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From sectoral to integrated coastal management: a case in Xiamen, China
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Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 233-251. 1997 © 1998 Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved Printed in Northern Ireland S0964-5691 ( 97)00 105-X 0964-5691/97 $17.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER
From sectoral to integrated coastal management: a case in X i a m e n , China
Chua Thia-Eng a, Huming Yu a & Chen Guoqiang b a International Maritime Organization, PO Box 2502. 1165 Quezon City. Philippines b Marine Coordination and Management Office, Municipal Government of Xiamen. China
ABSTRACT Xiamen has been selected as a demonstration site for the GEF/ UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas. Its purpose is to test a working model for the application of an integrated coastal management system for mitigating marine pollution, rapid economic development. The paper outlines the success in ICM institutional development at the local level, particularly the establishment of decision-making mechanisms based on consensus building among major stakeholders, and inputs from science and technology. Further, the institutional development provides a framework for, and facilitates progress in, the legislative improvement and enforcement, cross-sectoral marine pollution monitoring, developing sustainable financing options, enhancing public awareness and participation, and capacity building towards ICM goals. Evaluation criteria for application of ICM system are also discussed. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N Xiamen is one of the five special economic zones of China. It is strategically located on the southern coast of the mainland with traditional trade linkages with neighbouring Southeast Asian countries, Hong Kong and nearby Taiwan (Fig. 1). During the last 10 years, average economic growth rate has been 21-7% with a population increase of about 18.6%, a total of 1.21 million in 1995 (Table 1). Xiamen is a seaport. For Xiamen, the sea is the lifeline and a major source for economic growth. It began as a fishing village but is now growing into a m o d e r n and industrialized city port. With rapid economic development, the living standard has considerably improved over the last 233
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decades but, unfortunately, at the cost of increasing environmental degradation. The sea was traditionally but erroneously perceived as an area of infinite resources. It was also thought of as a convenient dumping ground for wastes. Sea-use was never included in resource-use planning and seldom f o r m e d part of the government's economic development or environmental m a n a g e m e n t programmes. Thus, the sea was, and still is, considered by m a n y as a c o m m o n resource subject to multisectoral exploitation and utilization. With the increased maritime activities in recent years, the sea has become a competitive domain of related governance and m a n a g e m e n t agencies. Conflicts between users were not uncommon. However, interagency conflicts in its control and m a n a g e m e n t of sea space and marine resources have added to m a n a g e m e n t complexity.
Taipei
Fig. 1.
From sectoral to integrated coastal management: a case in Xiamen, China
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TABLE 1
Socioeconomic information on Xiamen municipality Socioeconomic factors
Values
Length of coastline Sea area Land area Population GNP GDP G I D P growth rate Total industrial value Agricultural production value Total fish production value Captured fish production Aquaculture production Number of tourists Port cargo transaction
234 km 340 km 2 1 516 km 2 1 213 000 (1995) 176.3 Bi RMB (1995) 187 Bi RMB (1994)250.2 Bi RMB (1995) 21.70% 286.2 Bi RMB (1994) 845 040 000 RMB (1994) 754 230 000 RMB (1994) 39 924 Tons (1994) 29 124 Tons (1994) 230 445 Foreign tourists (1994) 11 410 000 Tons
The selection of Xiamen by the Government of China to be developed as a demonstration site of the GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas (MPP-EAS) through the application of integrated coastal management has provided the local government with both the timely opportunity and the challenge to address its marine environmental problems. The project triggers the initiation and implementation of a comprehensive, marine environmental management programme in Xiamen. The purpose of this paper is to present the activities that have been undertaken so far by the local government in collaboration with the MPPEAS. This paper attempts to review the various stages of activities that have led to a reorientation from sectoral to integrated management and to discuss the preliminary lessons learned. The project is still on-going and more information and consolidated lessons will be derived in the near future. The activities being undertaken by the project are outlined in Fig. 2. 2. M E T H O D S A N D A P P R O A C H E S The Xiamen demonstration project focuses on the application of an integrated coastal management system (ICM) to address marine pollution problems arising from economic development. The project takes advantage of the lessons learned from the development of ICM in Southeast Asia, specifically from the ASEAN/US Coastal Resource Management Project 1"2 and other coastal management projects and
