From recreation to responsibility: Increasing environmentally responsible behavior in tourism

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From recreation to responsibility: Increasing environmentally responsible behavior in tourism ⁎

Lujun Sua, Maxwell K. Hsub, , Robert E. Boostrom Jr.b a b

Business School of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China College of Business & Economics, Univ. of Wisconsin-Whitewater, United States of America

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Eco-friendly reputation Tourist satisfaction Environmentally responsible behavior

Environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) matters a great deal for the long-term success of tourist destinations. Building upon the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework, the current study constructed an integrated model to demonstrate perceived destination eco-friendly reputation as a stimulus; consumption emotions (positive and negative) as organism; tourism satisfaction, recollection, tourist environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) as response. Notably, tourists' recollection is seen within this S-O-R framework as the formation mechanism for prescribed action and consequently as an example of script theory and the generation of consumer responses, thus connecting elements of behavioral and cognitive psychology in a unified framework. Survey data from 522 Chinese tourists were used to empirically examine the integrated tourist ERB model. The findings suggest that destination eco-friendly reputation positively impacts both positive emotions and tourist satisfaction, and eco-friendly reputation negatively impacts negative emotions. Positive emotions significantly and positively influence tourist satisfaction, tourists' recollection, and ERB. Conversely, negative emotions have a significant negative effect on these constructs. Moreover, tourist satisfaction positively influences recollection and ERB, and recollection in turn positively affects ERB. Theoretical insights and practical implications are discussed in this paper.

1. Introduction The rapid development of tourism often has unfavorable environmental consequences, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions due to travelers' recreational activities and their hotel accommodation needs (Dwyer, Forsyth, Spurr, & Hoque, 2010; Gössling & Schumacher, 2010). Since tourism depends heavily on a destination's environmental/ natural and cultural attractiveness (Kiatkawsin & Han, 2017; Su & Swanson, 2017), negative impacts of tourism can seriously influence a destination's sustainable development (Sheldon & Park, 2011; Su, Huang, & Pearce, 2018). Tourists, either consciously or unconsciously, may contribute to environmental destruction. Examples include flower-picking (Chang, 2010); seed displacement due to human activity (Pickering & Mount, 2010); disruption of wildlife (Ballantyne, Packer, & Falk, 2011; Ballantyne, Packer, & Sutherland, 2011; Chen, 2011); pollution activity (Logar, 2010; Teh & Cabanban, 2007); and overcrowding (Dickinson & Robbins, 2008; Poitras & Getz, 2006). A key concern of tourism scholars and practitioners is how to limit the adverse effects of tourism on the environment. Consequently, it is of great importance to understand the

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main factors that lead to the development of environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). Demonstrating ERB's importance, various theories have been considered for understanding the mechanism behind tourist ERB, including the theory of planned behavior (e.g., Chen & Tung, 2014; Han, 2015; Han & Kim, 2010), value-belief-norm theory (e.g., Han, 2015; Kiatkawsin & Han, 2017), goal-directed behavior (e.g., Han, Jae, & Hwang, 2016; Han & Yoon, 2015; Song, Lee, Kang, & Boo, 2012), place attachment theory (e.g., Cheng & Wu, 2015; Cheng, Wu, & Huang, 2013), and an integration of the aforementioned (e.g., Han et al., 2016; Kiatkawsin & Han, 2017). Typically studies that employ the theory of planned behavior focus on tourist traits or social factors as antecedents of tourist ERB, with destination factors (e.g., destination management and services) being ignored. We attempt to address this gap with the widely documented stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) framework (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). It is suggested that an intrinsic state (i.e., emotion) is elicited when an individual is exposed to a stimulus. Subsequently, the intrinsic state exerts influence over the person's behavior. In the context of tourism ERB, an external stimulus may lead tourists to form subjective

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.K. Hsu), [email protected] (R.E. Boostrom).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.055 Received 2 April 2018; Received in revised form 17 December 2018; Accepted 19 December 2018 0148-2963/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Su, L., Journal of Business Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.055

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Fig. 1. S-O-R model of tourist environmentally responsible behavior (ERB).

inaccurate (Manthiou, Lee, Tang, & Chiang, 2014). Based on affective processing mechanisms, emotional reactions produce impactful affective traces or “markers” in memory (Cohen & Areni, 1991) before leading to subsequent consumer behavior (Manthiou et al., 2014). Script theory is employed here to better describe the bonding role of memory in the information processing. In particular, the scripts are viewed as a knowledge structure of emotional experience, which are stored in the memory of consumers to facilitate the interpretation and formation of direct future behavior when scripts are activated (Bozinoff & Roth, 1983; Delamere & Hinch, 1994; Manthiou et al., 2014). Among different components of memory, recollection is particularly of relevance to tourism studies, with a goal to create lasting, pleasant memories for each tourist (Manthiou et al., 2014; Tung & Ritchie, 2011a, 2011b). Thus, considering the importance of recollected memory, the present study focused on the effect of tourists' emotional experience on their recollection of the tourist journey. Hence, based on script theory, the current study investigates tourists' recollection as it occurs in the information processing, and its role between positive/ negative consumption emotions, tourists' satisfaction, and tourists' ERB. In sum, this study attempts to explore the influencing mechanism of destination eco-friendly reputation on tourist ERB. Based on the S-O-R framework and script theory, this paper constructs an integrated model of the formation mechanism of tourist ERB using destination ecofriendly reputation as external stimulus, emotional experiences (consumption emotions) as organism, and tourist satisfaction and recollection along with tourist ERB as response (Fig. 1). Notably, tourists' recollection is introduced to the model as a link between S-O-R framework and script theory. The contributions for academic theory and practice of this study are seen in three ways. First, the integrated model considers destination eco-friendly reputation as a stimulus, emotional experiences (positive and negative emotions) as the organism, while tourist satisfaction and tourist ERB enter the model to represent the response outcomes in the S-O-R framework, which extends previous literature of tourist ERB. Second, this paper further integrates the S-O-R framework and script theory to construct an integrated model of the formation mechanism of tourist ERB that uses recollection as a notable link between S-O-R framework and script theory, in turn enhancing these two theories. Third, this study explores a competitive model based on the S-O-R framework, and an empirical comparison outcome reveals the key role of tourist's recollection. Specifically, tourist's recollection deeply indicates tourists' engagement, and presents a new angle from which one can better understand tourist ERB. As such, this study successfully explores the new theoretical framework and channel to examine the antecedents and their influencing mechanism of tourist ERB. In a broader sense, the model proposed in the present study can be used to improve existing consumer behavior theory and analytical frameworks as it provides a suggestion for how to combine elements of behavioral psychology, such as the S-O-R model, with elements of the study of social cognition, such as script theory.

judgments about the overall tourism experience, and this judgment and perception results in emotional responses. Positive or negative emotions may be evoked by the same situation when travelers differ in their evaluations (Ma, Gao, Scott, & Ding, 2013; Su & Hsu, 2013). Subsequently, behavior occurs in response to the emotions, and the consumer decides to further patronize or avoid the product/service. Tourists with positive emotions in their journey are more likely to adopt behaviors following social norms while tourists who experience negative emotions are more likely to yield avoidance responses (Jang & Namkung, 2009; Su & Hsu, 2013). Several previous studies have shown that the S-O-R framework is of relevance when one attempts to predict consumer behavior, such as customer loyalty (e.g., Jang & Namkung, 2009; Mazaheri, Richard, & Laroche, 2010; Mummalaneni, 2005). Recently, marketing and tourism scholars have employed the S-O-R framework to explore the formation of tourist behaviors, confirming the value of the S-O-R framework to reveal the role of emotional experience in forming processes of tourist behaviors in various tourism contexts (e.g., Jang & Namkung, 2009; Su & Hsu, 2013; Su, Hsu, & Marshall, 2014). Reputation plays a vital stimulus role in S-O-R-related tourist behavioral models as it has been found to influence customers' perceptions toward the quality of a firm's products/services (Devine & Halpern, 2001). In fact, reputation alone could serve as a type of market-validated information (Hansen, Samuelsen, & Silseth, 2008) that signals the quality of a firm's offerings (Rose & Thomsen, 2004). Evidence supports that a destination's reputation is of relevance when tourists choose from a few destinations in their consideration set. Studies suggest a relationship between travel site reputation and a consumer's likelihood to increase word-of-mouth and revisiting intentions (Prayogo & Kusumawardhani, 2017; Wang, Tran, & Tran, 2017). Wordof-mouth, in turn, has been shown to have an impact on tourist travel intentions and behavior (Abubakar & Ilkan, 2016; Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012; Yeoh, Othman, & Ahmad, 2013). Thus, an environmentally friendly reputation becomes increasingly more important in the tourism industry (Han & Kim, 2010; Han & Yoon, 2015). Emotions are an important part of travelers' tourism consumption experiences (Su & Hsu, 2013). Similarly, tourist satisfaction also matters a great deal in eliciting tourists' future behavioral intentions (Su et al., 2014; Su & Hsu, 2013). As Rittichainuwat, Qu, and Mongkhonvanit (2006) pointed out, “unlike other products and services, tourism sells excitement, unknown experiences, and the sense of discovery to travelers” (p.77). What connects emotional responses with consumer behavior is incompletely addressed in many tourism studies. In terms of information processing, emotional responses (either positive or negative emotions) and consumers' behavior are processed in the brain as message input and response output (Baumgartner, Sujan, & Bettman, 1992). Without an adequate understanding of the likely bridge between what goes in and what comes out, theories postulating the relationship connecting emotions and behavior intentions could be partially or completely

