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From entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions: The role of entrepreneurial passion, innovativeness, and curiosity in driving entrepreneurial intentions
Personality and Individual Differences 157 (2020) 109758
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Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
From entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions: The role of entrepreneurial passion, innovativeness, and curiosity in driving entrepreneurial intentions
T
Imran Syeda, , Jonathan Craig Butlerb, Ronda M. Smithc, Xian Caod ⁎
a
Miller College of Business, Ball State University, 243 Whitinger Business Building, Muncie, IN 47306, USA Spears School of Business, Oklahoma State University, 329 Business Building, Stillwater, OK 74078, US.A c Miller College of Business, Ball State University, 241 Whitinger Business Building, Muncie, IN 47306, USA d Miller College of Business, Ball State University, 246 Whitinger Business Building, Muncie, IN 47306, USA b
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Entrepreneurial Passion Innovativeness Curiosity Entrepreneurial Intentions
Previous studies have shown that entrepreneurial passion has a positive relationship with entrepreneurial intentions, however we do not know much about the underlying mechanisms that might mediate or moderate this relationship. This study extends the existing literature by examining the mediating role of innovativeness and the moderating role of curiosity in the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Results, based on analysis of data collected from 295 respondents, showed that innovativeness partially mediated the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Further, the mediating effect was stronger for individuals who scored high on curiosity than for individuals who scored low on curiosity. The present study contributes to a better understanding of the how, and the when of how, of the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship.
1. Introduction Entrepreneurship has emerged as an important economic force in recent times, and is considered a primary catalyst in the economic development of the modern world (Morris, Kuratko & Cornwall, 2013). It is widely accepted that individual entrepreneurs play a lead role in starting new ventures and even often in the early evolution of industries (e.g. Baron & Hmieleski, 2018; Van Stel, Carree & Thurik, 2005). Entrepreneurs choose to undertake this role, and the formation of entrepreneurial intentions is the first stage in this process (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; Jeraj, 2014). Entrepreneurial intentions reflect an individual's intentions to choose an alternative career path that involves initiating a new venture instead of seeking employment at an existing one (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017). Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial intentions continue to be widely studied by researchers with an interest in the personality and individual differences of current and potential entrepreneurs (e.g. Brandstätter, 2011; Chan, Uy, Chernyshenko, Ho & Sam, 2015; Fuller, Liu, Bajaba, Marler & Pratt, 2018; Mathieu & St-Jean, 2013). Entrepreneurial intentions, as defined in this study, refer to an individual's intentions to participate in activities that lead to the
⁎
emergence of a new venture. Researchers suggest that entrepreneurial intentions might be one of the best predictors of the planned behavior of starting a new venture, and that generally intentions vary across individuals and can be learned (Ajzen, 1991; Fellnhofer, 2017; Krueger & Brazeal, 1994). It is thus important to understand the antecedents – both direct and indirect – of entrepreneurial intentions (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017). Individual difference variables, like passion and innovativeness, have been found to have a positive relationship with entrepreneurial behavior like venture creation, which includes entrepreneurial intentions and venture success (Rauch & Frese, 2007). Entrepreneurs are thought to be passionate, and passion is thought to benefit an entrepreneur's effectiveness in creating ventures and in helping their ventures succeed (Cardon, Wincent, Singh & Drnovsek, 2009; Mueller, Wolfe & Syed, 2017). Entrepreneurial passion can be defined as “consciously accessible, intense positive feelings experienced by engagement in entrepreneurial activities associated with roles that are meaningful and salient to the self-identity of the entrepreneur” (Cardon et al., 2009, p. 517). Passion is considered to be the most observed phenomenon in the entrepreneurial process and one that is important in understanding what drives both novice and serial entrepreneurs (Biraglia &
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (I. Syed), [email protected] (J.C. Butler), [email protected] (R.M. Smith), [email protected] (X. Cao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109758 Received 1 November 2018; Received in revised form 22 October 2019; Accepted 1 December 2019 0191-8869/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Kadile, 2017; Smilor, 1997; Thorgren & Wincent, 2015). Some researchers have tested the proposed positive relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions and have found empirical evidence that supports the proposition (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; Fellnhofer, 2017; Nasiru, Keat & Bhatti, 2014). Yet, the mechanisms underlying this entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship, i.e. any mediators or moderators that have an impact on this relationship, remain largely unexplored. There have been calls in the literature to understand the mechanisms that underlie intentions, and to test variables that moderate the effects of the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; Liñán & Fayolle, 2015). Such an investigation could help us understand how and when entrepreneurial passion has a positive impact on entrepreneurial intentions, and how the positive effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions can be further enhanced.
