approach can help to develop, foster, and nurture sustainable societies. They include detailed and thorough application of the concept itself to industries as wide ranging as large mining operations and onto small facilities such as dry cleaners. However, they also manifest themselves in governmental policies that reflect life cycle thinking, in product development and in initiatives that tackle the thorny question of sustainable consumption. The objective of this special issue titled ‘‘From CP to Sustainable Production and Consumption in Australia and New Zealand: Achievements, Challenges, and Opportunities’’ is to present what CP practitioners and scholars in Australia and New Zealand have accomplished, and where they are heading in the coming decades. This includes consideration of how CP and business sustainability have been, are being, and are expected to be, integrated with sustainable development at the local, regional, and national levels.
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Editorial / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715
2. Overview of papers included in this special issue There are twelve full research papers and three notes from the field in this special issue. The authors’ contributions in this special issue have been categorised into the following: CP achievements and challenges at a regional level; CP achievements and challenges at an industry sector level; and Recent developments in the application of CP methods and tools, including life cycle assessment, benchmarking, product design and materials flow analysis.
2.1. CP at a regional level Brown and Stone in ‘‘Cleaner production in New Zealand: taking stock’’ present a historical perspective on New Zealand’s CP policy, research and intervention initiatives since the late eighties. They set this within the context of New Zealand’s unique situation and the challenges these present within a global market. The authors provide an analytical review of key CP initiatives both in terms of their measured successes, their contribution to progress towards a sustainable New Zealand, and their shortcomings in this regard. The authors explain the highly de-regulated nature of the New Zealand economy and the role of voluntary industry frameworks, including national energy and waste strategies, and climate change mitigation action plans. The authors conclude that a strong conservation ethic, an economy dependent on a buoyant primary food sector and a large SME business base contribute towards a positive outlook for cleaner production within business and, more broadly, sustainability within society. However, they also question whether the policy mix, with its predominant focus on voluntary action, is robust enough for this to be realised. Collins et al. in ‘‘Business networks and the uptake of sustainability practices: the case of New Zealand’’ take a closer look at the uptake of sustainability in Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) by studying a sample of over 800 firms in New Zealand. The authors compare environmental and social performances of firms that are part of a formal and functioning sustainable business network with those that are not, and also consider the effect of size on sustainability uptake. The study found that network members and larger firms were more likely to adopt or be engaged in sustainability practices. The sampled firms expressed the desire for more information about Sustainable Business Network, indicating the possible importance of such supportive networks in raising consciousness and possible future expansion of environmental and socially responsible practices. A third of the sample cited costs and other competing business priorities as barriers to adoption of sustainability practices. The research reveals that regulations may not be the best change agent for sustainability in SMEs, and suggests that key drivers to business adoption of sustainability practices are the beliefs and values of senior management.
Van Berkel in ‘‘Cleaner production and eco-efficiency initiatives in Western Australia 1996e2004’’ summarises developments in the promotion and implementation of CP and Eco-Efficiency (EE) in Western Australia (WA) during 1996e2004. The period is divided into four stages: (i) groundwork (1996e1999), (ii) experimentation (1999e2002), (iii) roll out (2002e2004) and (iv) reorientation (2004 onward). Van Berkel argues that a concerted effort to define and clarify concepts, strategies and programs, and their subsequent roll out, resulted in a remarkable growth of CP activity in a relatively short period of time. This was reportedly achieved through persistent team work amongst academia, private businesses, professional and non-governmental organisations, as well as state and local government agencies. The author suggests that a current levelling off in CP practices in Western Australia is mainly due to saturation in current CP and EE theory and approaches. He also suggests that ingraining CP into mainstream business thinking requires more rigorous and integrated CP methods and tools, and innovative design and dissemination of CP programs. The paper provides new food for thought for future research to customise and mainstream CP in heavy process industries such as mining and metals and oil and gas processing. 2.2. CP at a sectoral level Reeve, in ‘‘Environmental improvements in the metal finishing industry in Australia’’, provides an account of environmental improvements in the metal finishing industry in Victoria over the past 15 years. This paper has been largely drawn from the author’s rich and extensive experience in the metal finishing industry, and is provided as a ‘Note from the Field’. The author notes that the general consensus in Australasia is that only approximately 20% of metal finishing companies have actually implemented good housekeeping and process control measures in the last 15 years. However, he suggests that if the surface area of work or weight of metal deposited is used as a basis for assessing uptake, the proportion is over 30%, which is a positive sign for the future. Cyanide, hexavalent chromium, cadmium, lead and chlorinated solvent emissions remain to be eliminated for fewer metal finishing shops. The notes provide glimpses of recent advances in the application of clean technologies, both in surface treatment of metal and in closed loop bath chemical recovery and use systems, both of which obviate the need for end-of-pipe solutions. Pagan and Prasad, in ‘‘The Queensland food eco-efficiency project: reducing risk and improving competitiveness’’, provide a historical and contemporary analysis of eco-efficiency performance in the Queensland food industry. In particular, the paper details a two-year eco-efficiency demonstration project, and discusses the outcomes of eco-efficiency assessments undertaken in food processing facilities such as beverage and vegetable processors, nut processors, vegetable and fruit washers, and bakeries. The paper discusses several resource efficiency measures alongside waste management initiatives in these companies. It provides practical insights into the