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2. Theoretical foundation and hypotheses

by marketing and tourism scholars. From this definition, satisfaction is the summary psychological state. Rust and Oliver (1994) further suggested satisfaction is seen as the degree to which the consumer perceives the consumption experience to produce a positive or negative psychological state. In the current study, tourist satisfaction is defined as the same as Oliver (1981), and Rust and Oliver (1994); it is a psychological state stimulated by a tourism experience provided by the destination. On the other hand, Swan and Combs (1976) considered satisfaction as a post-purchase attitude. That is, satisfaction could also be viewed as a response in the S-O-R framework. Sherman, Mathur, and Belk Smith (1997), despite naming “feeling” activities as part of the organismic variable, included liking of a shopping experience, which could be seen as akin to satisfaction, within the response component of their S-O-R model. Additionally, Eroglu, Machleit, Davis, and Rosenbloom (2003) show that their empirically operationalized model includes satisfaction specifically within the response component of the S-O-R framework. Additionally, Mummalaneni (2005) argued that satisfaction falls under “response” rather than “organism.” Accordingly, while inconsistencies exist regarding the role of satisfaction in the S-OR framework, the present study considers satisfaction as a component of “response.” Applying the S-O-R framework in the tourism destination context, the present study proposed that destination eco-friendly reputation information (Stimuli) would elicit tourists' emotional states and assessments (Organism) and, in turn, lead to tourists' satisfaction, recollection, and ERB (Response).

2.1. Signaling theory The value of signaling theory is in its ability to describe behavior when one party (an individual or organization) attempts to convey some information to another party (Connelly, Certo, Ireland, & Reutzel, 2011), especially in a situation with reduced information access for one party regarding the other (Spence, 2002). For instance, signaling theory was applied by diversity researchers to help elucidate how heterogeneous boards were used by firms to demonstrate compliance with societal concerns to the firms' stakeholders (Miller & Triana, 2009). Information affects the decision-making processes used by a range of decision-making units such as individuals, organizations, business institutions, and even governments. The primary focus of signaling theory is on the intentional transmission of favorable messages by a unique party (e.g., the marketer) to convey positive organizational characters. To what extent a signal would be of help to the receiver depends on whether the signal reflects the valued attribute or characteristic of the signaler (i.e., what has been called “signal fit”) and whether or not the signaler is attempting to mislead the receiver of the signal (Connelly et al., 2011). One unique feature of tourism consumption lies in its offsite, temporary, and invisible features/characters. As there is asymmetric information between tourists and a destination, the signaling of a destination transmitted to tourists is important for tourists in the process of destination choice. If the destination transmitted a more powerful signal to its intended tourists than its competitors, its targeted travelers would be more likely to choose the destination with the stronger signal.

2.2.1. Stimuli: Perceived destination eco-friendly reputation Academic works from the management, economics, sociology, and marketing disciplines have scrutinized the impact of corporate reputation issues (Brown, Cowles, & Tuten, 1996; Keh & Xie, 2009). A literature search on corporate reputation reveals that “even though an article or book clearly fits within the domain of corporate reputation and made use of the terminology, its authors often did not offer a formal definition of the term” (Barnett, Jermier, & Lafferty, 2006, p. 29). Barnett et al. (2006) found three unique clusters of meaning for the various definitions used: reputation as a state of awareness, reputation as an assessment, and reputation as an asset. Specifically, reputation as awareness “encompasses those definitions that referred to a term or used language indicating that observers or stakeholders had a general awareness of a firm but did not make judgments about it” (Barnett et al., 2006, p. 32). Reputation as awareness rests on observers or stakeholders forming an identifiable perception without a specific reputation judgment. Reputation as assessment “referred to a term or used language indicating that observers or stakeholders were involved in an assessment of the status of a firm” (Barnett et al., 2006, p. 32). Definitions of reputation fitting this second category were dependent upon the existence of an observable evaluation or judgment of reputation. Reputation as an asset “referred to reputation as something of value and significance to the firm. This group includes references to the term as a resource or as an intangible, financial or economic asset” (Barnett et al., 2006, pp. 33). Concluding their work to provide a useful corporate reputation definition, Barnett et al. (2006) stated that corporate reputation should be seen as an “observers' collective judgments of a corporation based on assessments of the financial, social, and environmental impacts attributed to the corporation over time” (p. 34). They emphasized that ideas of corporate reputation should move away from mere awareness and incorporate forms of judgment. According to signaling theory, the concept of reputation has frequently been connected to an organization's credibility (Casaló, Flavián, & Guinalíu, 2007). Consumers generate attitudes toward products based on perceived quality regardless of whether those attitudes are formed from direct experience with the product or merely the word of other consumers, information via the media, or messages from the company making the product (Helm, Garnefeld, & Tolsdorf, 2009). If

2.2. Stimulus-organism-response framework The Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework can be traced back to Mehrabian and Russell's work (1974), in which a stimulus (S) received by an individual will help him/her develop internal states (O) and, in turn, elicit consequent responses (R). Importantly, components of the environment external to the individual provide the stimuli which are then processed by the organism internally (Bagozzi, 1986). Specifically, “stimuli (e.g., object stimuli and social psychological stimuli) develop individuals' cognitive and emotional states, which in turn determine behavioral responses of approach or avoidance” (Lee, Ha, & Widdows, 2011, p. 1196). The validity of the S-O-R framework as being parsimonious and robust for predicting customer responses has been widely documented in various settings, such as online stores (Mazaheri et al., 2010; Mummalaneni, 2005), restaurant service (Jang & Namkung, 2009), high-technology products (Lee, Ha, & Widdows, 2011), and tourism destination contexts (Su et al., 2014; Su & Hsu, 2013). Stimuli encompass not only object stimuli but also social psychological stimuli (Slama & Tashchian, 1987). Particular to a tourism destination, stimuli would include a tourist's perceptions of how the destination is managed and the service surrounding his/her experiences in traveling to and from the destination. Perceived destination management includes reputation management, socially responsible management, and any other perceptions that can be developed related to the physical destination. Perceived service includes quality and fairness as well as other factors that relate to the perception of service acts that one associates with the tourist's trip. Stimuli then contribute to tourists' emotional states regarding the destination experience, and in turn trigger a behavioral response. Interestingly, regarding whether satisfaction is a component of the organismic or response variable, scholars have not yet reached a complete consensus. Oliver (1981, p. 27) defined satisfaction as “the summary psychological state resulting when the emotion surrounding disconfirmed expectations is coupled with the consumer's prior feeling about the consumption experience.” This definition is widely accepted 3

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the firm has a positive reputation, then it is likely potential customers will positively view that firm's products (Walsh, Dinnie, & Wiedmann, 2006). That is, a positive reputation reduces the cognitive effort for a consumer either to choose a store/brand or to perceive favorable associations (Dowling, 2006). The overall reputation of a firm integrates assessments about various elements of firm interactions with a range of stakeholder groups (e.g., employees, suppliers, clients, customers, bankers, auditors, and environmental enthusiasts) (Chang, 2013; Helm et al., 2009). Reputation serves as a stimulus when it is conceptualized as inspiring confidence in the firm, and customers then assess the firm's reputation both at an absolute level of reputation and a relative level in comparison to the competition (Chang, 2013; Loureiro & Kastenholz, 2011). Environmental sustainability issues have become salient for many consumers in recent years. According to an online survey conducted by the Nielson Company (Anonymous, 2015), almost two-thirds (66%) of consumers state they are willing to pay a bit extra for goods and services provided by firms that care about social and environmental impact. According to the work of Han and Kim (2010) and Han and Yoon (2015), an environmentally friendly reputation becomes increasingly critical to hospitality firms because of the exigency of wooing environmentally-concerned consumers. A green reputation is thus considered to be a key factor when meeting the growing demand consumers have for eco-friendly offerings in the hospitality industry. Consistent with the work of Barnett et al. (2006), this study considers eco-friendly reputation of the destination as the tourists' combined assessments of a destination applying their overall evaluation of the environmental impacts attributed to the destination. A destination's eco-friendly reputation could be seen as a comprehensive assessment of the extent to which a destination is substantially “good” or “bad” regarding the environment. It includes the estimations, judgments, evaluations and opinions of tourists related to the destination's ecological or environmental activities. Eco-friendly reputation can lead to various benefits (NorheimHansen, 2015). Organizations that endorse environmentally-focused activities may augment organizational performance through, for example, reused/reduced/recycled consumption and improved processes (Hart & Ahuja, 1996). Additionally, evidence suggests that stakeholders see environmental performance as contributing to the creation of new, valuable capabilities and product offerings for customers (AragónCorrea & Sharma, 2003).