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ACTIVITIES J
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programmes being implemented in other parts of the world. 3"4 Through a critical analysis of past experiences and lessons learned, and taking into consideration the local conditions, the project has established the following approaches and methods in project design and implementation: 2.1. Involving the local government and related agencies in all phases of the activities An interagency Executive Committee was established and chaired by the Executive Vice-Mayor. The Executive Committee was composed of representatives from 22 agencies (Fig. 3) who had specific functions (listed in Table 2). The Committee met periodically to provide policy advice, review progress of activities and consider recommendations arising from the project's outputs. 2.2. Strengthening the existing marine management structure in establishing a permanent coordination and management mechanism The Marine Management Division was designated by the local government as the lead implementing agency for the ICM project. It TABLE 2
Functions of the Executive Committee and its office for Integrated Coastal Management project, Xiamen Executive Committee
Office of the Executive Committee
Exercise overall leadership over the implementation of the Xiamen Project Demonstration Supervise the activities of the programme
Organize and implement project activities
Review and approve the general project workplan and its annual workplan Review, approval and promote the implementation of project recommendations Coordinate various participating agencies in project activities implementation Appoint members of the Executive Agency consultation with the National Coordinator and the Programme Manager
Prepare the annual and overall plans including specific and sub-project activities, workplan, budget and oversee their operation Prepare and submit quarterly, annual and terminal reports to project and programme management Coordinate with the programme management and the national programme coordinator Receive and disburse project funds and/or equipment for project activities Coordinate and organize training activities
Receive, store and maintain a collection of coastal and marine related documents
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serves concurrently as the Project Office. Its management and coordination capabilities were upgraded in the course of project implementation. 2.3. Utilizing local expertise for information generation
Experts from local universities, research institutions and government agencies were involved in undertaking studies in generating the information needed for ICM programme formulation. 2.4. Mobilizing local media to enhance environmental awareness
Local media and government publicity machinery were used to keep the public informed of the activities. 2.5. Ensuring coordination and integration during all phases of activities
This was facilitated through strict compliance of project designs. The preparation of project proposals followed a standard format that emphasized cross-project integration and a clear and logical framework. The coverage of project/sub-project proposals is given in Table 3. 2.6. Integrating project activities as part of, or as a complement to, existing programmes of concerned line agencies
This was facilitated through the involvement of concerned line agencies in the initial planning of project activities and implementation of selected project activities. 2.7. Developing a mechanism to enable interaction between managers and scientists in order to effectively use research results for planning or for immediate management interventions
An integrated management task force (IMTF), which consisted of selected experts and managers from concerned scientific and management agencies, TABLE 3 Coverage of the Xiamen coastal environmental profile Natural environment and its relation to development Marine resources and their development status Urban socioeconomics and status of ecological environment Status of coastal water quality Characteristics of marine ecosystem and problems Status of marine environmental legislation Status of marine environmental management
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was established by the project management. Its primary function was to ensure technical integration of scientific results into management programmes. It also served as a functional bridge between experts of the project and managers of the local government.
2.8. Following a systematic process in integrated planning, programme implementation, monitoring and evaluation of management actions The management cube concept 1 was adopted, thus ensuring a holistic and integrated framework within Which subsequent activities were undertaken.