Editorial / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715
effective implementation of eco-efficiency opportunities in food processing facilities, and suggests areas for further research and education in this sector. Van Berkel, in ‘‘Eco-efficiency in the Australian minerals processing sector’’, provides a detailed account of ecoefficiency opportunities, measures implemented and further research that is currently being undertaken in the minerals processing sector. This is occurring on three main fronts: (i) eco-efficiency of existing operations, (ii) designing ecoefficiency into future generation plants, and (iii) technology routes for eco-efficient minerals processing. The paper provides an in-depth review of eco-efficiency concepts and their interpretations in the sector, and suggests five themes for scoping eco-efficiency: resource efficiency; energy use and greenhouse gas emissions; water use and impacts; control of minor elements and toxics, and by-product creation. The paper provides useful frameworks and contemporary case studies drawn from the Australian minerals processing industry. The author argues, however, that greater challenges remain in extending the application of eco-efficiency from the currently prevailing operational platform to the design and technology platforms. He suggests that a paucity of evidence for the benefits thereof and a general lack of specific tools and methods for ingraining eco-efficiency at the design and technology platforms are the most prominent future challenges facing the sector. The paper concludes that both hard (development and implementation of business systems, processes, operating philosophy, and tools) and soft (training, benchmarking and reward schemes) measures are required to extend eco-efficiency beyond the current stack of case studies. Clay et al., in ‘‘Sustainability Victoria: influencing resource use, towards zero waste and sustainable production and consumption’’, discuss how Sustainability Victoria is stimulating resource efficiency across the production and consumption cycle through the establishment of innovative partnerships with designers and brand owners, supplier-manufacturer relationships and through engaging consumer choice. The paper documents the lessons learned from Victoria’s past successes with recycling and CP programs. This contribution is included as a ‘Note from the Field’ because it draws from practical policy and enforcement experiences of Victorian state sustainability agency. Sustainability Victoria is also working with the United Nations Environment Program through the Life Cycle Initiative, and was the Chair of the sixth Asia Pacific Roundtable for Sustainable Consumption and Production held in Melbourne in October 2005. This is a continually evolving program, and the authors believe that it has yet to reach the tipping point where business can see the potential of life cycle thinking and the opportunity to take a share of the new economy. The paper underscores the important role that sustainable governance has to play in fostering relationships amongst industry, government, academia and society at large, and thereby facilitating progress in all fronts. 2.3. CP methods and tools Howgrave-Graham and van Berkel, in ‘‘Assessment of cleaner production uptake: method development and trial
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with small businesses in Western Australia’’, report on the development, application, and limitations of an innovative semiquantitative assessment method that was trialed in 140 SMEs covering four sectors: printing and book making, dry cleaning, food processing, and metal products. The authors have developed and applied a three component rating system: (i) awareness of CP ideas and benefits amongst the SMEs, (ii) presence of management features and system components for embedding CP (business capacity to implement CP), and (iii) CP content of innovations and operational improvements (outcomes) in the SMEs. The authors concede that the method relies upon professional judgements (subjective to measure) by CP experts and therefore, lacks precision in assessing the rigour and depth of CP implementation (retrospective) in SMEs and their potential to continue on with the CP efforts ( prospective). However, the authors argue that as shown by the trial results, the method provides a more realistic picture of the actual industry practice than generally achieved through mail surveys where accuracy and reliability are constrained by self-selection, socially biased answers, and low response rates. More streamlined monitoring and data logging of CP performances need to be established, piloted, and improved in many SMEs. Therefore, this area requires further research to develop more robust and real-time models to overcome inherent conceptual, methodological, and fundamental complexities in assessing, monitoring, and reporting CP uptake in SMEs. Altham, in ‘‘Benchmarking to trigger cleaner production in small businesses: dry cleaning case study’’, reports on recent research that investigated and implemented benchmarking as a CP tool in the dry-cleaning industry in Western Australia. The paper identifies the critical success factors for environmental benchmarking as: (i) identifying CP gaps in areas important to the long-term future of the businesses in question; (ii) promoting drivers to close performance gaps, and (iii) ensuring managers possess the correct skills to close these gaps. The dry cleaners, on average, were found to have reduced hazardous waste generation by 48% and perchloroethylene consumption by 30%, and improved their energy efficiency by 9%. The author argues that a critical success factor for this research was that the dry cleaners who participated in the project accepted the benchmarks as suitable targets and committed their businesses to achieving these targets in their action plans. Economic benefits from implementing CP measures and maintaining social and environmental licences to operate were found to be important drivers. James and Hes, in ‘‘Qualitative and quantitative tool development to support environmentally responsible decisions’’, describe the tools that have been developed to support decision-making by industry and government partners in sustainable product design and policy development. This is a maturing topic in Australia, especially in the building and construction and in built-environment sector, and is being reported in this special issue as a ‘Note from the Field.’ The authors argue that it is important for tool development to be based on solid research and information, but that the key to influencing product design decisions is the translation of this information into a user-friendly format for designers. This