innovativeness would in turn lead to higher entrepreneurial intentions, we propose the following hypothesis: H1. The positive relationship between an individual's entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions is mediated by the individual's innovativeness. 1.2. The moderating role of curiosity Curiosity, considered to be one of the core motives that influences human behavior (Loewenstein, 1994), can be defined as “the recognition, pursuit, and intense desire to explore novel, challenging, and uncertain events” (Kashdan & Silvia, 2009, p. 368). Thus, it is possible that the positive effects of entrepreneurial passion might be stronger in some individuals because of their intense desire to question things and learn more. Curiosity, as suggested by self-regulatory theory, is an individual difference that can energize individuals to focus on their goals as well as to collect and integrate domain-related and general information (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Kashdan & Fincham, 2002). Curiosity should thus enhance innovativeness as it often requires collection of disparate information and their integration across disciplines (Martindale, 2001). Studies on curiosity and innovativeness support this logic suggested by self-regulation theory. For example, Celik, Storme, Davila and Myszkowski (2016) have found that an individual's work-related curiosity was positively related with that individual's innovativeness. Furthermore, Peljko, Jeraj, Săvoiu and Marič (2016) have also found that curiosity positively influences innovativeness. Curious individuals in the long run build multiple competencies and are thought to be more open to taking risks and persisting in challenging tasks that lead to their goals (Kashdan et al., 2018). Self-regulation theory would suggest that in addition to persistence towards goals, the energy and action orientation that curiosity provides (Celik et al., 2016), would lead individuals to focus more attention towards their entrepreneurial goals. Based on all of the above, it can be suggested that the positive characteristics of curiosity will strengthen the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness. Namely, the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness may be moderated by curiosity. According to the literature (e.g. Hayes, 2013; Liu et al., 2017; Yuan & Wang, 2016), if innovativeness mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions, and curiosity moderates the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness simultaneously, then the mediation by innovativeness would be moderated by curiosity. Thus, we propose the following moderated mediation hypothesis: H2. Curiosity moderates the indirect effect of an individual's entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness. Specifically, the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness will be stronger for individuals with higher levels of curiosity. The proposed theoretical model is shown in Fig. 1.
1.1. The mediating role of innovativeness Innovativeness, of which creativity is a core part, can be thought of as an ability to create or adopt, and implement, value-enhancing ideas (Baron, Hmieleski & Henry, 2012; Scott & Bruce, 1994). Innovativeness is more likely to occur when individuals are passionate about the task at hand (Amabile, 1997). Researchers suggest that positive emotional states like entrepreneurial passion are positively associated with innovativeness (Cardon et al., 2009). Passion might increase an individual's commitment to the cause as well as provide energy to pursue that commitment innovatively (Bierly III, Kessler & Christensen, 2000). Entrepreneurial passion is considered to be an important antecedent of entrepreneurship, and can motivate individuals to set challenging entrepreneurial goals that they are highly committed to (Cardon et al., 2009; Cardon, Gregoire, Stevens & Patel, 2013). According to self-regulation theory, self-regulatory processes are goal-directed processes that are essential in an individual's effortful engagement and in his or her overcoming challenges over time. Further, an individual difference like entrepreneurial passion can influence selfregulatory processes (Cardon et al., 2009; Carver & Scheier, 1998). It is thus possible that individuals with high entrepreneurial passion, in the pursuit of entrepreneurial goals, suppress their goal-irrelevant distractions; leading to greater involvement in goal-relevant tasks, with more opportunities for flow experiences, and thus enhance their creativity and overall innovativeness (Cardon et al., 2009; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Schindehutte, Morris & Allen, 2006). In support of the above self-regulation theory perspective, multiple studies have found that entrepreneurial passion positively predicts aspects of innovativeness (e.g. Campos, 2016; Cardon et al., 2013). Innovativeness is an important precursor to entrepreneurship (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016). A potential entrepreneur's entrepreneurial intentions might be strengthened if the entrepreneur is able to recognize more opportunities for entrepreneurial endeavors. Creativity, an important component of innovativeness, has been shown to be linked with establishment of new firms through generation of new ideas and opportunity identification (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017). Recognizing opportunities requires a persistent engagement with our surroundings as well as overcoming challenges in the path of opportunity recognition. According to self-regulation theory, an individual difference like innovativeness can influence self-regulatory processes (Cardon et al., 2009; Carver & Scheier, 1998), which in turn might enhance an individual's effortful engagement and help him or her overcome more challenges over time. Empirical evidence has been found to support this self-regulation theory viewpoint. A meta-analysis has found that innovativeness is positively related to business creation (r = 0.235, Rauch & Frese, 2006, 2007). Further, it has also been found that innovativeness has a positive relationship with entrepreneurial intentions (Ahmed et al., 2010). Considering that entrepreneurial passion would have a positive impact on innovativeness, and higher
2. Methods 2.1. Participants and procedure A university student sample is an appropriate and commonly used sample in entrepreneurial intentions research (Engle et al., 2010; Liñán & Chen, 2009; Looi & Khoo-Lattimore, 2015). Data for this study were collected from undergraduate students who provided their informed consent and were enrolled in a research pool of a Midwestern university. The 295 final respondents were on average 19.83 years old (sd. = 2.12); 46% were male; and 31% were business majors. 2.2. Measurements 2.2.1. Entrepreneurial passion As recommended by Cardon et al. (2013), the four-item 2
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Fig. 1. Theoretical model linking entrepreneurial passion, curiosity, innovativeness, and entrepreneurial intentions.
entrepreneurial founding passion subscale from the entrepreneurial passion scale (Cardon et al., 2013) was used in this study. This scale, measured on a seven-point Likert scale, is a multiplicative combination of two dimensions (i.e. intense positive feelings and identity centrality). Based on previous recommendation and operationalization (Cardon et al., 2013; Mueller et al., 2017), an average score was created for the three intense positive feelings’ items (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.963) which was then multiplied by the score on the identity centrality item. This resulted in the entrepreneurial passion score used in the study.
Table. 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations.
2.2.2. Curiosity and exploration The ten-item curiosity and exploration inventory-II, developed by Kashdan et al. (2009), was used to measure curiosity in this study (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.911). The two dimensions of curiosity – stretching (i.e. seeking out new knowledge and new experiences) and embracing (i.e. willingness to embrace uncertainty in everyday life) – were combined, and measured using a five-point Likert scale, as recommended by Kashdan et al. (2009).