3. E N V I R O N M E N T A L PROFILING Environmental profiling is considered to be one of the first and more important steps in setting up an ICM programme in Xiamen. The profile will serve as the basis for developing coastal environmental policy and management strategies. The environmental profile of Xiamen was based primarily on secondary information collected by the Integrated Management Task Team. The Team is made up of 12 interdisciplinary experts and managers from the economic planning commission, and marine related environmental and management agencies. In addition to providing the basic ecological and socioeconomic information, the profile serves to (1) assess the state of the coastal and marine environment; (2) identify and determine the severity of environmental stress; (3) evaluate institutional and management constraints; (4) determine information gaps and the availability of national and local capability to undertake ICM programs, and (5) identify potential benefits and opportunities for, or constraints in, undertaking management interventions (Table 4). In short, the environmental profile is an areaspecific state of the marine environmental report. The preparation of the environmental profile was guided by the following three key elements: a coastal environmental profile, a strategic environmental management plan, and an environmental management plan (Fig. 4). An enormous amount of secondary information pertaining to the development and environmental conditions of Xiamen has been collected, much of which has served in the documentation of the socioeconomic and ecological changes that have occurred over time. This valuable secondary information was collected from various government line agencies, research institutions and universities. The compilation of the information has enabled the Xiamen Government to systematically analyse past records, publish results and electronically store databases. This collection will be
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TABLE 4
Contents of the Strategic Management Plan Strategic objectives Management organization Marine functional zonation Accident preparedness and response Monitoring system Human resource development Advanced information system Monitoring and evaluation Management approaches and plans Legislation system Protection of the sea area Management capacity Public sense and participation Sustainable financial mechanism Framework for implementation Estimate of required funding important for future use, specifically, in the preparation of the future state of the marine environmental report, for the preparation of the Integrated Environmental Impact Assessment, and for subsequent revisions and formulation of development and environmental management plans. 4. STRATEGIC E N V I R O N M E N T A L M A N A G E M E N T PLAN A strategic environmental management plan (SEMP) was developed, based primarily on the information gathered from the environmental profile. The Integrated Management Task Force (IMTF) organized numerous consultation meetings with various line agencies and experts to formulate the SEMP covering the key elements shown in Fig. 4. The SEMP document assessed the causes and effects of the identified environmental problems and the associated risks; evaluated existing management measures, if any; and prioritized types of management actions that could be undertaken to resolve them. In particular, the SEMP placed special emphasis on developing the necessary coastal/marine policies and management strategies that could be undertaken by the local government. It also developed an ICM management framework within which an ICM programme should be developed. The SEMP is an important document and therefore should be discussed at various levels of government. The document was submitted to the Executive Committee of the Demonstration Project. The SEMP was approved by the Executive Committee and is being prepared for adoption by the government. The main coverage of SEMP is given in Table 4.
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e t al.
Because the Xiamen Government had already created an overall development policy to serve as their guide in future development of Xiamen, the SEMP was built upon the existing policy. The Xiamen Government policy statement was 'to develop Xiamen into a beautiful, modern, industrialized, city-port'. The policy highlighted the local I
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government's development focus and priorities, specifically with respect to industrialization, seaport development, protection of the environment, and development of maritime trade. In other words, it permits economic development without sacrificing the ecological environment. In addition, the use of the existing policy was to provide a conducive policy environment. However, further institutional and jurisdictional clarifications were made.
5. IMPLEMENTATION OF M A N A G E M E N T ACTION One of the advantages of local government involvement right at the initial phase of ICM project implementation is that any project output can be appropriately integrated into the work programme, and directly executed by the concerned line agencies. At present, a number of government actions are being executed. These actions are closely related to the recommendations contained in the SEMP. Some of these are outlined below. 5.1. Establishment of a marine management and coordination mechanism
In late 1995, the Xiamen Government established a Marine Management and Coordination Working Committee/Task Force (locally known as the Leading Group). The Committee membership includes essentially the same agencies as those listed under the Executive Committee for the Demonstration Project and was chaired by the same Executive ViceMayor. The main difference is the inclusion of four vice-mayors in charge of agriculture, fisheries, port, city planning and construction, and science and technology. A Marine Management and Coordination Office (MMCO) was created upon the existing staff and facilities of the current Marine Management Division with functions under the direct administration of the Municipal Government. Thus, the roles of the then Marine Management Division, which was formerly under the Science and Technology Commission, were changed from that of a technical nature to that of management and coordination. The significance of these government actions is the creation of an institutional and authoritative mechanism that can effectively address the cross-agency management issues related to the utilization of sea-space and marine resources. It also provides an organizational structure that can implement the adopted recommendations of the SEMP and the forthcoming ICM action programme. Details of the functions and operations of the new establishment are given in Ref. 5.