Differential Emotional Scale (DES) designed by Izard (1977), Jang and Namkung (2009) employed both positive and negative emotions to measure emotions in restaurant settings. Their study showed that both positive and negative emotions mediated the relationship between perceived product, atmospheric, and service quality and the behavioral intentions of consumers. Consumption emotions refer to the set of emotional responses associated with consumption experiences (Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). Quite a few prior empirical research studies concluded that improving the positive emotions associated with consumption could lead firms to establish competitive advantages, improve efficiency, gain greater market share, increase financial performance, improve profitability, and, by so doing, make the firm more successful overall (e.g., Han et al., 2009; Han & Jeong, 2013; Han & Kim, 2010; Lee, Hsu, Han, & Kim, 2010). Thus, to be consistent with previous research (e.g., Jang & Namkung, 2009; Su et al., 2014; Su & Hsu, 2013), tourists' emotional attitude will be captured with two dimensions: positive and negative emotions. 2.2.3. Response: satisfaction, recollection, and environmentally responsible behavior In the service context, the prevailing definition of satisfaction is “the summary psychological state resulting when the emotion surrounding disconfirmed expectations is coupled with the consumer's prior feeling about the consumption experience” (Oliver, 1981, p. 27). Many researchers acknowledge the importance of the concept of overall satisfaction. According to Anderson et al. (1994, p. 54), overall satisfaction refers to “an overall evaluation based on the total purchase and consumption experience with a good or service over time.” Satisfaction has also been considered a post-purchase attitude (Swan & Combs, 1976), which reflects a combined attitude of customer past experience, product performance assessment, and how consumers perceive the physical environment where the consumption takes place (Bramwell, 1998; Ringel & Finkelstein, 1991; Ross & Iso-Ahola, 1991). Satisfaction has additionally been correlated with destination choice, tourism product consumption, and tourist intentions to return (Alegre & Juaneda, 2006; Kozak & Rimmington, 2000). Satisfaction is seen as the comparison of prior expectations to the perceptions of the consumption experience, and in cases where expectations are not met the consumer is seen as dissatisfied with the product (Oliver, 1980). Satisfaction, then, is seen as the degree to which the consumer perceives the consumption experience to produce positive feelings (Rust & Oliver, 1994). The tourist is satisfied when the perceived product performance meets or exceeds his or her expectations, which can result in feelings of gratification. However, when displeasure leads the consumer to assess the comparison of expectations and results negatively, the tourist is dissatisfied (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). In the current study, tourists' satisfaction is conceptualized as the overall level of contentment with the tourist experience provided by the destination. Recollection, or the act of remembering, is another result of a tourism experience for the consumer. The traces of the emotions aroused in consumers can be experienced again through recollection (Arora & Singer, 2006; Rubin & Kozin, 1984; Zeithaml, Bitner, & Gremler, 2012). The stronger the emotional impact of the event, the more likely the consumer will be to recollect the experience later (Talarico & Rubin, 2003). Any and all elements of the consumption experience at a tourist destination can be a factor in the emotions experienced and thus impact the degree to which the consumer can recollect the event afterward. ERB might include any of a wide range of actions and is often used interchangeably with other terms, to include pro-environmental behavior, green behavior, environmentally friendly behavior, environmentally conscious behavior, and eco-friendly behavior (Kiatkawsin & Han, 2017; Miller, Merrilees, & Coghlan, 2015; Tsarenko, Ferraro, Sands, & McCleod, 2013). ERB is a mechanism of environmental protection, and further ERB of tourists is tourist action to either

2.2.2. Organism: emotions Emotional responses can be grouped and categorized, such as happiness, rage, disgust, and disdain (Izard, 1977); or mapped to unique emotional dimensions, such as pleasantness/unpleasantness or calmness/excitement (Plutchik, 1980). The Pleasure-Arousability-Dominance (PAD) emotional state model is a psychological model which applies a bipolar PAD scale configuration for gauging emotional response to environmental stimuli (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Although the bipolar pleasantness-unpleasantness continuum is very commonly applied (Russell, 1983), Westbrook (1987, p. 260) forwarded the suitability of a unipolar assessment for consumption experiences, primarily to avoid issues in the bipolar conceptualization which allow for “ambivalence or the joint occurrence of pleasant and unpleasant states, as well as the occurrence of neither pleasant nor unpleasant states.” Abelson, Kinder, Peters, and Fiske (1982) identified two unipolar, discrete dimensions that correspond to positive and negative emotional states. In a shopping context, Yalch and Spangenberg's (2000) empirical study also indicated the adequate conceptions of positive and negative emotions. Typically, positive emotion is related to actions, eagerness, and alertness (Kelley & Hoffman, 1997) whereas negative emotion is related to a range of aversive states, including anger, derision, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness (Lee, Kim, Son, & Lee, 2011). The unipolar view was preferred by Jang and Namkung (2009) because it can capture customers' happiness and unhappiness at the same time. Using the 4

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or negative attitudes associated with them. Additionally, attitudes and behaviors are thought to be compared by individuals and individuals are thought to build behavioral intentions based on their own assessments of their attitudes, and build attitudes based on assessments of their own past behavior. Connecting signaling theory to cognitive consistency theories, the attitude formed related to a good reputation for a firm should impact feelings of loyalty and behavioral intentions toward that firm (e.g., Bettencourt, 1997; Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). Customer identification with, and commitment to, the firm is positively impacted by corporate reputation (Bartikowski & Walsh, 2011; Keh & Xie, 2009), and these can be seen as the emotional response of customers to the firm. Supporting this view, Bennett and Gabriel (2001) argued that customers can form emotional bonds and commitment when they perceive a positive corporate reputation. Destination eco-friendly reputation represents the tourists' overall assessment of valence regarding ecological practices of the destination's management. As a component of corporate reputation, it is derived from the estimation, judgment, evaluation, and opinion that the tourist holds regarding the destination's ecological or environmental activities in the past. According to signaling theory, a positive eco-friendly reputation signals that the destination has done very well in their ecological and environmental practices, which may satisfy tourists' demand for eco-friendly goods and services (Han & Kim, 2010; Han & Yoon, 2015). According to cognitive consistency theory (Heider, 1946; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955), cognitive consistency will trigger tourists' positive emotions and eliminate (or reduce) their negative emotions. Thus, we can consider the likely positive impact of ecofriendly reputation on soliciting tourists' positive emotions and reducing possible negative emotions. Therefore, we suggest the following hypotheses:

reduce or avoid the destruction of environmental resources (Chiu, Lee, & Chen, 2014; Su, Swanson, & Chen, 2018). Previous studies claimed that tourists' ERB has been a research focus for several years, and ways improve the tourists' ERB have been explored on a large scale. In these studies, ERB is described as a person's actions demonstrating that she or he tries her or his best to personally conserve the environment and take actions to address environmental concerns (Schultz, 2000; Stern, 2000). Lee (2011) suggested that ERB is the behavior of tourists who work to minimize adverse environmental effects and devote themselves to environmental protection while not negatively impacting the destination environment during their tourism experience. Cottrell and Graefe (1997) concluded that ERB includes environmental concern, commitment, and ecological knowledge. Stern (2000) further added that consumers exhibit ERB by demonstrating environmental activism, through non-activist behaviors in the public sphere, and environmentally conscious activity in their private lives. ERB could also be seen as activity that aids in environmental protection or promotes environmentally protective behavior in others (Cottrell, 2003; Lee, 2011). Energy conservation and waste recycling activities would also demonstrate a consumer's ERB commitment (Iwata, 2001). Additionally, ERB is reflected in a person's political, recycling, and education activities (Thapa, 2010). 2.3. Script theory Based on psychological theory, Tomkins (1978) constructed script theory which explains that people's behavior regularly falls into patterns called “scripts,” because people act in a way similar to a written script that offers a program for action. Marketing scholars have applied script theory to examine consumer behavior (Bozinoff & Roth, 1983; Hamalainen, Oksanen, & Hakkinen, 2008; Manthiou et al., 2014). Script theory arose from cognitive information processing theories and includes schemata, which are patterns saved in memory from experience or other learning (Lindsay & Norman, 1977), and they help generate scripts for guiding a consumer's behavior when a situation matches elements of the schemata (Bozinoff & Roth, 1983). Script theory could be used to interpret the formation of tourist's ERBs. Tourists develop emotions when they experience the tourism products in the destination (Su et al., 2014; Su & Hsu, 2013; Zeithaml et al., 2012). According to script theory, a tourist's emotional experience in the destination is stored in memory as schemata (Arora & Singer, 2006; Lindsay & Norman, 1977), and the script can be activated to guide ERB (Bozinoff & Roth, 1983; Manthiou et al., 2014). In the current study, script theory describes the internal information processing to explain the tourists' formation of ERB through memory. Destination eco-friendly reputation as a stimulus elicits emotional experience (positive and negative emotions), which is key to script generation. The script is stored in the tourist's memory, and the memory subsequently will be recollected and, in turn, impacts tourist satisfaction and tourist ERB.

H1. Destination eco-friendly reputation positively impacts tourists' positive emotions. H2. Destination eco-friendly reputation negatively impacts tourists' negative emotions.

2.4.2. The associations of destination eco-friendly reputation and tourist satisfaction Though the tourism and hospitality literature has rarely linked destination reputation and tourism satisfaction, significant work has been done in the marketing literature to evaluate corporate reputation's positive impact on customer satisfaction (e.g., Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998; Chang, 2013; da Silva & Alwi, 2006; Davies & Chun, 2002; Zins, 2001). Firms with favorable corporate reputations can encourage high consumer expectations, and levels of satisfaction, related to the quality of goods and services provided by the firm (Chang, 2013). Focusing on Germany's private energy customers, Walsh et al. (2006) found a strong correlation between corporate reputation and customer satisfaction. Helm et al. (2009) investigated evidence of causality between corporate reputation and satisfaction, suggesting that reputation management is built upon the quality of the firm's offering due to product quality's impact on satisfaction. Using a restaurant setting, Chang (2013) confirmed the positive relationship between reputation and customer satisfaction. Using a rural lodging setting, Loureiro and Kastenholz (2011) found a positive impact of corporate reputation on customer satisfaction. Destination eco-friendly reputation represents the tourist's comprehensive destination assessment of the extent to which it is substantially “good” or “bad” in its ecological practices. Again, fitting with corporate reputation, it includes the tourist's estimation, judgment, evaluation, and opinion of the destination's ecological or environmental activities in the past. According to signaling theory, a positive ecofriendly reputation signs that the destination has done very well in their ecological and environmental practices may satisfy tourists' demand for eco-friendly goods and services (Han & Kim, 2010; Han & Yoon, 2015).