(r = 0.432, p < 0.01), innovativeness (r = 0.442, p < 0.01), and entrepreneurial intentions (r = 0.753, p < 0.01). Curiosity was positively correlated with innovativeness (r = 0.398, p < 0.01), and entrepreneurial intentions (r = 0.423, p < 0.01). Additionally, innovativeness was positively correlated with entrepreneurial intentions (r = 0.415, p < 0.01).
Variables
M
SD
1
2
3
1. 2. 3. 4.
13.220 3.282 4.149 2.222
14.785 0.832 1.424 1.121
– 0.432** 0.442** 0.753**
– 0.398** 0.423**
– 0.415**
Entrepreneurial Passion Curiosity Innovativeness Entrepreneurial Intentions
Note: N = 295. M = mean; SD = standard deviation. ⁎⁎ p < 0.01.
3.2. Testing for the proposed model
2.2.3. Innovativeness A four-item scale adapted from Scott and Bruce (1994), and measured using a seven-point Likert scale, was used to measure innovativeness in this study (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.895).
Our study's hypotheses are about how (mediation effect), and when of the how (moderated mediation effect), entrepreneurial passion influences entrepreneurial intentions. The study's model was tested through conditional process analysis, with mean-centering for products, using model seven of the PROCESS macro add-in, version 2.16.2, installed in SPSS 24.0 software. The PROCESS macro recommended by Hayes (2013) has been developed to analyze complex models like this study's moderated mediation model and has been frequently used in recent studies (e.g. Ding, Zhang, Wei, Huang & Zhou, 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Yuan & Wang, 2016). The conditional process analysis results are presented in Table 2. A significant proportion of variance in innovativeness scores (R2 = 0.28, F[5, 289] = 22.74, p < 0.001) and in entrepreneurial intentions scores (R2 = 0.58, F[4, 290] = 98.61, p < 0.001) was explained by the model. As can be seen from the mediator variable model in Table 2, after controlling for sex and age, entrepreneurial passion positively predicted innovativeness (β = 0.02, p < 0.001). Further, as can be seen from the dependent variable model, after controlling for sex and age, entrepreneurial passion positively predicted entrepreneurial intentions (β = 0.05, p < 0.001), and innovativeness positively predicted entrepreneurial intentions (β = 0.08, p < 0.05). These results indicate that innovativeness partially mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, we find
2.2.4. Entrepreneurial intentions A ten-item scale adapted from Hmieleski and Corbett (2006), and measured using a five-point Likert scale, was used to measure entrepreneurial intentions in this study (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.948). 2.2.5. Control variables Respondents’ age and sex were controlled for in this study as researchers have previously found that these variables have a statistically significant relationship with entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Mathieu & St-Jean, 2013). 3. Results 3.1. Preliminary analysis Means, standard deviations, and correlations of all study variables are presented in Table 1. Entrepreneurial passion was positively correlated with curiosity 3
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we find support for H2.
Table. 2 Conditional process analysis. Coefficient
SE
t
Mediator variable model for predicting innovativeness Constant 3.15*** 0.67 4.68 Sex 0.37** 0.14 2.60 Age 0.04 0.03 1.12 Entrepreneurial passion 0.02*** 0.01 3.55 Curiosity 0.48*** 0.10 5.01 Entrepreneurial passion x Curiosity 0.01* 0.01 2.29 Dependent variable model for predicting entrepreneurial intentions Constant 1.89*** 0.42 4.51 Sex 0.08 0.09 0.95 Age −0.001 0.02 −0.06 Entrepreneurial passion 0.05*** 0.003 16.55 Innovativeness 0.08* 0.03 2.23 Effect
Boot SE
BootLLCI
Conditional indirect effect analysis at Curiosity = M ± SD M ‒ 1 SD (2.45) 0.0008 0.0009 −0.0004 M (3.28) 0.0017 0.0009 0.0003 M + 1 SD (4.11) 0.0026 0.0011 0.0006
4. Discussion
p
The present study created and tested a moderated mediation model of the mechanism underlying the entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions association. Our results demonstrated the mediating effect of innovativeness and the moderating effect of curiosity on the positive entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Further analysis of the study's model showed that the mediating effect of innovativeness differed with varying values of curiosity. Firstly, our study adds to the current knowledge about the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Previous studies that have empirically tested this relationship have made strong contributions to the literature, but we found that they were primarily conducted using different measure and sample criteria than those used in this study. To illustrate, previous studies have tested this relationship using an aggregate entrepreneurial passion scale (e.g. Fellnhofer, 2017), or have used a specialized industry group sample (e.g. Biraglia & kadile, 2017), or have used a non-U.S. sample (e.g. Nasiru et al., 2014). This study, thus, adds to the existing literature by being one of the first studies that tests this relationship using a disaggregated entrepreneurial passion scale, as recommended by Cardon et al. (2013), p.394), on a U.S. student sample. Next, our study found that innovativeness mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions. This result is consistent with previous research which has demonstrated entrepreneurial passion's association with creativity and innovativeness (e.g. Campos, 2016; Cardon et al., 2013), and the association of innovativeness with entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Ahmed et al., 2010). Further, the mediating effect of innovativeness in the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions also affirms this relationship suggestion by self-regulation theory. Additionally, our results indicate that the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions mediated through innovativeness is moderated by curiosity. The indirect effect was stronger for individuals with relatively higher curiosity than for those with relatively lower curiosity. This result is consistent with previous research on intentions, which states that intentions can be learned and that they vary across individuals based on their individual characteristics (Krueger & Brazeal, 1994). The moderating effect of curiosity on the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and its outcomes suggests that the way individuals respond to or utilize their entrepreneurial passion is impacted by their curiosity. Individuals who have higher levels of curiosity might explore new information more energetically (Loewenstein, 1994). This exploration would potentially provide them with more knowledge than those who have lower levels of curiosity; the knowledge thus gained, in conjunction with the motivation provided by passion, might allow them to connect disparate pieces of information thus affording them more opportunities to be innovative. The reasons provided above are also consistent with the suggestion of self-regulation theory which states that individuals when motivated, for example through the energy derived from curiosity, have an enhanced capacity to alter their behavior depending on situational demands in the pursuit of their goals (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007). Therefore, curiosity positively influences the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions mediated through innovativeness.