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5.2. Harmonization o f national legislation
A major focus of the ICM project is to clarify the legislative and jurisdictional issues related to marine resource and sea-space utilization. A legal group was set up to review related existing national legislation and local ordinances, to determine the areas of conflicts, identify areas that required further clarification and changes, and draft local legislation that could harmonize or strengthen the implementationof national legislation. A common problem was the overlapping functional jurisdiction of central line agencies. The implementation of this legislation by corresponding central agencies at the local level often resulted in serious interagency conflicts. For example, there are overlapping jurisdictions in the use of the East and West Harbor between agencies such as fisheries, port and harbour, tourism, aquaculture and environmental protection. The legal group has now looked into the establishment of basic law on the Use of Sea-Space and Marine Resources. The basic law is to be enacted at the local level within which all existing national legislation will be coordinated or integrated. The legal group has, over the past 2 years, successfully submitted new or modified ordinances and administrative orders, which have been promulgated by the municipal government. These include legislation on management of water resources, management of sea transport, development and management of tourism resources, preservation and management of the egret nature reserves at Dayu Island, administrative orders related to the removal of fish farms in coastal areas allocated for the construction of shipyards, and control and management of eel fry gathering in Xiamen coastal waters. New legislation or modifications of old legislation are being studied by the legal group. These include sea-space utilization and management (basic law), management of aquaculture practices in intertidal and shallow coastal waters, management and control of ports and harbours, and marine environmental management. 5.3. Integrated law enforcement
A significant achievement of the newly established Marine Management and Coordination Office (MMCO) has been its ability to mobilize the various law-enforcing agencies to collectively enforce management measures related to illegal activities that fall within the overlapping functional jurisdiction. Two of these successful law enforcement actions were (1) the resolution of conflicts arising from illegal establishment of fish farms in areas designated for shipyard development, and (2) unregulated
From sectoral to integrated coastal management: a case in Xiamen, China
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eel fry gathering in navigational channels. The collective involvement of concerned enforcing agencies has not only improved the effectiveness of law enforcement but also its cost-effectiveness, by sharing interagency resources for the common goal. 6
5.4. Integrated marine pollution monitoring Through the initiatives of the Project, the four major agencies in Xiamen that were involved in marine pollution monitoring have agreed to cooperate in undertaking a joint integrated marine pollution monitoring programme. These four agencies are the Environmental Protection Agency, the Marine Information and Monitoring Station of the State Oceanic Administration, the Fisheries Environment Monitoring Station of the Fisheries Department, Monitoring Station of Port Management and the Environmental Quality Monitoring Station of the Aquaculture Division of the Fisheries Department. The integrated monitoring programme is being coordinated by the Third Institute of Oceanography. The integrated marine pollution monitoring programme mobilizes existing national and local financial and manpower resources through the adoption of common sampling and analytical techniques, division of responsibilities and labour, strengthening of local capacities, and integration and dissemination of monitoring results. This will promote a wider and more effective use of marine pollution monitoring information by concerned agencies.
5.5. Public awareness campaign The then Marine Management Division had implemented a number of activities related to increasing public awareness and concern for the marine environment. In collaboration with the media, it has successfully organized a weekly column in a local newspaper focusing on marine resources and their environment. In addition, it has organized municipalwide knowledge contests on the marine environment with other line agencies. Focus has been especially on school children from the primary and secondary levels, as well as government line agencies. A book on T h e Sea a n d X i a m e n (in the local Chinese dialect) was published in 1994. Also, selected articles from writers on the marine environment entitled 'We love the sea' were published in 1995. These activities were fully broadcasted through local TV and radio stations. A video on the marine environment was also produced. Public awareness has a far-reaching impact in promoting government concerns and management actions. In the past, strong public opinion has
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resulted in the allocation of close to 300 million yuan to clean up the Yuandang lagoon, which was heavily polluted with domestic and industrial wastes, and the construction of sewage treatment plants. In recent years, public concerns on environmental degradation and support for a clean marine environment, as well as increased knowledge on the socioeconomic benefits of their sustained use, are contributing to an increase in debates and resolutions tabled at the People's Assembly and one political consultation conference. In the forthcoming meetings, resolutions tabled for debate, cover topics such as strengthening pollution prevention and management, improvement of the health conditions of the sea, improvement of marine legislation and enforcement, improvement of the legal basis for administration, functional zonation, reduction of use conflicts, improvement of marine management and coordination. 5.6. ICM training
Xiamen has served as one of the training sites for the annual regional ICM training course. The highly practice-oriented training course, using concrete field examples from Xiamen and other sites as case studies, is highly successful in the dissemination of experience and lessons learned in coastal and marine management. 5.7. Designation of functional zones
A major activity undertaken by MMCO is the preparation and implementation of a functional zonation scheme. Functional zones are areas (or natural resources) allocated for specific and/or prioritized economic development, and nature preservation and protection. These zones will be based largely on the functional characteristics of the area (or natural resources) concerned. In the past, resource management agencies prepared individual sectoral zonation plans, the implementation of which resulted in interagency and multiple-use conflicts. This occurred because the designated zones overlapped with those of other agencies. A primary purpose of an integrated functional zonation scheme is to ensure the allocation of sea-space or marine resources for optimal use. The integration will determine which activities will have the least impacts on the environment and will help to avoid and/or minimize use-conflicts. Through the study and integration of existing functional zones, a coordinated, legalized functional zonation scheme will be produced. 5.8. Other activities
A number of other activities being undertaken through the Project are expected to generate appropriate recommendations for management
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actions. These include the development of a sustainable financing mechanism with a proposed environmental management fund, and the implementation of an integrated waste-management action plan, among others.