2.4. Hypothesis development Broadly, the S-O-R model and script theory offer helpful, complementary ideas for the formation of an integrated theory to elucidate the impact of tourist experiences and how these experiences eventually lead to the development of tourist ERB. Building off of the previous section, this section details the component of a theoretical model to show how consumption experiences through a tourist destination would potentially impact ERB (Fig. 2). 2.4.1. The associations of destination eco-friendly reputation and consumption emotions Cognitive consistency theories (Heider, 1946; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955) postulate that people work to have consistency between attitude objects so that related objects have similarly positive 5

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Posive emoons H8 H6

H1 H4 Desnaon eco-friendly reputaon

H3

H2

Tourist sasfacon

H10

Tourists’ recollecon

H12

Environmentally responsible behavior

H5 H7

H11 H9

Negave emoons

Fig. 2. Theoretical model.

term memory. Based on the source of retrieved information, Bettman (1979) divided memory into recognition memory and recall memory. Tung and Ritchie (2011a) suggest that consumer experience provides the basis for dimensions of memory, such as narrative reasoning (i.e., “anecdotes that have a beginning, a plot, and an end”) (Adval & Wyer, 1998, p. 208), validity (i.e., clear memory of past experiences), and recollection (i.e., experiences are brought back into the conscious mind) (Tung & Ritchie, 2011a). In a tourism consumption context, recollection is particularly important because tourism activities are designed to generate strong memories for tourists that will later be recalled and treasured for the rest of their lives (Tung & Ritchie, 2011a). From the tourism consumption perspective, recollection is the memorization and recall of the tourism experience (Rubin, Schrauf, & Greenberg, 2003). Rubin and Kozin (1984) demonstrated the autobiographical importance of experience recollection. Those events that are more exceptional and uncommon are likeliest to be remembered (Kim, 2010). After emotions are created, memories remain in the brain (Arora & Singer, 2006; Rubin & Kozin, 1984; Zeithaml et al., 2012). Emotions are a key motivational force and also impact memory and information processing (Kuhl, 1986). Emotional stimuli, including both positive and negative, create events with strong memorability (Dewhurst & Parry, 2000; Kensinger & Corkin, 2003; Kim, 2014). A strong positive or negative emotion is an igniter of a consumer's mental recollections (Talarico & Rubin, 2003). Thus, emotions can be viewed as a “cause” with the “result” being memories. In their analysis of the importance of affect on consumer behavior, Cohen and Areni (1991) discussed how consumers might access an affective trace associated with a product and that associated feeling could then play a role in product evaluation. In the context of experiential tourist consumption, visitors' satisfactory or unsatisfactory emotions create significant impressions and, in turn, produce strong memories (Kozak, 2001; Thomsen & Hansen, 2009). Therefore, a travel journey provides the space and time in which emotions can be created and shared, which means remarkable, positive emotions can be expected to generate tourists' memories that could be accessible later via recollection. Likewise, remarkable, negative emotions are expected to facilitate the generation of negative memories. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Therefore, one can infer that a destination eco-friendly reputation may improve tourist satisfaction. Based on the above discussion, we hypothesize the following: H3. Destination eco-friendly reputation positively impacts tourist satisfaction.

2.4.3. The associations of consumption emotions and tourist satisfaction The influence of emotions on satisfaction has been described in multiple studies (Ladhari, Brun, & Morales, 2008; Liljander & Strandvik, 1997; Su & Hsu, 2013; Westbrook, 1987; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999; Wong, 2004). In cable television service subscribers and automobile owners, Westbrook (1987) identified an overall impact of positive affect positively, and negative affect negatively, altering judgments of consumer satisfaction. Oliver and Westbrook (1993) discovered attribute satisfaction, attribute dissatisfaction, disconfirmation of expectations, positive emotions, and negative emotions all had an impact on overall satisfaction. In a restaurant context, Ladhari et al. (2008) identified three antecedents of customer satisfaction: positive emotions, perceived service quality, and negative emotions. In their study, negative emotions had a lesser impact on customer satisfaction than did positive emotions. Additionally, Wirtz, Mattila, and Tan's (2000) work confirmed the link between consumer emotion and consumer satisfaction. Specifically, positive consumer emotions positively impacted consumer satisfaction while negative consumer emotions negatively impacted consumer satisfaction. Looking at a natural heritage destination, Su and Hsu's (2013) findings suggested that positive and negative emotions both have a significant effect on tourist satisfaction (with opposing directions). More recently, Song and Qu (2017) confirmed customer satisfaction as an important outcome of consumption emotions in the context of ethnic restaurant consumption. The above discussion leads to the following hypotheses: H4. Positive emotions positively impact tourist satisfaction. H5. Negative emotions negatively impact tourist satisfaction.

2.4.4. The associations of consumption emotions and recollection Memory can be seen as the ability of a person to bring into the present conscious mind that individual's past behaviors, experiences, and events (Schacter, Chiu, & Ochsner, 1993). Moreover, memory pertains to processes of consumers' information encoding, learning, categorization, and knowledge (Johar, Maheswaran, & Peracchio, 2006). Experiencing a remarkable event can often have a significant and lasting effect on a person's memory (Kyle, Graefe, & Manning, 2005). Several classifications of memory have been suggested. For example, Bower (1970) demonstrates there are both short-term and long-

H6. Positive emotions positively impact tourists' recollection. H7. Negative emotions negatively impact tourists' recollection.

2.4.5. The associations of consumption and environmentally responsible behavior Consumer experiences and reactions are driven, at least in part, by emotions (Babin, Darden, & Babin, 1998; Lee, Lee, Lee, & Babin, 2008; Su, Swanson, Hsu, & Chen, 2017). Work in environmental psychology 6

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2.4.7. The association of tourist satisfaction and environmentally responsible behavior Orams (1995) indicated that ecotourism tourist satisfaction depends on experiences, and if the tourist is satisfied with the experiences, he/ she will likely change his/her behavior. Powell and Ham (2008), studying tourist behavior in relation to the Galapagos National Park, discovered that tourists' satisfaction is supported by guidance in ecological areas, and that an increase in support for conservation efforts can be created through ecotourism experiences. Chiu et al. (2014) studied tourists to the Sicao Ecological Area in Taijiang National Park and found that tourist satisfaction can promote ERB, and satisfaction also partially mediated the relationship between perceived value and ERB. Thus, tourists having satisfactory experiences with the destination can enhance their ERB (Chiu et al., 2014; Higham & Carr, 2002; Lee & Moscardo, 2005). Hence, we hypothesize:

supports the idea that emotional states lead people toward particular goals and actions (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). An individual's approach or avoidance behavior is elicited in part from emotion-generating cues in the environment (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). The physical environment, emotions, and response are components of the S-O-R model, which makes it a useful theoretical tool for the current study. In short, this study supposes consumption emotions experienced by tourists affect their behaviors. Many researchers point out that what people do and how they do it is determined by their feelings or emotions (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), and emotions have a significant influence on various behaviors (Nyer, 1997; Westbrook, 1987). Romani, Grappi, and Bagozzi (2013) see the positive emotion of gratitude as a mediator between corporate social responsibility and positive advocacy behaviors, thus showing how experienced emotions can impact consumer activity. Additionally, based on the work of Izard (1977), Jang and Namkung's (2009) research concludes that emotions play a mediating role in the effect of perceived quality (product, atmosphere, and service) and behavior. Based on this, consumption emotions play a crucial role in producing profits for firms, through things like the extension of retention and word-of-mouth referrals (Gracia, Bakker, & Grau, 2011; Han & Jeong, 2013). Ballantyne and Packer (2011) demonstrate that tourists interact with natural environments through ecological destinations, which provides opportunities to learn about these environments and appreciate their fragility while also creating enjoyable vacation experiences. Tourists learn, and through learning their attitudes and behavioral intentions can change. Thus, we can infer that emotional experiences of tourists in the destination can impact their ERB. When the travel experience produces positive emotions, it will lead to increased ERB. On the contrary, when the travel experience produces negative emotions, it will lead to decreased ERB. Therefore, this leads to the following two hypotheses:

H11. Tourist satisfaction positively impacts tourists' ERB. 2.4.8. The association of recollection and environmentally responsible behavior Although no previous research has provided empirical evidence to support the effect of tourists' memory on their ERB, it has been suggested that memory would influence consumer repeat patronage (e.g., Lee, Lee, & Yoon, 2009; Manthiou et al., 2014; Wirtz, Kruger, Scollon, & Diener, 2003). For instance, Wirtz et al. (2003) suggested tourists are more likely to revisit the destination when they have enjoyable memories of past trips, and they anticipate similarly pleasant experiences. Based on the destination-oriented memories, personally-oriented memories, and socially-oriented memories, Morgan and Xu (2009) demonstrated the importance of tourists' former memorable experiences as tourists' memories impacted future travel aspirations. Manthiou et al. (2014) examined the effect of memory validity and tourist loyalty behavior in a festival setting and found the validity of memory improves attendees' interest and elicits more consistent and durable attitudes and future intentions to revisit. Based on the discussion above, this paper also considers that tourists' memories will possibly impact their ERB. When tourists have experienced a pleasant conservation-related memory in the destination, they will be more likely to demonstrate ERB to protect the destination environment and other environments like it as well. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H8. Positive emotions positively impact tourists' ERB. H9. Negative emotions negatively impact tourists' ERB.