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Editorial / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715
involves the development of ‘knowledge products’ with the design team. The authors recommend doing this via a framework encompassing: (i) life cycle thinking; (ii) development of pragmatic and simple tools, applied to industry sectors and/or individual companies; (iii) involving a multi-disciplinary team from within the project partners, and (iv) generating and disseminating information through partnerships and collaboration. The authors have been applying this framework and approach in one of their on-going projects entitled ‘‘Packaging Impact Quick Evaluation ToolÓ (PIQET),’’ and through their affiliations with the Sustainable Packaging Alliance. This project features significant collaboration with funding partners such as individual companies and industry associations to develop the PIQET tool, particularly for the packaging industry. Lundie et al., in ‘‘Australian characterisation factors and normalisation figures for human toxicity and ecotoxicity,’’ have tailored and enhanced the Uniform System for Evaluation of Substances (USES) e Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 2.0 model. The model was originally developed for West European conditions, to estimate the toxicity potential of substances, but has now been modified to suit the Australian environment and population. The adapted model was used to calculate characterisation factors for 38 human carcinogenic and 68 human non-carcinogenic substances in terms of the marginal change in cumulative populationbased risk and potential impacts (Disabilities Adjusted Life Years e DALYs per kilogram). It was also used to calculate characterisation factors for freshwater, terrestrial, and marine ecotoxicities of 100 substances (in terms of marginal change in potentially affected fraction of species). The substances chosen reflect reportable substances under the Australian National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) scheme (http://www.npi.gov.au/) and commonly used pesticides in Australian agriculture. The authors stress the importance of further research to obtain a more comprehensive assessment of pesticide use and dust emissions and the need to develop a regionally specified fate and exposure model for Australia. Beer and Grant, in ‘‘Life-cycle analysis of emissions from fuel ethanol and blends in Australian heavy and light vehicles’’, use streamlined life cycle assessment studies to draw conclusions about the benefits of ethanol as an energy source. They found that there are only marginal greenhouse emission reductions associated with the use of 10% ethanol in petrol, whereas the use of 85% or more ethanol has demonstrable greenhouse gas benefits in both light and heavy vehicles. They suggest that there is, however, considerable doubt as to whether such vehicles using 85% ethanol will be able to meet the future Euro3 and Euro4 standards for hydrocarbon and other toxic air emissions. A ‘State of Knowledge’ report published in 2001 by the Department of Environment and Heritage, Australian Federal Government, indicates that there are knowledge gaps in emissions of air toxics from vehicular exhausts. To date, these gaps have not been filled by recent research. The authors identify the need for a detailed breakdown of appropriate Australian weighting factors that can be applied to different air toxics, so that their relative effects on human health and carcinogenesis can be determined. The authors will be examining
these issues in the coming years as part of their on-going research work under the auspices of Australia’s National Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) on air toxics. Despite increasing efforts to dematerialise our economies in the future, metals and non-metallic materials are likely to continue to play an important role in our technosphere. They are therefore, also likely to be subject to on-going demand well into the future. Community concerns regarding waste generation and emissions from primary metals production provide an incentive to use LCA to identify those parts of the metal production life cycle that have significant environmental impacts. Norgate et al., in ‘‘Assessing the environmental impacts of metals production processes’’, explain how LCA has been used by the Minerals Division of Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) to assess the ‘‘cradle-to-gate’’ environmental impacts of a number of metal production processes in Australia. The authors note that the life cycle impacts of minor elements (e.g. radioactive lanthanums and actinums) that are captured in the early stages of ore processing are yet to be determined. They suggest that it is therefore, desirable to extend the scope of future LCA studies to include dispersion of these minor elements. Current knowledge on the magnitude of the minor elements that are mined and discharged each year is limited and insufficient to account for their dispersion. However, recently initiated research projects at CSIRO Minerals and the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Resource Processing are aimed at gathering the required data and performing predictive modelling to estimate dispersion of minor elements in various solid, liquid, and gaseous emission streams from minerals processing operations. Taking a systemic view on metals recycling and reuse, van Beers and Graedel, in ‘‘Spatial characterisation of multi-level in-use copper and zinc stocks in Australia’’, present a metals flow analysis methodology to characterise stocks of copper and zinc that are in use in technosphere. They do so using four spatial scales: (i) central city, (ii) urban region, (iii) states/territories, and (iv) the whole country. The spatial analysis of in-use stocks indicates that 50% of all copper and zinc stocks reside in just 10% of Australia’s local government areas. The largest stocks occur in large urban regions, which can contain copper and zinc densities more than a hundred times higher than rural areas. These regions are expected to be major Australian ‘‘metal mines’’ in the future. Some 75% of the total copper and zinc stocks in Australia reside in three states: New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. The authors suggest that this presents a dramatic perspective on the ability of modern cities to attract and concentrate industrial metals. In the second paper of this series, van Beers et al., ‘‘Copper and zinc recycling in Australia: potential quantities and policy options’’, report on the potential quantities of discarded copper and zinc in future decades, and the policy options for metal recycling implied by such a macro-level metals flow analysis. The LCA (Norgate et al.) and metals flow analysis (van Beers et al.) papers complement each other and their findings combine to provide medium- and long-term strategic positioning for environmental sustainability for mining and metals industries.