0.0000 0.0098 0.2639 0.0005 0.0000 0.0225 0.0000 0.3447 0.9510 0.0000 0.0262 BootULCI 0.0034 0.0040 0.0052
Note: N = 295. Bias corrected confidence intervals (CIs) are set at 95% from the bootstrap analysis with 5000 bootstrap resamples. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error; LLCI = lower level of confidence interval; ULCI = upper level of confidence interval. ⁎ p < 0.05. ⁎⁎ p < 0.01. ⁎⁎⁎ p < 0.001.
support for H1. As can be seen from the mediator variable model, after controlling for sex and age, the interaction of entrepreneurial passion and curiosity showed significant effects on innovativeness (β = 0.01, p < 0.05). This indicates that the association between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness was moderated by curiosity. To help interpret this moderating effect, Fig. 2 presents the predicted innovativeness value as a function of entrepreneurial passion and curiosity. Further, as can be seen from the conditional indirect effect analysis, two of the three conditional indirect effects (based on the moderator values at the mean and at + 1 standard deviation) were positively and significantly different from zero. This indicates that the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness was observed when curiosity was at a mean or higher level, but not when curiosity was low. Based on the above, we can say that the mediation of entrepreneurial passion's effect on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness is moderated by curiosity, and therefore
5. Limitations and implications Although this study offers many promising results, it has several limitations that should be noted. First, this study utilized a student sample. Student samples are appropriate and commonly used in entrepreneurial intentions research (Geenen, Urbig, Muehlfeld, van Witteloostuijn & Gargalianou, 2016; Looi & Khoo-Lattimore, 2015),
Fig. 2. Plot of the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness at two levels of curiosity. Note: The above plot is based on a simple moderation model, with entrepreneurial passion as the focal predictor, curiosity as moderator, innovativeness as outcome, and entrepreneurial intentions, sex, and age as covariates. 4
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yet using just one participant population limits contextual richness and the ability to generalize from the study's findings (Zahra, 2007). Future research could utilize a more general population sample to help increase the external validity of the findings. Next, this study utilized a cross-sectional design that does not allow for confirmation of causality among the variables tested. However, our mediation model was based on previous research that has empirically tested the entrepreneurial passion to creativity and innovativeness (e.g. Campos, 2016; Cardon et al., 2013), innovativeness to entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Ahmed et al., 2010), and entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Nasiru et al., 2014) relationships. Future research could utilize an experimental design to verify the causal relationships between entrepreneurial passion, innovativeness, and entrepreneurial intentions. Finally, again based on the cross-sectional nature of our study's design, our findings provide a snapshot of one point in time. Even though we are able to identify important relationships that exist among the study variables through our cross-sectional design (Geenen et al., 2016), we are unable to indicate any intra-individual changes concerning the study's variables that might occur over time. Future research could utilize a longitudinal-approach with a panel design that is able to capture intra-individual changes with regards to the study's variables over time. Despite the above limitations, this study still has important implications for both theory and practice. This study is the first to investigate the mediating role of innovativeness and the moderating role of curiosity in the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions. It adds to the literature by examining the mechanisms underlying this relationship. More specifically, it explains how, and when of the how, entrepreneurial passion influences entrepreneurial intentions. The above responds to calls to study: entrepreneurial passion, and its domains, as antecedent of entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Cardon et al., 2013; Fellnhofer, 2017); variables that impact the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship (e.g. Biraglia & Kadile, 2017); and the role of curiosity in the development of creativity and innovativeness (e.g. Kashdan & Fincham, 2002). Further, this study is one of the first few to study curiosity in the context of entrepreneurship and its findings suggest that there is a need for more research on the role of curiosity in entrepreneurship. Additionally, this study has important practical implications. Since both innovativeness and curiosity can be enhanced by learning and training (Amabile, 1997; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997), it would be effective to augment the positive effects of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions by enhancing innovativeness and curiosity. This would also have the additional benefit of enhancing individuals’ opportunity recognition skills and entrepreneurial self-efficacy both of which would motivate individuals to act on their entrepreneurial intentions.