2.4.6. The association of tourist satisfaction and recollection Although tourist satisfaction and recollection are the core constructs in tourism experience, few studies have directly examined the relationship between them. According to the expectancy/disconfirmation paradigm, exceeded expectations creates a satisfying consumer experience (Churchill & Surprenant, 1982). Memorable experiences are created through this positive disconfirmation as an important triggering event (Tung & Ritchie, 2011a), and a positive, unforgettable event outperforms tourists' expectation (Ritchie, Tung, & Ritchie, 2011). Although Triantafillidou and Siomkos (2014) did not examine the direct effect of satisfaction on recollection, they found that satisfaction positively impacts nostalgia and re-experience intention. Tung and Ritchie (2011a) suggested intense satisfaction is highlighted by a sense of exhilaration, creating a profound sense of enjoyment that is long cherished and that becomes a landmark in the memory. In a qualitative study, Chandralal and Valenzuela (2013) found tourists tend to remember the tourism activity more when they are satisfied with the tourism experience. Additionally, Rubin et al. (2003) found that tourist satisfaction has an effect on autobiographical memory, and recollection is central to autobiographical memory. They further suggested tourists may recollect their past satisfactory travel experiences over time to replicate the same positive emotions/satisfaction. This desire to replicate the previous behavior encourages consumers to rehearse their memory. In line with this discussion, we propose the following hypothesis:

H12. Recollection positively impacts tourists' ERB. 3. Methodology In the following sections, we provide the bases for the items defining our survey constructs. Next, we provide our data collection method, describing how we collected data from visitors to Mount Yuelu, which is a well-known tourism destination in China. An adequate mirror park in the U.S. would perhaps be something equivalent to the popular Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Subsequently, we describe our data analysis approach. 3.1. Questionnaire design Once the research model was identified, we sought to design the tourist questionnaire for a pilot study with all of the original questions from the sources noted for each of the measured constructs. A limited number of respondents in the pilot study were requested to provide comments and suggestions regarding the clarity of the question items in the draft survey. In addition, we conducted a reliability analysis (e.g., check the Cronbach's alpha as well as the item-total statistics) on each scale. Based on the exploratory data analysis of the pilot study, the question pools were reduced to a more manageable and parsimonious list (to avoid likely respondent fatigue and incomplete responses). The students used in the pilot study were also pre-screened to ensure that

H10. Tourist satisfaction positively impacts tourists' recollection.

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respondents were ensured that the survey data would only be used to better understand tourists' attitude and travel experiences for an academic research project, without any commercial sponsorship. Therefore, the respondents may be more willing to provide accurate responses, which would improve the value of the survey data. Survey collectors stayed available nearby as respondents completed the survey so that respondents could ask for clarifications if they had any questions. Survey collectors understood that their role was to clarify questions and that they should not influence responses. Once the survey collectors received a completed questionnaire, they quickly scanned through the questionnaire for any likely missed questions and they would approach the respondents to give their candid response at the site. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, and 566 were returned to the researchers. Among these returned questionnaires, 44 were dropped due to incomplete answers which results in 522 responses (a 92.23% valid response rate) for subsequent data analysis.

they had recent tourism experience prior to participation in the pilot. We then describe the source of survey question items below. Three items are used to measure destination eco-friendly reputation, and these items were adapted from Lee et al. (2010) and Thomas (2011). This scale has been proven to offer acceptable reliability and validity in a green hotel consumption context (Han & Yoon, 2015). Based on Izard's (1977) categorization of emotions, the items measuring tourist emotions are divided into two discrete dimensions: positive (excited, happy, and relaxed) and negative (angry, bored, and annoyed) emotions, which have also been shown to offer acceptable reliability and validity in a heritage and city tourism context in mainland China (Su et al., 2014; Su & Hsu, 2013). Tourist satisfaction matters to any organization providing major tourism service experiences, such as hotels, camp grounds, theme parks, resorts, or other tourism services. In practice, tourist satisfaction might be operationalized as the overall assessment of the tourism experience. The satisfaction construct in this study was measured with three items based on those used by Brown et al. (1996). Likewise, acceptable reliability and validity support could be found in a heritage tourism and city tourism context in China (Su & Hsu, 2013). Recollection was measured using four question items, and the scale was adapted/modified from the work of Rubin et al. (2003), as well as Sheen, Kemp, and Rubin (2001). For the ERB scale, six items were adapted and modified from the work of Smith-Sebasto and D'Costa (1995) and Thapa (2010). Support for this scale's reliability and validity could be found in an island tourism context (Cheng et al., 2013) and an ecotourism context (Chiu et al., 2014). The scales ranged from “Extremely disagree”(1) to “Extremely agree”(7); however, for tourist satisfaction, scale ranged from “Extremely unsatisfactory”(1) to “Extremely satisfactory”(7).

3.3. Data analysis Measurement quality of the model proposed by this study was assessed with a measurement model. Subsequently, the structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was utilized to evaluate the fit between the data and the theoretical model, to test the hypothesized relationships among constructs included in the conceptual model, and to conduct modeling comparisons between the theoretical model and the competition model.

4. Empirical analysis and results In the following sections, we describe the overall characteristics of the sample in relation to various demographic variables. Next, we proceed with an analysis of the measurement model along with tests of the data reliability and validity.

3.2. Sample design and data collection Data for the current study was collected through a survey of the visitors to Mount Yuelu, a famous natural and cultural park destination located near a large city (Changsha) in China. Specifically, Mount Yuelu lies on the west bank of Xiangjiang River, and it is recognized as China's top-tier 5A natural scenic area. The natural scenery is unique, and several rare plants (e.g., privet, ginkgo, camphor) and rare birds have been documented there. Mount Yuelu has a brilliant, colorful landscape that has inspired many visitors. For example, a poem written by Du Mu, a well-known Chinese ancient poet, states, “Stop the coach and watch the maple leaves until late, the leaves covered by frost are more red than the flowers in February.” Chairman Mao once studied in this region when he was an adolescent. The tourist survey was conducted in three visitors' rest areas near the exit in September and October 2016. Fifteen college students were trained as the survey investigators to participate in the survey collection project. These survey collectors were divided into three equal-sized teams. All survey collectors were instructed regarding the goals of the current study, and given background information on the tourist site where data collection was to occur. Instructions were provided regarding how to courteously invite adult respondents to participate in the study. The survey collectors were dressed in matching uniforms that included the logo from a reputable regional university. Each team was assigned to one of three different rest areas at Mount Yuelu on a rotating schedule at different times during a four-week period. Adult visitors were approached to check whether they are domestic Chinese tourists, and qualified domestic tourists were provided with a verbal overview of the survey before they were solicited to participate in the survey. If the respondents agreed to complete a selfadministered questionnaire, the field researcher would give them a hard copy questionnaire. Notably, the field researchers informed the respondents that the questionnaire was anonymous, and no attempt would be made to verify their individual information. In addition, the

4.1. Sample description Table 1 presents survey respondents' demographic profile. The sample has a relatively balanced ratio of males (52.5%) and females (47.5%). Most respondents are relatively young, with the majority being 18 to 24 years old (35.1%) and 25 to 44 years of age (31.8%). Most respondents have received a good education, and 10.0% of them have postgraduate degrees. Monthly income responses showed a discrete distribution. A wide range of visitor frequency was reported, despite the first-time visitors (39.3%) and five or more visit (32.4%) groups being notably larger than the other three groups. Table 1 The socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the sample. Variables

n

%

Age in years 18 to 24 25 to 44 45 to 64 65 or older

183 166 116 57

35.1 31.8 22.2 10.9

274 248

52.5 47.5

34 91 345

6.5 17.4 66.1

52

10.0

Gender Male Female Educational attainment Less than High School High School/Technical School Undergraduate/Associate Degree Postgraduate Degree

8

Monthly income < 2000￥ 2000 to 2999￥ 3000 to 3999￥ 4000 to 4999￥ 5000￥ or more

Visiting frequency First Time Second Time Third Time Fourth Time Fifth Time or More

n

%

211 52 89 65 105

40.4 10.0 17.0 12.5 20.1

205 52 50 46 169

39.3 10.0 9.6 8.8 32.4

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et al., 1994; Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2010). The RMSEA value was 0.057, < 0.08; GFI = 0.913, NFI = 0.942, RFI = 0.932, IFI = 0.963, TLI = 0.956, CFI = 0.963, all of which were greater than the 0.900 cutoff, and AGFI = 0.887 was more than the 0.800 cutoff. According to the criterion suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999), the overall proposed model fits the data very well.

4.2. Measurement model To address research questions, we adopted a two-step analysis process as per Anderson and Gerbing (1988), with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) as the first step to verify the measurement model and examination of the proposed inter-variable relationships as the second step.