6. EVALUATION C R I T E R I A During the initial phase of project implementation, five criteria have been agreed upon with the local government as a measure to evaluate the success of the project over a period of 5 years. These are: 1. The establishment of an integrated coastal management mechanism (including sustainable financing mechanism); 2. The establishment of a proper legislative system for coastal and marine management; 3. The improvement of marine environmental conditions; 4. The establishment of a monitoring and assessment system; 5. The establishment of an information and training mechanism. Certainly not all the five have been fully achieved. However, considerable advances have been made, specifically in the following: • Establishment of a functional marine management and coordination mechanism; • Improvement of the local legislation; • The formulation of an integrated marine pollution monitoring program; • Initiation of an ICM training programme for information dissemination; • Human capacity development.
7. INDICATORS OF C H A N G E The implementation of the Xiamen Project has promoted positive changes in the perception and attitude of government officials and researchers resulting in organizational and institutional improvements in marine environmental management. These changes have been reported in the March issue of UPDATES 6 and are summarized below. 7.1. Perception and attitude Although it is difficult to quantify socioeconomic or ecological impacts arising from the positive changes of attitude and perception at various
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levels of the government and communities, it is essential to document these changes. Therefore, this study will document changes among policymakers, agency managers, scientists and the common public, qualitatively. The Project was initially perceived by many (including policy-makers and scientists) as a scientific research programme because it was originally coordinated through the Science and Technology Commission instead of the Municipal Government. This perception has indeed created difficulties in the initial phase of developing a management-oriented research and the formulation of an action plan. Much time and effort spent to forge a change of perception has brought about a delay in the implementation of the initial phase. Subsequently, this perception change of policy makers and many others has led to the establishment of MMCO, the creation of a more proactive environmental policy, a consensus to enact local ordinances to harmonize with national legislative measures, the adoption of a management-oriented and interdisciplinary research, and the adoption of integrated planning and management.
7.2. Proactive environmental policy The development policy of the municipal government has provided economic development directions and goals. This has enabled the integration of marine environmental management in the SEMP to promote a proactive environmental policy, and has allowed the reactive management of strategies to correct adverse environmental impacts. The adverse environmental conditions of the Yuandang lagoon and the high cost in its clean-up were useful lessons in promoting environmental consciousness and a stronger political commitment to prevent its occurrence. The political leadership is now more receptive to a proactive approach.
7.3. Organizational arrangement The establishment of MMCO marked a major organizational change in the history of the management of the marine area in Xiamen. In the past, there was no single organization or interagency consultative mechanism for resolving use-conflicts, to address adverse environmental problems, or to execute proactive environmental management programmes. MMCO now has the necessary mandate and legal authority to coordinate with concerned agencies on the use and management of the marine areas.