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I. Syed, et al. Martindale, C. (2001). Oscillations and analogies: Thomas young, MD, FRS, genius. American Psychologist, 56(4), 342–345. Mathieu, C., & St-Jean, É. (2013). Entrepreneurial personality: The role of narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(5), 527–531. Morris, M. H., Kuratko, D. F., & Cornwall, J. R. (2013). Entrepreneurship programs and the modern university. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing. Mueller, B. A., Wolfe, M. T., & Syed, I. (2017). Passion and grit: An exploration of the pathways leading to venture success. Journal of Business Venturing, 32(3), 260–279. Nasiru, A., Keat, O. Y., & Bhatti, M. A. (2014). Relationship between entrepreneurial passion for inventing, entrepreneurial passion founding and entrepreneurial intention: The role of perceived creativity disposition. Res J, 2(1), 132–144. Ozaralli, N., & Rivenburgh, N. K. (2016). Entrepreneurial intention: Antecedents to entrepreneurial behavior in the USA and Turkey. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 6(1), 1–32. Peljko, Ž., Jeraj, M., Săvoiu, G., & Marič, M. (2016). An empirical study of the relationship between entrepreneurial curiosity and innovativeness. Organizacija, 49(3), 172–182. Rauch, A., & Frese, M. (2006). Meta-analysis as a tool for developing entrepreneurship research and theory. Entrepreneurship: Frameworks and empirical investigations from forthcoming leaders of European research. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group Publishing Limited29–51.
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From entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions: The role of entrepreneurial passion, innovativeness, and curiosity in driving entrepreneurial intentions
T
Imran Syeda, , Jonathan Craig Butlerb, Ronda M. Smithc, Xian Caod ⁎
a
Miller College of Business, Ball State University, 243 Whitinger Business Building, Muncie, IN 47306, USA Spears School of Business, Oklahoma State University, 329 Business Building, Stillwater, OK 74078, US.A c Miller College of Business, Ball State University, 241 Whitinger Business Building, Muncie, IN 47306, USA d Miller College of Business, Ball State University, 246 Whitinger Business Building, Muncie, IN 47306, USA b
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Entrepreneurial Passion Innovativeness Curiosity Entrepreneurial Intentions
Previous studies have shown that entrepreneurial passion has a positive relationship with entrepreneurial intentions, however we do not know much about the underlying mechanisms that might mediate or moderate this relationship. This study extends the existing literature by examining the mediating role of innovativeness and the moderating role of curiosity in the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Results, based on analysis of data collected from 295 respondents, showed that innovativeness partially mediated the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Further, the mediating effect was stronger for individuals who scored high on curiosity than for individuals who scored low on curiosity. The present study contributes to a better understanding of the how, and the when of how, of the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship.
1. Introduction Entrepreneurship has emerged as an important economic force in recent times, and is considered a primary catalyst in the economic development of the modern world (Morris, Kuratko & Cornwall, 2013). It is widely accepted that individual entrepreneurs play a lead role in starting new ventures and even often in the early evolution of industries (e.g. Baron & Hmieleski, 2018; Van Stel, Carree & Thurik, 2005). Entrepreneurs choose to undertake this role, and the formation of entrepreneurial intentions is the first stage in this process (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; Jeraj, 2014). Entrepreneurial intentions reflect an individual's intentions to choose an alternative career path that involves initiating a new venture instead of seeking employment at an existing one (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017). Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial intentions continue to be widely studied by researchers with an interest in the personality and individual differences of current and potential entrepreneurs (e.g. Brandstätter, 2011; Chan, Uy, Chernyshenko, Ho & Sam, 2015; Fuller, Liu, Bajaba, Marler & Pratt, 2018; Mathieu & St-Jean, 2013). Entrepreneurial intentions, as defined in this study, refer to an individual's intentions to participate in activities that lead to the
⁎
emergence of a new venture. Researchers suggest that entrepreneurial intentions might be one of the best predictors of the planned behavior of starting a new venture, and that generally intentions vary across individuals and can be learned (Ajzen, 1991; Fellnhofer, 2017; Krueger & Brazeal, 1994). It is thus important to understand the antecedents – both direct and indirect – of entrepreneurial intentions (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017). Individual difference variables, like passion and innovativeness, have been found to have a positive relationship with entrepreneurial behavior like venture creation, which includes entrepreneurial intentions and venture success (Rauch & Frese, 2007). Entrepreneurs are thought to be passionate, and passion is thought to benefit an entrepreneur's effectiveness in creating ventures and in helping their ventures succeed (Cardon, Wincent, Singh & Drnovsek, 2009; Mueller, Wolfe & Syed, 2017). Entrepreneurial passion can be defined as “consciously accessible, intense positive feelings experienced by engagement in entrepreneurial activities associated with roles that are meaningful and salient to the self-identity of the entrepreneur” (Cardon et al., 2009, p. 517). Passion is considered to be the most observed phenomenon in the entrepreneurial process and one that is important in understanding what drives both novice and serial entrepreneurs (Biraglia &
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (I. Syed), [email protected] (J.C. Butler), [email protected] (R.M. Smith), [email protected] (X. Cao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109758 Received 1 November 2018; Received in revised form 22 October 2019; Accepted 1 December 2019 0191-8869/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Kadile, 2017; Smilor, 1997; Thorgren & Wincent, 2015). Some researchers have tested the proposed positive relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions and have found empirical evidence that supports the proposition (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; Fellnhofer, 2017; Nasiru, Keat & Bhatti, 2014). Yet, the mechanisms underlying this entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship, i.e. any mediators or moderators that have an impact on this relationship, remain largely unexplored. There have been calls in the literature to understand the mechanisms that underlie intentions, and to test variables that moderate the effects of the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017; Liñán & Fayolle, 2015). Such an investigation could help us understand how and when entrepreneurial passion has a positive impact on entrepreneurial intentions, and how the positive effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions can be further enhanced.