Editorial / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715
Although the contributions in this special issue provide an inspiring account of what has been happening in Australia and, to a lesser extent, in New Zealand, it is clear that much more can still be done. The rigour and sophistication that have been demonstrated by the papers in this issue need to be extended to other sectors and activities. We need more in-depth, contextspecific stories and in-depth insights into the management systems, technical and policy tools are needed to support and enhance CP-related activities. Certainly, more effort needs to be put into integrating CP into both national and regional development agendas, and in recognising the contribution it can make in pursuit of the kinds of radical transformations that are necessary for sustainable development to be achieved. This must be followed through by translating policies into market mechanisms of the new paradigm, so that businesses, governments and civil societies work together to make progress and are able to showcase concrete actions on the ground. Implementing CP into the overall sustainable development agenda requires a double pronged approach. One is to increase resource efficiency, promote stewardship and prevent ecological damage from occurring in existing production and consumption activities. The other is to identify and implement radically sustainable options for alternative forms of development and growth. To move this forward, global and regional mechanisms are needed to consolidate stakeholder interests, build consensus, share knowledge, foster stakeholder partnerships and initiatives, and monitor progress. We have much to do in coming years and certainly should not rest on our laurels. There are clear research and knowledge gaps in elevating CP practice to the sustainable production and consumption paradigm, and in the role played by financial markets to promote sustainable growth. We hope that this special issue provides one more reason to continue this effort. We hope that it will spur others to undertake further research on sustainable product service systems, sustainable consumptive patterns, governance and policy tools to promote change for sustainability, and the role of financial markets therein, and that the results of their endeavours will contribute towards subsequent special issues in Australia and New Zealand. We remain committed to keeping the spirited search for a sustainable future, alive. Acknowledgments We would like to thank Prof. Don Huisingh, Editorin-Chief, for his encouragement and support throughout the process of completion and publication of this special issue. Most importantly, we would like to thank all the authors for their efforts and patience in the process of producing this
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special issue. Considerable effort went into selecting expert reviewers around the world in the fields of speciality and disciplines that are represented by the papers in the special issue. Our sincere gratitude to all the reviewers below for allocating their personal time and for providing their extensive knowledge and experience to enhance the quality and contemporary relevance of this special issue: Adisa Azapagic Albena Bossilkov Alma Whiteley ˚ ke Thidell A Ayman Elshkaki Christine Byrch Darrell Reeve David Pennington Donald Huisingh Donald Rogich Frans Verspeek Glen Corder Gregory Brown
Helen Lewis Jan Sage Jeff Seadon John Craig John Russell Jon Ward Lesley Stone Mary Stewart Michael Schaper Philip Bangerter Philip Peck Rana Pant Rene van Berkel
Robert Pagan Sebastien Humbert Stefanie Hellweg Steve Harris Sven Lundie Terry Norgate Venkatesan Narayanaswamy Walter Cox Walter Wehrmeyer William Altham Yuichi Moriguti
Finally, we thank the editorial and publishing team at Elsevier for making these contributions available to all readers. References [1] Global competitiveness through cleaner production. In: Scott JA, Pagan RJ, editors. Proceedings of the second Asia Pacific cleaner production roundtable. Brisbane, Australia: Australian Cleaner Production Association Inc., ISBN 0-646-38546-1; 21e23 April 1999. p. 681. [2] Proceedings of the sixth Asia Pacific roundtable for sustainable consumption and production (CD ROM proceedings), 10e12 October 2005, Melbourne, Australia.