4.3.2. Hypotheses testing Table 4 shows the results of the structural path model proposed in this study. The effect of destination eco-friendly reputation on positive emotions (λ21 = 0.614, p < .001), negative emotions (λ31 = −0.241, p < .001), and tourist satisfaction were significant (λ41 = 0.367, p < .001), which suggested that H1, H2, and H3 were supported. Therefore, perceived destination eco-friendly reputation is an important antecedent of consumption emotions (positive and negative) and tourist satisfaction. Positive emotions and negative emotions significantly impact tourist satisfaction (β42 = 0.413, p < .001; β43 = −0.155, p < .001), recollection (β52 = 0.241, p < .001; β53 = −0.111, p < .01) and tourist ERB (β62 = 0.161, p < .01; β63 = −0.111, p < .01) respectively. Thus, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8, and H9 were supported. The effect of tourist satisfaction on recollection and ERB are both significant (β54 = 0.477, p < .001; β64 = 193, p < .01), which support H10 and H11. About the relationship between recollection and ERB, support for recollection significantly impacts ERB (β65 = 0.342, p < .001), so H12 was also supported.

4.2.1. The indices of the measurement model The fit indices of the measurement model suggest that the model fit the data very well. A lenient rule of thumb for an acceptable χ2/df value is 5 or below (Wheaton, Muthén, Alwin, & Summers, 1977) and a relatively more conservative rule of thumb for the χ2/df value is 3 or below (Johnson, Kotz, & Balakrishnan, 1994). The χ2/df score was 3.069, which does not exceed the more lenient acceptable ceiling of 5. The RMSEA value was 0.063, < 0.08; GFI = 0.902, NFI = 0.936, RFI = 0.923, IFI = 0.956, TLI = 0.947, CFI = 0.956, all of which were greater than the 0.900 cutoff, and AGFI = 0.871 was higher than the 0.800 cutoff value. According to the model evaluation criteria suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999), all the indices are acceptable. Therefore, it can be considered that the measurement model fits the data well. 4.2.2. Reliability testing Using Cronbach's alpha coefficient and composite construct reliability, the measuring reliability was checked. Table 2 presents the results, which shows that the Cronbach's alpha of constructs is from 0.857 to 0.949, far more than the suggested cutoff of 0.70. At the same time, the composite reliability of constructs is from 0.866 to 0.949, greater than the threshold for indicating reliability suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981), ensuring acceptable internal consistency of multiple items for each construct (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).

4.3.3. Model outcome explanations Fig. 3 shows the empirical outcome of the structural path model. The model explained 56.3%, 41.1%, 39.7%, and 37.7% variance of tourist satisfaction, tourists' recollection, ERB and positive emotions. The explained variance of negative emotions is relatively low (5.8%). All these mean that large effects of exogenous variables on the endogenous variables were captured in the model, and suggest there was a stable relationship between the variables in the theoretical model, which demonstrates that the theoretical model has good explanatory power.

4.2.3. Validity testing We empirically examined both convergent validity and discriminant validity of the constructs included in the model. Convergent validity was assessed by the contribution of measurement items to constructs and was satisfied because all item factor loadings are greater than or equal to 0.639 and are significant at the 0.001 significance level (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). In addition, the average variance extracted (AVE) of all constructs ranged from 0.534 to 0.861, higher than the minimum criterion of 0.500, indicating that a large portion of the variance was explained by the constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 1998). All this suggests that there is enough convergent validity of measurements. Discriminant validity reflects that a construct does not significantly share information with another construct. Discriminant validity was examined by comparing the square root of average variance extracted (AVE) with the correlation coefficient between constructs. If AVEs were greater than the squared correlations between any pair of constructs, it indicates discriminant validity is satisfied (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 3, all correlation coefficients are less than or equal to 0.691, and all square root of AVEs are greater than or equal to 0.731, which means all correlation coefficients are less than their corresponding square root of AVEs. Thus, the scales studied in this research project meet the discriminant validity requirement.

4.4. Mediating effect analysis To further investigate the influencing mechanism of destination ecofriendly reputation on environmentally responsible behavior, we analyze the mediating effects of emotions, satisfaction, and recollection utilizing the bootstrapping method (Jose, 2013). The present study employed the bootstrap procedure to examine the significance of all likely indirect paths in the final model. The number of bootstrap samples was set to 2000 with the confidence level set at 95%. The results were summarized in Table 5. It is obvious that the value of zero (0) is not included between the lower bound 95% BC and the upper bound 95% BC in the following few individual effects: DER → PE → ERB; DER → NE → ERB; DER → TS → ERB; DER → PE → TS → ERB; DER → NE → TS → ERB; DER → PE → TR → ERB; DER → NE → TR → ERB; DER → TS → TR→ ERB; DER → PE → TS → TR → ERB; DER → NE → TS → TR → ERB. In other words, the individual effects are statistically significant, which reveal that the effect of destination eco-friendly reputation on environmentally responsible behavior is mediated by positive emotions, negative emotions, tourist satisfaction, and tourists' recollection. Further, statistically significant multi-mediating paths indicate that the effect of destination eco-friendly reputation on environmentally responsible behavior is firstly mediated by emotions (positive and negative), secondly mediated by tourist satisfaction, and thirdly mediated by tourists' recollection. Together, these mediation analysis findings demonstrate the influencing mechanism of destination eco-friendly reputation on environmentally responsible behavior.

4.3. Structural path model Further analyzing the data, in the following sections we explore the fit of the path model as a whole and review the test statistics associated with the various hypotheses. 4.3.1. Goodness-of-fit indices The fitting indices of the structural path model show that χ2/df was 2.721, which is less than a conservative cut-off value of 3 (Johnson 9

10

Goodness-of-fit indices

Environmentally responsible behavior

Tourists' recollection

Tourist satisfaction

Negative emotions

Positive emotions

In general, the destination has a good reputation in ecological environment field 5.47 Overall, the destination has a positive eco-friendly reputation 5.49 Overall, the destination has a favorable reputation for its green practices 5.55 My experience at the destination makes me feel excited 5.13 My experience at the destination makes me feel happy 5.53 My experience at the destination makes me feel relaxed 5.68 My experience at the destination makes me feel angry 1.96 My experience at the destination makes me feel bored 2.05 My experience at the destination makes me feel annoyed 1.95 Overall, I was satisfied with my visit to Mount Yuelu 5.47 Compared to my expectations, I was satisfied with my visit to Mount Yuelu 5.34 Compared to ideal situation, I was satisfied with my visit to Mount Yuelu 5.31 When I remember this trip, I feel as though I am reliving the original tourism experience 4.99 I can remember this trip rather than just knowing that the trip happened 5.20 When I attempt to recall my memory, I feel as if I have returned to the destination scene at the 5.12 time. When I recall this trip, I can trace back to a few notable details 5.00 I comply with the legal ways not to destroy the destination's environment 6.23 I report to the destination administration any environmental pollution or destruction 5.34 When I see garbage and tree branches, I will make an effort to put them in the trash can 5.54 If there are cleaning environment activities, I am willing to attend 5.46 I would convince my travel companions, if any, to protect the natural environment of the 5.79 destination I try not to disrupt the fauna and flora (animals and plants) during my travel 6.30 χ2/df = 3.069, RMSEA = 0.063, GFI = 0.902, AGFI = 0.871, NFI = 0.936, RFI = 0.923, IFI = 0.956,

Destination eco-friendly reputation

Mean

Question items

Construct

Table 2 Empirical results of the measurement model.

22.003 15.755 19.208 19.468 19.352 22.190 15.534

0.811 0.646 0.749 0.756 0.753 0.827

1.460 1.178 1.457 1.410 1.414 1.256

1.057 0.639 TLI = 0.947, CFI = 0.956

24.746 27.059 26.593 19.555 25.562 21.280 26.715 28.519 27.769 26.929 23.488 22.718 22.355 25.934 25.529

t-statistic

0.872 0.921 0.911 0.758 0.911 0.805 0.909 0.944 0.930 0.935 0.857 0.840 0.819 0.899 0.891

Standardized loading

1.223 1.221 1.201 1.367 1.250 1.258 1.506 1.553 1.546 1.295 1.245 1.314 1.465 1.370 1.400

Standard deviation

0.872

0.916

0.910

0.949

0.866

0.926

Composite reliability

0.534

0.732

0.771

0.861

0.684

0.812

AVE

0.870

0.914

0.925

0.949

0.857

0.928

Alpha

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Table 3 The correlation coefficient and AVEs (average variance extracted). Destination eco-friendly reputation Destination eco-friendly reputation Positive emotions Negative emotions Tourist satisfaction Tourists' recollection Environmentally responsible behavior

Positive emotions

Negative emotions

0.827 −0.269 0.691 0.552 0.499

0.927 −0.357 −0.113 −0.272

Tourist satisfaction

Recollection

0.878 0.598 0.565

0.856 0.551

Environmentally responsible behavior

0.901 0.601 −0.234 0.662 0.573 0.453

0.731

Note: the square root of average variance extracted (AVE) value is shown on the diagonal and in bold while inter-construct correlations is shown off the diagonal. Table 4 Structural path model's hypothesis testing outcomes. Hypothesis

Relationships between variables

Path

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 H10 H11 H12

Destination eco-friendly reputation → Positive emotions Destination eco-friendly reputation → Negative emotions Destination eco-friendly reputation → Tourist satisfaction Positive emotions → Tourist satisfaction Negative emotions → Tourist satisfaction Positive emotions → Tourist recollection Negative emotions → Tourist recollection Positive emotions → Environmentally responsible behavior Negative emotions → Environmentally responsible behavior Tourist satisfaction → Tourists' recollection Tourist satisfaction → Environmentally responsible behavior Tourists' recollection → Environmentally responsible behavior