innovativeness would in turn lead to higher entrepreneurial intentions, we propose the following hypothesis: H1. The positive relationship between an individual's entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions is mediated by the individual's innovativeness. 1.2. The moderating role of curiosity Curiosity, considered to be one of the core motives that influences human behavior (Loewenstein, 1994), can be defined as “the recognition, pursuit, and intense desire to explore novel, challenging, and uncertain events” (Kashdan & Silvia, 2009, p. 368). Thus, it is possible that the positive effects of entrepreneurial passion might be stronger in some individuals because of their intense desire to question things and learn more. Curiosity, as suggested by self-regulatory theory, is an individual difference that can energize individuals to focus on their goals as well as to collect and integrate domain-related and general information (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Kashdan & Fincham, 2002). Curiosity should thus enhance innovativeness as it often requires collection of disparate information and their integration across disciplines (Martindale, 2001). Studies on curiosity and innovativeness support this logic suggested by self-regulation theory. For example, Celik, Storme, Davila and Myszkowski (2016) have found that an individual's work-related curiosity was positively related with that individual's innovativeness. Furthermore, Peljko, Jeraj, Săvoiu and Marič (2016) have also found that curiosity positively influences innovativeness. Curious individuals in the long run build multiple competencies and are thought to be more open to taking risks and persisting in challenging tasks that lead to their goals (Kashdan et al., 2018). Self-regulation theory would suggest that in addition to persistence towards goals, the energy and action orientation that curiosity provides (Celik et al., 2016), would lead individuals to focus more attention towards their entrepreneurial goals. Based on all of the above, it can be suggested that the positive characteristics of curiosity will strengthen the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness. Namely, the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness may be moderated by curiosity. According to the literature (e.g. Hayes, 2013; Liu et al., 2017; Yuan & Wang, 2016), if innovativeness mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions, and curiosity moderates the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness simultaneously, then the mediation by innovativeness would be moderated by curiosity. Thus, we propose the following moderated mediation hypothesis: H2. Curiosity moderates the indirect effect of an individual's entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness. Specifically, the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness will be stronger for individuals with higher levels of curiosity. The proposed theoretical model is shown in Fig. 1.
1.1. The mediating role of innovativeness Innovativeness, of which creativity is a core part, can be thought of as an ability to create or adopt, and implement, value-enhancing ideas (Baron, Hmieleski & Henry, 2012; Scott & Bruce, 1994). Innovativeness is more likely to occur when individuals are passionate about the task at hand (Amabile, 1997). Researchers suggest that positive emotional states like entrepreneurial passion are positively associated with innovativeness (Cardon et al., 2009). Passion might increase an individual's commitment to the cause as well as provide energy to pursue that commitment innovatively (Bierly III, Kessler & Christensen, 2000). Entrepreneurial passion is considered to be an important antecedent of entrepreneurship, and can motivate individuals to set challenging entrepreneurial goals that they are highly committed to (Cardon et al., 2009; Cardon, Gregoire, Stevens & Patel, 2013). According to self-regulation theory, self-regulatory processes are goal-directed processes that are essential in an individual's effortful engagement and in his or her overcoming challenges over time. Further, an individual difference like entrepreneurial passion can influence selfregulatory processes (Cardon et al., 2009; Carver & Scheier, 1998). It is thus possible that individuals with high entrepreneurial passion, in the pursuit of entrepreneurial goals, suppress their goal-irrelevant distractions; leading to greater involvement in goal-relevant tasks, with more opportunities for flow experiences, and thus enhance their creativity and overall innovativeness (Cardon et al., 2009; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Schindehutte, Morris & Allen, 2006). In support of the above self-regulation theory perspective, multiple studies have found that entrepreneurial passion positively predicts aspects of innovativeness (e.g. Campos, 2016; Cardon et al., 2013). Innovativeness is an important precursor to entrepreneurship (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016). A potential entrepreneur's entrepreneurial intentions might be strengthened if the entrepreneur is able to recognize more opportunities for entrepreneurial endeavors. Creativity, an important component of innovativeness, has been shown to be linked with establishment of new firms through generation of new ideas and opportunity identification (Biraglia & Kadile, 2017). Recognizing opportunities requires a persistent engagement with our surroundings as well as overcoming challenges in the path of opportunity recognition. According to self-regulation theory, an individual difference like innovativeness can influence self-regulatory processes (Cardon et al., 2009; Carver & Scheier, 1998), which in turn might enhance an individual's effortful engagement and help him or her overcome more challenges over time. Empirical evidence has been found to support this self-regulation theory viewpoint. A meta-analysis has found that innovativeness is positively related to business creation (r = 0.235, Rauch & Frese, 2006, 2007). Further, it has also been found that innovativeness has a positive relationship with entrepreneurial intentions (Ahmed et al., 2010). Considering that entrepreneurial passion would have a positive impact on innovativeness, and higher
2. Methods 2.1. Participants and procedure A university student sample is an appropriate and commonly used sample in entrepreneurial intentions research (Engle et al., 2010; Liñán & Chen, 2009; Looi & Khoo-Lattimore, 2015). Data for this study were collected from undergraduate students who provided their informed consent and were enrolled in a research pool of a Midwestern university. The 295 final respondents were on average 19.83 years old (sd. = 2.12); 46% were male; and 31% were business majors. 2.2. Measurements 2.2.1. Entrepreneurial passion As recommended by Cardon et al. (2013), the four-item 2
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Fig. 1. Theoretical model linking entrepreneurial passion, curiosity, innovativeness, and entrepreneurial intentions.
entrepreneurial founding passion subscale from the entrepreneurial passion scale (Cardon et al., 2013) was used in this study. This scale, measured on a seven-point Likert scale, is a multiplicative combination of two dimensions (i.e. intense positive feelings and identity centrality). Based on previous recommendation and operationalization (Cardon et al., 2013; Mueller et al., 2017), an average score was created for the three intense positive feelings’ items (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.963) which was then multiplied by the score on the identity centrality item. This resulted in the entrepreneurial passion score used in the study.