Venkatesan Narayanaswamy* URS Australia Pty Ltd, Principal Engineering and Technical Sustainability, Level 3, 20 Terrace Road, East Perth, Western Australia 6004, Australia *Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] Lesley Stone Sustainability Uptake Research Group Limited, New Zealand University of Auckland, New Zealand E-mail address: [email protected] Accepted 21 June 2006 Available online 22 August 2006
Editorial
From cleaner production to sustainable production and consumption in Australia and New Zealand: achievements, challenges, and opportunities Abstract The objective of this special issue is to showcase what Cleaner Production (CP) practitioners and scholars in Australia and New Zealand have accomplished to date, and how they hope to progress in the coming decades. The contributions to this special issue have been grouped under three main categories: sectoral, regional, and CP methods and tools. These contributions suggest that the CP debate has moved on from anecdotal justification of CP through case studies to diffusing and broadening CP practices so that they fulfil their role as effective components of a viable, sustainable society. The continued evolution of CP methods and tools in Australia and New Zealand is a good indicator of such a trend. Papers in all three categories identify and present responses to the challenges faced in ensuring that CP activities are both linked to and informed by policy-making and that they support and enhance decisions made in pursuit of sustainable production. Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Cleaner Production; Sustainable production and consumption; Australia; New Zealand
1. Introduction The idea for this issue was proposed by Prof. Don Huisingh, Editor-in-Chief of the JCP, in July 2004. This was partly influenced by similar country and region specific JCP issues that were being developed by others in Canada and elsewhere as well as through the papers published and discussed during second and sixth AsiaePacific Cleaner Production Roundtables that took place in Brisbane in 1999 [1] and Melbourne in 2005 [2], respectively. In addition, informal and formal networks that exist among CP practitioners and scholars in both Australia and New Zealand have been important vehicles for mobilising, strengthening, and sustaining the flow of scholarly contributions in CP in various sectors. In this special issue, we showcase some of the work they have undertaken. When the concept of CP was first introduced to this region in the late eighties, the focus was on the use of case studies from elsewhere to demonstrate its potential and to encourage uptake by companies within this region. Since then, CP activities have been focused on applying the concept in sector- and context-specific ways, and on identifying and responding to the challenges that unique regional imperatives and 0959-6526/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.06.011
parameters present. The emphasis now is not so much on ‘selling’ the concept, but on making it work and on enhancing the contribution it can make to the evolution of viable, sustainable societies. Activities within the region draw attention to the wide range of ways in which the CP approach can help to develop, foster, and nurture sustainable societies. They include detailed and thorough application of the concept itself to industries as wide ranging as large mining operations and onto small facilities such as dry cleaners. However, they also manifest themselves in governmental policies that reflect life cycle thinking, in product development and in initiatives that tackle the thorny question of sustainable consumption. The objective of this special issue titled ‘‘From CP to Sustainable Production and Consumption in Australia and New Zealand: Achievements, Challenges, and Opportunities’’ is to present what CP practitioners and scholars in Australia and New Zealand have accomplished, and where they are heading in the coming decades. This includes consideration of how CP and business sustainability have been, are being, and are expected to be, integrated with sustainable development at the local, regional, and national levels.
712
Editorial / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715
2. Overview of papers included in this special issue There are twelve full research papers and three notes from the field in this special issue. The authors’ contributions in this special issue have been categorised into the following: CP achievements and challenges at a regional level; CP achievements and challenges at an industry sector level; and Recent developments in the application of CP methods and tools, including life cycle assessment, benchmarking, product design and materials flow analysis.
2.1. CP at a regional level Brown and Stone in ‘‘Cleaner production in New Zealand: taking stock’’ present a historical perspective on New Zealand’s CP policy, research and intervention initiatives since the late eighties. They set this within the context of New Zealand’s unique situation and the challenges these present within a global market. The authors provide an analytical review of key CP initiatives both in terms of their measured successes, their contribution to progress towards a sustainable New Zealand, and their shortcomings in this regard. The authors explain the highly de-regulated nature of the New Zealand economy and the role of voluntary industry frameworks, including national energy and waste strategies, and climate change mitigation action plans. The authors conclude that a strong conservation ethic, an economy dependent on a buoyant primary food sector and a large SME business base contribute towards a positive outlook for cleaner production within business and, more broadly, sustainability within society. However, they also question whether the policy mix, with its predominant focus on voluntary action, is robust enough for this to be realised. Collins et al. in ‘‘Business networks and the uptake of sustainability practices: the case of New Zealand’’ take a closer look at the uptake of sustainability in Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) by studying a sample of over 800 firms in New Zealand. The authors compare environmental and social performances of firms that are part of a formal and functioning sustainable business network with those that are not, and also consider the effect of size on sustainability uptake. The study found that network members and larger firms were more likely to adopt or be engaged in sustainability practices. The sampled firms expressed the desire for more information about Sustainable Business Network, indicating the possible importance of such supportive networks in raising consciousness and possible future expansion of environmental and socially responsible practices. A third of the sample cited costs and other competing business priorities as barriers to adoption of sustainability practices. The research reveals that regulations may not be the best change agent for sustainability in SMEs, and suggests that key drivers to business adoption of sustainability practices are the beliefs and values of senior management.