λ21 λ31 λ41 β42 β43 β52 β53 β62 β63 β54 β64 β65

a b

Standardized path loadings b

0.614 −0.241b 0.367b 0.413b −0.155b 0.241b −0.111a 0.161a −0.111a 0.477b 0.193a 0.342b

t-statistic

Standard error

12.452 −5.227 7.664 8.369 −4.472 4.227 −2.780 2.648 −2.603 7.982 2.878 5.799

0.052 0.063 0.056 0.055 0.030 0.065 0.035 0.041 0.022 0.062 0.040 0.034

Represents statistical significance at the level of 0.01. Represents statistical significance at the level of 0.001.

model fits well with the data. As Fig. 4 shows, the effect of destination eco-friendly reputation on positive emotions (λ21 = 0.606, p < .001), negative emotions (λ31 = −0.242, p < .001), and tourist satisfaction were significant (λ41 = 0.360, p < .001). In addition, positive emotions and negative emotions significantly impact tourist satisfaction (β42 = 0.419, p < .001; β43 = −0.154, p < .001) and tourist ERB (β62 = 0.241, p < .001; β63 = −0.091, p < .01) respectively. The effect of tourist satisfaction on ERB is significant (β54 = 0.357, p < .001). The model explained 55.8%, 36.7%, and 33.3% of the variance of tourist satisfaction, positive emotions, and ERB, respectively. The explained variance of negative emotions is relatively low (5.8%). This competing model appears to be a reasonable alternative model to predict tourist ERB based on the fit indices, path coefficient, and

4.5. Analysis of a competing model It is worthy to note that the current study also examined a competing model that includes not only the three key components in the typical S-O-R framework but also the recollection variable (from script theory). A lenient rule of thumb for an acceptable χ2/df value is 5 or below (Wheaton et al., 1977) and a relatively more conservative rule of thumb for the χ2/df value is 3 or below (Johnson et al., 1994). The fitting indices of the structural path model show that χ2/df was 3.728, which is less than the lenient rule of thumb of 5. The RMSEA value was 0.072, < 0.08; GFI = 0.902, NFI = 0.935, RFI = 0.922, IFI = 0.952, TLI = 0.942, CFI = 0.952, all of which were greater than the 0.900 cutoff, and AGFI = 0.868, was more than the 0.800 cutoff. According to the criterion suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999), the overall competing

Posive emoons 2

R =.377 .614*** Desnaon eco-friendly reputaon

.161** .241***

.413***

.367***

.477***

Tourist sasfacon

Tourists’ recollecon

.342***

Environmentally responsible behavior

2

R =.411 2

R =.563 -.241***

2

R =.397

-.155*** -.111**

.193** -.111**

Negave emoons 2

R =.058

Fig. 3. Empirical results of the structural path model. Notes: **represents statistical significance at the 0.01 level; ***represents statistical significance at the 0.001 level. 11

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emotions = 0.367). Thus, it can be concluded that the theoretical model is better than the competing model from an explanatory power perspective.

Table 5 Empirical results of the mediating analysis. Paths

Indirect effects

DER → PE → ERB DER → NE → ERB DER → TS → ERB DER → PE → TS → ERB DER → NE → TS → ERB DER → PE → TR → ERB DER → NE → TR → ERB DER → TS → TR → ERB DER → PE → TS → TR → ERB DER → NE → TS → TR → ERB

Lower bound 95% BC

0.0989 0.0268 0.0708 0.0489 0.0072 0.0506 0.0091 0.0599 0.0414 0.0061

0.0068 0.0754 0.0010 0.0007 0.0003 0.0126 0.0030 0.0194 0.0126 0.0060

Upper bound 95% BC 0.2328 0.0001 0.1771 0.1352 0.0039 0.1223 0.0124 0.1305 0.0097 0.0029

5. Discussion and conclusions Based on our review of the literature, the current study is the first to construct an integrated model incorporating script theory into an S-O-R framework in a tourism consumption context. This study provided empirical support to the integrated tourist behavior model that was based on the well-recognized S-O-R framework and script theory. Notably, these two theories complete each other and recollection is the bridge between them. Moreover, with the fast development of destinations, the destination management organizations (DMOs) are facing increasingly serious environmental problems (Cheng & Wu, 2015; Han, 2015) with tourists' behaviors out of awareness or unawareness (Chang, 2010). Thus, it is important to acknowledge the crucial determinants of tourist environmentally responsible behavior and the associated formation mechanism (Cheng & Wu, 2015). Tourism consumption is a form of experience, and emotional experiences are crucial in forming behaviors (Su & Hsu, 2013). As such, an understanding of how tourists' emotional experiences may influence tourist environmentally responsible behavior and other antecedents will facilitate the formulation of strategic marketing, segmentation, and communication efforts. The empirical findings confirmed that emotional reactions could be triggered due to the destination eco-friendly reputation and, in turn, lead tourist recollection and environmentally responsible behavior. Findings from the structural path analysis revealed that our theoretical model has a strong ability to interpret tourist environmentally responsible behavior. Also, results of model comparisons showed the integrated model was in general superior to an alternative model based on the S-OR framework. With a dearth of theoretical research on tourist environmentally responsible behavior, the current study provided insights into the formation mechanism of tourist environmentally responsible behavior. The empirical results showed evidence that a destination ecofriendly reputation plays an important environmental trigger role to inspire tourist emotional experiences. Specifically, the empirical findings indicated that the eco-friendly reputation of a destination could increase tourist positive emotions and satisfaction, and decrease tourists' negative emotions (if any). These results are consistent with the previous idea that considers tourists' pursuit of a good, natural ecological environment of destination to satisfy their tourism experience needs (e.g., Chan & Baum, 2007; Chiu et al., 2014). These results demonstrate that eco-friendly reputation of the destination can be a signal

Notes: DER: destination eco-friendly reputation; PE: positive emotions; NE: negative emotions; TS: tourist satisfaction; TR: tourists' recollection; ERB: environmentally responsible behavior.

model explanatory power. 4.6. Examine the proposed theoretical model and its competing model To judge which model is better between the theoretical model and competing model, we perform a Chi-square difference test and compare the fit indices and model explanatory power between the theoretical and competing models. 4.6.1. Model performance comparison A Chi-square difference test is conducted to examine whether there exists a significant difference between the performance of the theoretical model and that of the competing model. The estimated Chi-square difference score between the theoretical model and the competing model was significant (Δχ2(70) = 185.852, p < .001), which reveals a statistically significant difference between these two models. The goodness-of-fit indices of the models are shown in Table 6. Notably, each fit index of the theoretical model is better than the competing model, thus demonstrating that the theoretical model fits the data at least as good as the competing model from a fit indices perspective. 4.6.2. The comparison analysis of explanation power The explanatory power of both models is shown in Table 7, which reveals the theoretical model's superior predictive ability on tourist satisfaction (R2 = 0.563), ERB (R2 = 0.397), positive emotions (R2 = 0.377) than the competing model (R2 for tourist satisfaction = 0.558, R2 for ERB = 0.333, and R2 for positive

Posive emoons 2

R =.367 .606*** Desnaon eco-friendly reputaon

.241***

.419***

.360***

.357***

Tourist sasfacon

Environmentally responsible behavior

2

R =.558 -.242***

-.154***

2

R =.333

-.091**

Negave emoons 2

R =.058

Fig. 4. The empirical results of the competing structural path model. Notes: **means significant at the 0.01 level of significance; *** means significant at the 0.001 level of significance. 12

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Table 6 The fit indices comparison of theoretical model and the competing model. Criterion model

Theoretical model Competing model

χ2/df

RMSEA

GFI

NFI

RFI

IFI

TLI

CFI

≤5.00

≤0.08

≥0.900

≥0.900

≥0.900

≥0.900

≥0.900

≥0.900

2.721 3.728

0.057 0.072

0.913 0.902

0.942 0.935

0.932 0.922

0.963 0.952

0.956 0.942

0.963 0.952

generation process, as key to understanding tourist ERB. In conclusion, the vital theoretical contribution of this study is to propose an integrated framework to explain the formation mechanism of tourist ERB through integrating an S-O-R framework and script theory using recollection as the bridge. Generally, the new integrated framework shows the formation process of tourist ERB as the result of script generation through the process of the applied S-O-R framework. We can see these middle stages – emotional experience and satisfaction generating recollection – as key processes which help to form the tourists' responses through an intention toward ERB.