Table. 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations.
2.2.2. Curiosity and exploration The ten-item curiosity and exploration inventory-II, developed by Kashdan et al. (2009), was used to measure curiosity in this study (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.911). The two dimensions of curiosity – stretching (i.e. seeking out new knowledge and new experiences) and embracing (i.e. willingness to embrace uncertainty in everyday life) – were combined, and measured using a five-point Likert scale, as recommended by Kashdan et al. (2009).
(r = 0.432, p < 0.01), innovativeness (r = 0.442, p < 0.01), and entrepreneurial intentions (r = 0.753, p < 0.01). Curiosity was positively correlated with innovativeness (r = 0.398, p < 0.01), and entrepreneurial intentions (r = 0.423, p < 0.01). Additionally, innovativeness was positively correlated with entrepreneurial intentions (r = 0.415, p < 0.01).
Variables
M
SD
1
2
3
1. 2. 3. 4.
13.220 3.282 4.149 2.222
14.785 0.832 1.424 1.121
– 0.432** 0.442** 0.753**
– 0.398** 0.423**
– 0.415**
Entrepreneurial Passion Curiosity Innovativeness Entrepreneurial Intentions
Note: N = 295. M = mean; SD = standard deviation. ⁎⁎ p < 0.01.
3.2. Testing for the proposed model
2.2.3. Innovativeness A four-item scale adapted from Scott and Bruce (1994), and measured using a seven-point Likert scale, was used to measure innovativeness in this study (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.895).
Our study's hypotheses are about how (mediation effect), and when of the how (moderated mediation effect), entrepreneurial passion influences entrepreneurial intentions. The study's model was tested through conditional process analysis, with mean-centering for products, using model seven of the PROCESS macro add-in, version 2.16.2, installed in SPSS 24.0 software. The PROCESS macro recommended by Hayes (2013) has been developed to analyze complex models like this study's moderated mediation model and has been frequently used in recent studies (e.g. Ding, Zhang, Wei, Huang & Zhou, 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Yuan & Wang, 2016). The conditional process analysis results are presented in Table 2. A significant proportion of variance in innovativeness scores (R2 = 0.28, F[5, 289] = 22.74, p < 0.001) and in entrepreneurial intentions scores (R2 = 0.58, F[4, 290] = 98.61, p < 0.001) was explained by the model. As can be seen from the mediator variable model in Table 2, after controlling for sex and age, entrepreneurial passion positively predicted innovativeness (β = 0.02, p < 0.001). Further, as can be seen from the dependent variable model, after controlling for sex and age, entrepreneurial passion positively predicted entrepreneurial intentions (β = 0.05, p < 0.001), and innovativeness positively predicted entrepreneurial intentions (β = 0.08, p < 0.05). These results indicate that innovativeness partially mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, we find
2.2.4. Entrepreneurial intentions A ten-item scale adapted from Hmieleski and Corbett (2006), and measured using a five-point Likert scale, was used to measure entrepreneurial intentions in this study (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.948). 2.2.5. Control variables Respondents’ age and sex were controlled for in this study as researchers have previously found that these variables have a statistically significant relationship with entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Mathieu & St-Jean, 2013). 3. Results 3.1. Preliminary analysis Means, standard deviations, and correlations of all study variables are presented in Table 1. Entrepreneurial passion was positively correlated with curiosity 3
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we find support for H2.
Table. 2 Conditional process analysis. Coefficient
SE
t
Mediator variable model for predicting innovativeness Constant 3.15*** 0.67 4.68 Sex 0.37** 0.14 2.60 Age 0.04 0.03 1.12 Entrepreneurial passion 0.02*** 0.01 3.55 Curiosity 0.48*** 0.10 5.01 Entrepreneurial passion x Curiosity 0.01* 0.01 2.29 Dependent variable model for predicting entrepreneurial intentions Constant 1.89*** 0.42 4.51 Sex 0.08 0.09 0.95 Age −0.001 0.02 −0.06 Entrepreneurial passion 0.05*** 0.003 16.55 Innovativeness 0.08* 0.03 2.23 Effect
Boot SE
BootLLCI
Conditional indirect effect analysis at Curiosity = M ± SD M ‒ 1 SD (2.45) 0.0008 0.0009 −0.0004 M (3.28) 0.0017 0.0009 0.0003 M + 1 SD (4.11) 0.0026 0.0011 0.0006
4. Discussion
p
The present study created and tested a moderated mediation model of the mechanism underlying the entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions association. Our results demonstrated the mediating effect of innovativeness and the moderating effect of curiosity on the positive entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Further analysis of the study's model showed that the mediating effect of innovativeness differed with varying values of curiosity. Firstly, our study adds to the current knowledge about the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship. Previous studies that have empirically tested this relationship have made strong contributions to the literature, but we found that they were primarily conducted using different measure and sample criteria than those used in this study. To illustrate, previous studies have tested this relationship using an aggregate entrepreneurial passion scale (e.g. Fellnhofer, 2017), or have used a specialized industry group sample (e.g. Biraglia & kadile, 2017), or have used a non-U.S. sample (e.g. Nasiru et al., 2014). This study, thus, adds to the existing literature by being one of the first studies that tests this relationship using a disaggregated entrepreneurial passion scale, as recommended by Cardon et al. (2013), p.394), on a U.S. student sample. Next, our study found that innovativeness mediated the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions. This result is consistent with previous research which has demonstrated entrepreneurial passion's association with creativity and innovativeness (e.g. Campos, 2016; Cardon et al., 2013), and the association of innovativeness with entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Ahmed et al., 2010). Further, the mediating effect of innovativeness in the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions also affirms this relationship suggestion by self-regulation theory. Additionally, our results indicate that the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions mediated through innovativeness is moderated by curiosity. The indirect effect was stronger for individuals with relatively higher curiosity than for those with relatively lower curiosity. This result is consistent with previous research on intentions, which states that intentions can be learned and that they vary across individuals based on their individual characteristics (Krueger & Brazeal, 1994). The moderating effect of curiosity on the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and its outcomes suggests that the way individuals respond to or utilize their entrepreneurial passion is impacted by their curiosity. Individuals who have higher levels of curiosity might explore new information more energetically (Loewenstein, 1994). This exploration would potentially provide them with more knowledge than those who have lower levels of curiosity; the knowledge thus gained, in conjunction with the motivation provided by passion, might allow them to connect disparate pieces of information thus affording them more opportunities to be innovative. The reasons provided above are also consistent with the suggestion of self-regulation theory which states that individuals when motivated, for example through the energy derived from curiosity, have an enhanced capacity to alter their behavior depending on situational demands in the pursuit of their goals (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007). Therefore, curiosity positively influences the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions mediated through innovativeness.