Van Berkel in ‘‘Cleaner production and eco-efficiency initiatives in Western Australia 1996e2004’’ summarises developments in the promotion and implementation of CP and Eco-Efficiency (EE) in Western Australia (WA) during 1996e2004. The period is divided into four stages: (i) groundwork (1996e1999), (ii) experimentation (1999e2002), (iii) roll out (2002e2004) and (iv) reorientation (2004 onward). Van Berkel argues that a concerted effort to define and clarify concepts, strategies and programs, and their subsequent roll out, resulted in a remarkable growth of CP activity in a relatively short period of time. This was reportedly achieved through persistent team work amongst academia, private businesses, professional and non-governmental organisations, as well as state and local government agencies. The author suggests that a current levelling off in CP practices in Western Australia is mainly due to saturation in current CP and EE theory and approaches. He also suggests that ingraining CP into mainstream business thinking requires more rigorous and integrated CP methods and tools, and innovative design and dissemination of CP programs. The paper provides new food for thought for future research to customise and mainstream CP in heavy process industries such as mining and metals and oil and gas processing. 2.2. CP at a sectoral level Reeve, in ‘‘Environmental improvements in the metal finishing industry in Australia’’, provides an account of environmental improvements in the metal finishing industry in Victoria over the past 15 years. This paper has been largely drawn from the author’s rich and extensive experience in the metal finishing industry, and is provided as a ‘Note from the Field’. The author notes that the general consensus in Australasia is that only approximately 20% of metal finishing companies have actually implemented good housekeeping and process control measures in the last 15 years. However, he suggests that if the surface area of work or weight of metal deposited is used as a basis for assessing uptake, the proportion is over 30%, which is a positive sign for the future. Cyanide, hexavalent chromium, cadmium, lead and chlorinated solvent emissions remain to be eliminated for fewer metal finishing shops. The notes provide glimpses of recent advances in the application of clean technologies, both in surface treatment of metal and in closed loop bath chemical recovery and use systems, both of which obviate the need for end-of-pipe solutions. Pagan and Prasad, in ‘‘The Queensland food eco-efficiency project: reducing risk and improving competitiveness’’, provide a historical and contemporary analysis of eco-efficiency performance in the Queensland food industry. In particular, the paper details a two-year eco-efficiency demonstration project, and discusses the outcomes of eco-efficiency assessments undertaken in food processing facilities such as beverage and vegetable processors, nut processors, vegetable and fruit washers, and bakeries. The paper discusses several resource efficiency measures alongside waste management initiatives in these companies. It provides practical insights into the
Editorial / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 711e715
effective implementation of eco-efficiency opportunities in food processing facilities, and suggests areas for further research and education in this sector. Van Berkel, in ‘‘Eco-efficiency in the Australian minerals processing sector’’, provides a detailed account of ecoefficiency opportunities, measures implemented and further research that is currently being undertaken in the minerals processing sector. This is occurring on three main fronts: (i) eco-efficiency of existing operations, (ii) designing ecoefficiency into future generation plants, and (iii) technology routes for eco-efficient minerals processing. The paper provides an in-depth review of eco-efficiency concepts and their interpretations in the sector, and suggests five themes for scoping eco-efficiency: resource efficiency; energy use and greenhouse gas emissions; water use and impacts; control of minor elements and toxics, and by-product creation. The paper provides useful frameworks and contemporary case studies drawn from the Australian minerals processing industry. The author argues, however, that greater challenges remain in extending the application of eco-efficiency from the currently prevailing operational platform to the design and technology platforms. He suggests that a paucity of evidence for the benefits thereof and a general lack of specific tools and methods for ingraining eco-efficiency at the design and technology platforms are the most prominent future challenges facing the sector. The paper concludes that both hard (development and implementation of business systems, processes, operating philosophy, and tools) and soft (training, benchmarking and reward schemes) measures are required to extend eco-efficiency beyond the current stack of case studies. Clay et al., in ‘‘Sustainability Victoria: influencing resource use, towards zero waste and sustainable production and consumption’’, discuss how Sustainability Victoria is stimulating resource efficiency across the production and consumption cycle through the establishment of innovative partnerships with designers and brand owners, supplier-manufacturer relationships and through engaging consumer choice. The paper documents the lessons learned from Victoria’s past successes with recycling and CP programs. This contribution is included as a ‘Note from the Field’ because it draws from practical policy and enforcement experiences of Victorian state sustainability agency. Sustainability Victoria is also working with the United Nations Environment Program through the Life Cycle Initiative, and was the Chair of the sixth Asia Pacific Roundtable for Sustainable Consumption and Production held in Melbourne in October 2005. This is a continually evolving program, and the authors believe that it has yet to reach the tipping point where business can see the potential of life cycle thinking and the opportunity to take a share of the new economy. The paper underscores the important role that sustainable governance has to play in fostering relationships amongst industry, government, academia and society at large, and thereby facilitating progress in all fronts. 2.3. CP methods and tools Howgrave-Graham and van Berkel, in ‘‘Assessment of cleaner production uptake: method development and trial
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with small businesses in Western Australia’’, report on the development, application, and limitations of an innovative semiquantitative assessment method that was trialed in 140 SMEs covering four sectors: printing and book making, dry cleaning, food processing, and metal products. The authors have developed and applied a three component rating system: (i) awareness of CP ideas and benefits amongst the SMEs, (ii) presence of management features and system components for embedding CP (business capacity to implement CP), and (iii) CP content of innovations and operational improvements (outcomes) in the SMEs. The authors concede that the method relies upon professional judgements (subjective to measure) by CP experts and therefore, lacks precision in assessing the rigour and depth of CP implementation (retrospective) in SMEs and their potential to continue on with the CP efforts ( prospective). However, the authors argue that as shown by the trial results, the method provides a more realistic picture of the actual industry practice than generally achieved through mail surveys where accuracy and reliability are constrained by self-selection, socially biased answers, and low response rates. More streamlined monitoring and data logging of CP performances need to be established, piloted, and improved in many SMEs. Therefore, this area requires further research to develop more robust and real-time models to overcome inherent conceptual, methodological, and fundamental complexities in assessing, monitoring, and reporting CP uptake in SMEs. Altham, in ‘‘Benchmarking to trigger cleaner production in small businesses: dry cleaning case study’’, reports on recent research that investigated and implemented benchmarking as a CP tool in the dry-cleaning industry in Western Australia. The paper identifies the critical success factors for environmental benchmarking as: (i) identifying CP gaps in areas important to the long-term future of the businesses in question; (ii) promoting drivers to close performance gaps, and (iii) ensuring managers possess the correct skills to close these gaps. The dry cleaners, on average, were found to have reduced hazardous waste generation by 48% and perchloroethylene consumption by 30%, and improved their energy efficiency by 9%. The author argues that a critical success factor for this research was that the dry cleaners who participated in the project accepted the benchmarks as suitable targets and committed their businesses to achieving these targets in their action plans. Economic benefits from implementing CP measures and maintaining social and environmental licences to operate were found to be important drivers. James and Hes, in ‘‘Qualitative and quantitative tool development to support environmentally responsible decisions’’, describe the tools that have been developed to support decision-making by industry and government partners in sustainable product design and policy development. This is a maturing topic in Australia, especially in the building and construction and in built-environment sector, and is being reported in this special issue as a ‘Note from the Field.’ The authors argue that it is important for tool development to be based on solid research and information, but that the key to influencing product design decisions is the translation of this information into a user-friendly format for designers. This
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involves the development of ‘knowledge products’ with the design team. The authors recommend doing this via a framework encompassing: (i) life cycle thinking; (ii) development of pragmatic and simple tools, applied to industry sectors and/or individual companies; (iii) involving a multi-disciplinary team from within the project partners, and (iv) generating and disseminating information through partnerships and collaboration. The authors have been applying this framework and approach in one of their on-going projects entitled ‘‘Packaging Impact Quick Evaluation ToolÓ (PIQET),’’ and through their affiliations with the Sustainable Packaging Alliance. This project features significant collaboration with funding partners such as individual companies and industry associations to develop the PIQET tool, particularly for the packaging industry. Lundie et al., in ‘‘Australian characterisation factors and normalisation figures for human toxicity and ecotoxicity,’’ have tailored and enhanced the Uniform System for Evaluation of Substances (USES) e Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 2.0 model. The model was originally developed for West European conditions, to estimate the toxicity potential of substances, but has now been modified to suit the Australian environment and population. The adapted model was used to calculate characterisation factors for 38 human carcinogenic and 68 human non-carcinogenic substances in terms of the marginal change in cumulative populationbased risk and potential impacts (Disabilities Adjusted Life Years e DALYs per kilogram). It was also used to calculate characterisation factors for freshwater, terrestrial, and marine ecotoxicities of 100 substances (in terms of marginal change in potentially affected fraction of species). The substances chosen reflect reportable substances under the Australian National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) scheme (http://www.npi.gov.au/) and commonly used pesticides in Australian agriculture. The authors stress the importance of further research to obtain a more comprehensive assessment of pesticide use and dust emissions and the need to develop a regionally specified fate and exposure model for Australia. Beer and Grant, in ‘‘Life-cycle analysis of emissions from fuel ethanol and blends in Australian heavy and light vehicles’’, use streamlined life cycle assessment studies to draw conclusions about the benefits of ethanol as an energy source. They found that there are only marginal greenhouse emission reductions associated with the use of 10% ethanol in petrol, whereas the use of 85% or more ethanol has demonstrable greenhouse gas benefits in both light and heavy vehicles. They suggest that there is, however, considerable doubt as to whether such vehicles using 85% ethanol will be able to meet the future Euro3 and Euro4 standards for hydrocarbon and other toxic air emissions. A ‘State of Knowledge’ report published in 2001 by the Department of Environment and Heritage, Australian Federal Government, indicates that there are knowledge gaps in emissions of air toxics from vehicular exhausts. To date, these gaps have not been filled by recent research. The authors identify the need for a detailed breakdown of appropriate Australian weighting factors that can be applied to different air toxics, so that their relative effects on human health and carcinogenesis can be determined. The authors will be examining
these issues in the coming years as part of their on-going research work under the auspices of Australia’s National Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) on air toxics. Despite increasing efforts to dematerialise our economies in the future, metals and non-metallic materials are likely to continue to play an important role in our technosphere. They are therefore, also likely to be subject to on-going demand well into the future. Community concerns regarding waste generation and emissions from primary metals production provide an incentive to use LCA to identify those parts of the metal production life cycle that have significant environmental impacts. Norgate et al., in ‘‘Assessing the environmental impacts of metals production processes’’, explain how LCA has been used by the Minerals Division of Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) to assess the ‘‘cradle-to-gate’’ environmental impacts of a number of metal production processes in Australia. The authors note that the life cycle impacts of minor elements (e.g. radioactive lanthanums and actinums) that are captured in the early stages of ore processing are yet to be determined. They suggest that it is therefore, desirable to extend the scope of future LCA studies to include dispersion of these minor elements. Current knowledge on the magnitude of the minor elements that are mined and discharged each year is limited and insufficient to account for their dispersion. However, recently initiated research projects at CSIRO Minerals and the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Resource Processing are aimed at gathering the required data and performing predictive modelling to estimate dispersion of minor elements in various solid, liquid, and gaseous emission streams from minerals processing operations. Taking a systemic view on metals recycling and reuse, van Beers and Graedel, in ‘‘Spatial characterisation of multi-level in-use copper and zinc stocks in Australia’’, present a metals flow analysis methodology to characterise stocks of copper and zinc that are in use in technosphere. They do so using four spatial scales: (i) central city, (ii) urban region, (iii) states/territories, and (iv) the whole country. The spatial analysis of in-use stocks indicates that 50% of all copper and zinc stocks reside in just 10% of Australia’s local government areas. The largest stocks occur in large urban regions, which can contain copper and zinc densities more than a hundred times higher than rural areas. These regions are expected to be major Australian ‘‘metal mines’’ in the future. Some 75% of the total copper and zinc stocks in Australia reside in three states: New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. The authors suggest that this presents a dramatic perspective on the ability of modern cities to attract and concentrate industrial metals. In the second paper of this series, van Beers et al., ‘‘Copper and zinc recycling in Australia: potential quantities and policy options’’, report on the potential quantities of discarded copper and zinc in future decades, and the policy options for metal recycling implied by such a macro-level metals flow analysis. The LCA (Norgate et al.) and metals flow analysis (van Beers et al.) papers complement each other and their findings combine to provide medium- and long-term strategic positioning for environmental sustainability for mining and metals industries.