of what has been done in environmental practices, which will be perceived and experienced by tourists and impact tourist emotional experiences and ERB. The findings demonstrated the important role of emotional experience (positive and negative emotions, satisfaction). Also, positive emotions were found to positively impact tourist satisfaction while negative emotions were found to negatively influence tourist satisfaction, which is consistent with logic and the literature. For example, Su and Hsu (2013) demonstrated that consumption emotions (positive and negative) impact satisfaction in the context of Chinese natural heritage. Notably, positive emotions have a relatively stronger effect on recollection than negative emotions, which are consistent with previous studies (Wagenaar, 1986; White, 1982). They also suggested pleasant episodes were recalled better than unpleasant ones. Besides, consumption emotions directly impact tourist ERB, which expand previous literature that proved consumption emotions can impact consumers' loyal behavior/intentions (e.g., Han & Jeong, 2013; Jang & Namkung, 2009; Romani et al., 2013; Westbrook, 1987). Thus, the results give support to the important role of consumption emotion and its impact on subsequent behaviors. Tourist satisfaction also has an important role as it has a significant effect on both recollection and tourist ERB respectively. That is, tourists with a satisfactory experience are more likely to recall the tourism experience and take action to support the environment. Previous studies generally confirmed that satisfaction is the vital antecedent of loyal behavior/intentions (e.g., Su & Hsu, 2013; Su, Swanson, & Chen, 2016). This finding builds upon these studies, supporting the idea that tourist satisfaction can also improve tourist ERB. As for the relationship between recollection and tourist ERB, recollection positively impacts tourist ERB. The previous studies have proved the role of recollection in tourism experience (e.g., Manthiou et al., 2014; Morgan & Xu, 2009; Tung & Ritchie, 2011a, 2011b), and many scholars view consumers' memory as an antecedent for re-visitation and suggest the impact of memory on consumer repeat patronage (e.g., Lee et al., 2009; Manthiou et al., 2014; Wirtz et al., 2003). This study further supports the role of recollection for it has found that recollection can also improve tourist ERB level. Considering the path relationship among emotional experience (positive and negative emotions, satisfaction), recollection and tourist ERB, and empirical results of the mediating analysis, it shows that recollection has a partial mediating effect between emotional experience (positive and negative emotions, satisfaction) and ERB, which is consistent with Tung and Ritchie's (2011a) findings through qualitative research. They indicated that recollection has a mediation effect throughout the experiential process. Our results further confirm the mediating role of recollection in the experiential process through a quantitative method. This is further clarified by both the mediation effect analysis and exploration of competing models which shows the usefulness in including recollection, our variable for the script

6. Practical implications Destinations gain a competitive advantage by positioning themselves through the benefits that are important to their visitors. The ecofriendly reputation of a destination is recognized as a key driver of tourist emotional experience, in turn leading to recollection and ERB. This finding indicates that monitoring and carefully managing destination reputation is worthy of the destination marketers' attention. In recent years, the rise of user-generated content via social media (e.g., TripAdvisor, Yelp, YouTube) has led to new challenges and opportunities for brand management. A visible blunder (e.g., socially irresponsible activities, environmental damage) can be quickly communicated to the public and may significantly damage a destination's reputation. Destination management organizations (DMOs) should develop plans and processes for eco-friendly reputation management (e.g., promotion of eco-friendly practices and activities, in-house training of personnel to be a socially responsible community member and avoid reputation crises). It is also important to identify specific brand management objectives and strategically communicate a set of eco-friendly conservation practices to the stakeholders through marketing and advertising. Technically speaking, DMOs should consider adopting several destination reputation management tools and services (e.g., TrustYou, Revinate, and Travel 2.0) to track the change of reputation over time. Only when both the role and impact of eco-friendly reputation on tourist behaviors are well understood can the DMOs develop an actionable reputation management plan to foster and retain loyal tourists. The destination managers should elaborate various ecology actions and publish an annual or a semi-annual Environmental Responsibility Report. The website of the destination could have a dedicated page for environmental issues. The webpage can communicate ecological awareness with a tagline, such as “we focus on the preservation of environment first and foremost.” This page can give the destination managers the opportunity to speak about sensitive issues such as the use of recycled and ecological materials. The destination can maintain its competitive advantage by influencing a group of tourists who are concerned about environmental issues and reassure all stakeholders about their conservation activities.

Table 7 The explanatory power comparison of the theoretical model and the competing model. Constructs model

Positive emotions

Negative emotions

Tourist satisfaction

Recollection

Environmentally responsible behavior

Theoretical model Competing model

0.377 0.367

0.058 0.058

0.563 0.558

0.411 –

0.397 0.333

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understand the robustness of the research model proposed in this study, future studies need to investigate the extent to which the significant relationships found in the present study could be replicated across cultures, tourism destination types, and nations (e.g., domestic tourists vs. foreign tourists). Future studies might also collect longitudinal data to revisit the integrated model and could then provide additional opportunities for exploring how recollection after the visit and ERB after the visit might be impacted by the other factors in the model. Longitudinal data would offer the opportunity to see how time impacts the recollection and ERB of individuals to see if effects from visiting eco-friendly tourist destinations are long-lasting. With an experimental study design, ERB could be measured before, as well as after, the experience to document the kind of change that occurs when tourists visit an eco-friendly destination. This type of data collection could further test the model provided here and provide a stronger case for the likely causality between the relationships of the variables. We encourage tourism scholars to consider these research options when they attempt to broaden the horizon of sustainable and eco-friendly tourism research.

Online communication actions attract and reassure tourists about what the destination has done for environmental protection. Far from being simple marketing concepts, the suggested actions demonstrate the importance of ecological issues for businesses. Consumers are more demanding and aware of environmental values. They have also become highly skeptical of claimed environmental practices, in part due to greenwashing. Greenwashing is a business practice that consists of using false environmental arguments to sell products are not always “green-friendly.” The destination should launch actions in favor of sustainability and then communicate them clearly and sincerely. It will interest key stakeholders and improve its eco-friendly reputation offline and online. The results show that both emotional experiences (i.e., positive and negative emotions, satisfaction) and recollection have important effects on tourists' ERB. Thus, the destination managers should deliver pleasantly memorable tourism experiences (MTEs) to visitors. Just as Tung and Ritchie (2011a) pointed out, the critical role of a destination manager is to “facilitate the development of an environment (i.e., destination) that enhances the likelihood that tourists can create their own MTE” (p.1369), and Kim (2014) noted “destination marketers are under pressure to develop effective tourism programs that deliver MTEs” (p. 35). Empirical evidence in this study shows that ecofriendly/sustainable reputation is an important stimulus that deserves DMOs' attention. As such, we argue that tourism destinations with a better than average eco-friendly reputation could/should position their brands to today's green consumers and these destinations are more likely to thrive in today's competitive business environment.

Acknowledgment This study was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (No. 71774176; 71573279), Natural Science Foundation of Distinguished Young Scholars of Hunan Province in China (No. 2017JJ1032), and State Key Program of National Natural Science of China (No. 71431006).

7. Limitations and directions for future research References Although the conceptual model proposed in the present study is consistent with the extant theories, it is an innovative extension. We feel that this work creates a myriad of opportunities for other researchers to further investigate the construct relationships proposed here. A notable limitation lies in the way tourist ERB is conceptualized, as the ERB question items in the present study may have neglected other relevant dimensions, which could be explored in future research. ERB conceptualizations in future studies could aim at more generalized behavior or categorize different components of ERB. Likewise, the recollection items do not distinguish positive and negative recollection. However, we found that tourist recollection is positively and significantly related to positive emotions (r = 0.552) and negatively (and significantly) related to negative emotions (r = −0.113). In addition, tourist recollection is positively and significantly related to satisfaction (r = 0.598). Thus, in retrospect, it appears that the respondents' recollection (or memory) toward the destination under study reflects closer to positive recollection. We urge future studies to explore the existence of a positive as well as a negative recollection. It would be of value for future studies to investigate the impact of the positive and negative recollection on ERB. One notable way to strengthen the argument presented in this paper and develop a clearer understanding of the impact of the model variables would be to review moderating effects associated with sociodemographic variables. This is likely to yield important opportunities for future research and refinement of the work provided here. We encourage the exploration of the impact of sociodemographic variables related to this model and the process that it outlines. In addition, the respondents in this study were selected from a convenience sample at one large city in China. Notably, our sample collection cannot easily be compared against a population for all visitors to this site. Additionally, visitor characteristics are likely to vary depending upon the season as different tourists may hope to see different things within the setting. As such, it is hard to compare characteristics of this convenience sample against a known population. The generalizability of the findings may be restricted. To better

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Lujun Su earned his Ph.D. degree in Tourism Management from Xiamen University in China, and is an Associate professor of Marketing in the Business School of Central South University. His research interests related to tourist loyalty behavior, destination marketing, and destination management. Dr. Su has published more than twenty papers in various scholarly journals, such as Tourism Management, Journal of Business Research, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing.

Further reading

Maxwell K. Hsu is a Full Professor of Marketing at the University of WisconsinWhitewater. He has teaching experience in the United States (both online and offline) and a few foreign nations such as China, Mexico, and Ukraine. Dr. Hsu has published more than sixty refereed articles in a number of top-tier scholarly journals such as Information & Management, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Research, Journal of International Marketing, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, and Tourism Management. Professor Hsu is the recipient of 2012 ACME Educator of the Year Award (Association of Collegiate Marketing Educators) and the recipient of UW-Whitewater 2012 University Outstanding Research Award. Dr. Hsu also serves at the Journal of Marketing Channels' editorial board.

Cole, S. T., & Illum, S. F. (2006). Examining the mediating role of festival visitors' satisfaction in the relationship between service quality and behavioral intentions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(2), 160–173. Huang, H.-C., Lin, T.-H., Lai, M.-C., & Lin, T.-L. (2014). Environmental consciousness and green customer behavior: An examination of motivation crowding effect. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 40, 139–149. Huang, P. S., & Shih, L. H. (2009). Effective environmental management through environmental knowledge management. International Journal of Environmental Science

Robert E. Boostrom Jr. is an Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater. He has taught primarily in the area of consumer behavior. Dr. Boostrom has published in several scholarly journals such as Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, International Journal of Integrated Marketing Communications, Marketing Management Journal, and Marketing Education Review. Dr. Boostrom is the National President of Mu Kappa Tau, the national marketing honor society. Prior to his time in academia, Dr. Boostrom worked for Sprint as well as Crate and Barrel.

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