0.0000 0.0098 0.2639 0.0005 0.0000 0.0225 0.0000 0.3447 0.9510 0.0000 0.0262 BootULCI 0.0034 0.0040 0.0052
Note: N = 295. Bias corrected confidence intervals (CIs) are set at 95% from the bootstrap analysis with 5000 bootstrap resamples. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error; LLCI = lower level of confidence interval; ULCI = upper level of confidence interval. ⁎ p < 0.05. ⁎⁎ p < 0.01. ⁎⁎⁎ p < 0.001.
support for H1. As can be seen from the mediator variable model, after controlling for sex and age, the interaction of entrepreneurial passion and curiosity showed significant effects on innovativeness (β = 0.01, p < 0.05). This indicates that the association between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness was moderated by curiosity. To help interpret this moderating effect, Fig. 2 presents the predicted innovativeness value as a function of entrepreneurial passion and curiosity. Further, as can be seen from the conditional indirect effect analysis, two of the three conditional indirect effects (based on the moderator values at the mean and at + 1 standard deviation) were positively and significantly different from zero. This indicates that the indirect effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness was observed when curiosity was at a mean or higher level, but not when curiosity was low. Based on the above, we can say that the mediation of entrepreneurial passion's effect on entrepreneurial intentions through innovativeness is moderated by curiosity, and therefore
5. Limitations and implications Although this study offers many promising results, it has several limitations that should be noted. First, this study utilized a student sample. Student samples are appropriate and commonly used in entrepreneurial intentions research (Geenen, Urbig, Muehlfeld, van Witteloostuijn & Gargalianou, 2016; Looi & Khoo-Lattimore, 2015),
Fig. 2. Plot of the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and innovativeness at two levels of curiosity. Note: The above plot is based on a simple moderation model, with entrepreneurial passion as the focal predictor, curiosity as moderator, innovativeness as outcome, and entrepreneurial intentions, sex, and age as covariates. 4
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yet using just one participant population limits contextual richness and the ability to generalize from the study's findings (Zahra, 2007). Future research could utilize a more general population sample to help increase the external validity of the findings. Next, this study utilized a cross-sectional design that does not allow for confirmation of causality among the variables tested. However, our mediation model was based on previous research that has empirically tested the entrepreneurial passion to creativity and innovativeness (e.g. Campos, 2016; Cardon et al., 2013), innovativeness to entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Ahmed et al., 2010), and entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Nasiru et al., 2014) relationships. Future research could utilize an experimental design to verify the causal relationships between entrepreneurial passion, innovativeness, and entrepreneurial intentions. Finally, again based on the cross-sectional nature of our study's design, our findings provide a snapshot of one point in time. Even though we are able to identify important relationships that exist among the study variables through our cross-sectional design (Geenen et al., 2016), we are unable to indicate any intra-individual changes concerning the study's variables that might occur over time. Future research could utilize a longitudinal-approach with a panel design that is able to capture intra-individual changes with regards to the study's variables over time. Despite the above limitations, this study still has important implications for both theory and practice. This study is the first to investigate the mediating role of innovativeness and the moderating role of curiosity in the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and entrepreneurial intentions. It adds to the literature by examining the mechanisms underlying this relationship. More specifically, it explains how, and when of the how, entrepreneurial passion influences entrepreneurial intentions. The above responds to calls to study: entrepreneurial passion, and its domains, as antecedent of entrepreneurial intentions (e.g. Cardon et al., 2013; Fellnhofer, 2017); variables that impact the entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions relationship (e.g. Biraglia & Kadile, 2017); and the role of curiosity in the development of creativity and innovativeness (e.g. Kashdan & Fincham, 2002). Further, this study is one of the first few to study curiosity in the context of entrepreneurship and its findings suggest that there is a need for more research on the role of curiosity in entrepreneurship. Additionally, this study has important practical implications. Since both innovativeness and curiosity can be enhanced by learning and training (Amabile, 1997; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997), it would be effective to augment the positive effects of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intentions by enhancing innovativeness and curiosity. This would also have the additional benefit of enhancing individuals’ opportunity recognition skills and entrepreneurial self-efficacy both of which would motivate individuals to act on their entrepreneurial intentions.
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