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Although the contributions in this special issue provide an inspiring account of what has been happening in Australia and, to a lesser extent, in New Zealand, it is clear that much more can still be done. The rigour and sophistication that have been demonstrated by the papers in this issue need to be extended to other sectors and activities. We need more in-depth, contextspecific stories and in-depth insights into the management systems, technical and policy tools are needed to support and enhance CP-related activities. Certainly, more effort needs to be put into integrating CP into both national and regional development agendas, and in recognising the contribution it can make in pursuit of the kinds of radical transformations that are necessary for sustainable development to be achieved. This must be followed through by translating policies into market mechanisms of the new paradigm, so that businesses, governments and civil societies work together to make progress and are able to showcase concrete actions on the ground. Implementing CP into the overall sustainable development agenda requires a double pronged approach. One is to increase resource efficiency, promote stewardship and prevent ecological damage from occurring in existing production and consumption activities. The other is to identify and implement radically sustainable options for alternative forms of development and growth. To move this forward, global and regional mechanisms are needed to consolidate stakeholder interests, build consensus, share knowledge, foster stakeholder partnerships and initiatives, and monitor progress. We have much to do in coming years and certainly should not rest on our laurels. There are clear research and knowledge gaps in elevating CP practice to the sustainable production and consumption paradigm, and in the role played by financial markets to promote sustainable growth. We hope that this special issue provides one more reason to continue this effort. We hope that it will spur others to undertake further research on sustainable product service systems, sustainable consumptive patterns, governance and policy tools to promote change for sustainability, and the role of financial markets therein, and that the results of their endeavours will contribute towards subsequent special issues in Australia and New Zealand. We remain committed to keeping the spirited search for a sustainable future, alive. Acknowledgments We would like to thank Prof. Don Huisingh, Editorin-Chief, for his encouragement and support throughout the process of completion and publication of this special issue. Most importantly, we would like to thank all the authors for their efforts and patience in the process of producing this
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special issue. Considerable effort went into selecting expert reviewers around the world in the fields of speciality and disciplines that are represented by the papers in the special issue. Our sincere gratitude to all the reviewers below for allocating their personal time and for providing their extensive knowledge and experience to enhance the quality and contemporary relevance of this special issue: Adisa Azapagic Albena Bossilkov Alma Whiteley ˚ ke Thidell A Ayman Elshkaki Christine Byrch Darrell Reeve David Pennington Donald Huisingh Donald Rogich Frans Verspeek Glen Corder Gregory Brown
Helen Lewis Jan Sage Jeff Seadon John Craig John Russell Jon Ward Lesley Stone Mary Stewart Michael Schaper Philip Bangerter Philip Peck Rana Pant Rene van Berkel
Robert Pagan Sebastien Humbert Stefanie Hellweg Steve Harris Sven Lundie Terry Norgate Venkatesan Narayanaswamy Walter Cox Walter Wehrmeyer William Altham Yuichi Moriguti
Finally, we thank the editorial and publishing team at Elsevier for making these contributions available to all readers. References [1] Global competitiveness through cleaner production. In: Scott JA, Pagan RJ, editors. Proceedings of the second Asia Pacific cleaner production roundtable. Brisbane, Australia: Australian Cleaner Production Association Inc., ISBN 0-646-38546-1; 21e23 April 1999. p. 681. [2] Proceedings of the sixth Asia Pacific roundtable for sustainable consumption and production (CD ROM proceedings), 10e12 October 2005, Melbourne, Australia.
Venkatesan Narayanaswamy* URS Australia Pty Ltd, Principal Engineering and Technical Sustainability, Level 3, 20 Terrace Road, East Perth, Western Australia 6004, Australia *Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] Lesley Stone Sustainability Uptake Research Group Limited, New Zealand University of Auckland, New Zealand E-mail address: [email protected] Accepted 21 June 2006 Available online 22 August 2006