7.4. Management approach The acceptance of an integrated management approach is a major change from the conventional management regime that is manifested through a
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series of management actions involving policy, planning, legislation, law enforcement, monitoring and research. 7.5. Research
Most researchers in Xiamen had little or no experience in undertaking interdisciplinary, management-oriented research. Although a multidisciplinary team was established, most research proposals showed little or no coordination with each other. There were even difficulties in the use of a log-framework. There were also initial resistance amongst scientists to meet the stringent management-oriented research requirements. It took a considerable amount of time through lectures, open discussions and exercises before such management-oriented research was accepted and implemented. The change from the conventional research approach to a management-solving approach was finally realized. In fact, according to the Science and Technology Commission, there was an increase in research fund allocation for management-oriented research as a result of the ability of the researchers to submit proposals that met management requirements.
8. LESSONS L E A R N E D Much has been learned from the implementation of the Xiamen Project. The major lessons learned to date are listed below: 1. Make ICM a government initiative/programme and fully involve the local government in ICM programme development and implementation; 2. Harmonize national legislation, which is an essential step toward the effective application of laws and regulations at the local level; 3. Coordination mechanisms should be established as soon as possible to undertake the formulation and execution of ICM programme; 4. A sustainable financing mechanism must be established within the project-life in order to sustain ICM activities; 5. The public awareness campaign can be used as a tool to forge political commitments and cooperation of the stakeholders, in addition to raising general environmental concerns; 6. Initial efforts should be placed in the identification of local leadership and to strengthen the local capacity to implement the ICM project; 7. The ICM programme should build upon the capacity of local agencies to enable them to undertake integrated management;
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8. Management decisions in ICM rely heavily on scientific information. Scientific investigation should therefore address identified management issues; 9. The time taken to formulate an ICM programme should not be too long. Detailed planning should be integrated into the implementation process; 10. Consultation and consensus building among stakeholders helps to resolve interagency and use-conflicts.
9. C O N C L U S I O N The initiation of ICM in Xiamen has indeed created a strong impact on the management regime of sea space and marine resources in Xiamen. There is greater public awareness of environmental concerns, a stronger political will to address environmental problems, and improved perception on the integrated management system among the resource managers and concerned scientific community. The ICM programme that is taking shape in Xiamen was manifested through the establishment of an institutional and organizational arrangement, improvement of legislative framework, development of sustainable financing mechanism, strengthening of local capacity, and the integration of law enforcement and environmental monitoring programmes. More importantly, the ICM approach and objectives complement the government's economic development goals for Xiamen and certainly fall within the framework of Chapter 17 of Agenda 21. In fact, the ICM programme is a testimony of Agenda 21 in action, at the local level.
REFERENCES 1. Chua, T. E. and Scura, L. E (eds), Integrative framework and methods for coastal area management. ICLARM Conference Proceedings, Vol. 37, 1992. 2. Chua, T. E. and Scura, L. E (eds), Managing ASEAN's coastal resources for sustainable development: roles of policy-makers, scientists, donors, media and communities. ICLARM Conference Proceedings Vol. 30. Department of Science and Technology, Department of Aquaculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and Department of Tourism, Philippines; and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 1991. 3. Hotta, K. and Dutton, I. M. (eds), Coastal Management in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues and Approaches. Japan International Marine Science and Technology Federation, Tokyo, 1995.
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4. SCrensen, J., The international proliferation of integrated coastal zone management efforts. Ocean and Coastal Management 1993, 21, 45-80. 5. Chen, G. and Chua, T. E., Institutional mechanism for marine area management--an effort of the municipal government of Xiamen, China. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Integrated Coastal Management: Lessons learned from successes and failures, Xiamen, China, 14-16 November 1996. 6. Updates, Programme Development and Management Office, Vol. II, No. 1, March 1996. 7. Chua, T. E., Essential elements of integrated coastal zone management. Ocean and Coastal Management 1993, 21, 81-108.
Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 233-251. 1997 © 1998 Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved Printed in Northern Ireland S0964-5691 ( 97)00 105-X 0964-5691/97 $17.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER
From sectoral to integrated coastal management: a case in X i a m e n , China
Chua Thia-Eng a, Huming Yu a & Chen Guoqiang b a International Maritime Organization, PO Box 2502. 1165 Quezon City. Philippines b Marine Coordination and Management Office, Municipal Government of Xiamen. China
ABSTRACT Xiamen has been selected as a demonstration site for the GEF/ UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas. Its purpose is to test a working model for the application of an integrated coastal management system for mitigating marine pollution, rapid economic development. The paper outlines the success in ICM institutional development at the local level, particularly the establishment of decision-making mechanisms based on consensus building among major stakeholders, and inputs from science and technology. Further, the institutional development provides a framework for, and facilitates progress in, the legislative improvement and enforcement, cross-sectoral marine pollution monitoring, developing sustainable financing options, enhancing public awareness and participation, and capacity building towards ICM goals. Evaluation criteria for application of ICM system are also discussed. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N Xiamen is one of the five special economic zones of China. It is strategically located on the southern coast of the mainland with traditional trade linkages with neighbouring Southeast Asian countries, Hong Kong and nearby Taiwan (Fig. 1). During the last 10 years, average economic growth rate has been 21-7% with a population increase of about 18.6%, a total of 1.21 million in 1995 (Table 1). Xiamen is a seaport. For Xiamen, the sea is the lifeline and a major source for economic growth. It began as a fishing village but is now growing into a m o d e r n and industrialized city port. With rapid economic development, the living standard has considerably improved over the last 233
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decades but, unfortunately, at the cost of increasing environmental degradation. The sea was traditionally but erroneously perceived as an area of infinite resources. It was also thought of as a convenient dumping ground for wastes. Sea-use was never included in resource-use planning and seldom f o r m e d part of the government's economic development or environmental m a n a g e m e n t programmes. Thus, the sea was, and still is, considered by m a n y as a c o m m o n resource subject to multisectoral exploitation and utilization. With the increased maritime activities in recent years, the sea has become a competitive domain of related governance and m a n a g e m e n t agencies. Conflicts between users were not uncommon. However, interagency conflicts in its control and m a n a g e m e n t of sea space and marine resources have added to m a n a g e m e n t complexity.
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TABLE 1
Socioeconomic information on Xiamen municipality Socioeconomic factors
Values
Length of coastline Sea area Land area Population GNP GDP G I D P growth rate Total industrial value Agricultural production value Total fish production value Captured fish production Aquaculture production Number of tourists Port cargo transaction
234 km 340 km 2 1 516 km 2 1 213 000 (1995) 176.3 Bi RMB (1995) 187 Bi RMB (1994)250.2 Bi RMB (1995) 21.70% 286.2 Bi RMB (1994) 845 040 000 RMB (1994) 754 230 000 RMB (1994) 39 924 Tons (1994) 29 124 Tons (1994) 230 445 Foreign tourists (1994) 11 410 000 Tons
The selection of Xiamen by the Government of China to be developed as a demonstration site of the GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas (MPP-EAS) through the application of integrated coastal management has provided the local government with both the timely opportunity and the challenge to address its marine environmental problems. The project triggers the initiation and implementation of a comprehensive, marine environmental management programme in Xiamen. The purpose of this paper is to present the activities that have been undertaken so far by the local government in collaboration with the MPPEAS. This paper attempts to review the various stages of activities that have led to a reorientation from sectoral to integrated management and to discuss the preliminary lessons learned. The project is still on-going and more information and consolidated lessons will be derived in the near future. The activities being undertaken by the project are outlined in Fig. 2. 2. M E T H O D S A N D A P P R O A C H E S The Xiamen demonstration project focuses on the application of an integrated coastal management system (ICM) to address marine pollution problems arising from economic development. The project takes advantage of the lessons learned from the development of ICM in Southeast Asia, specifically from the ASEAN/US Coastal Resource Management Project 1"2 and other coastal management projects and
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programmes being implemented in other parts of the world. 3"4 Through a critical analysis of past experiences and lessons learned, and taking into consideration the local conditions, the project has established the following approaches and methods in project design and implementation: 2.1. Involving the local government and related agencies in all phases of the activities An interagency Executive Committee was established and chaired by the Executive Vice-Mayor. The Executive Committee was composed of representatives from 22 agencies (Fig. 3) who had specific functions (listed in Table 2). The Committee met periodically to provide policy advice, review progress of activities and consider recommendations arising from the project's outputs. 2.2. Strengthening the existing marine management structure in establishing a permanent coordination and management mechanism The Marine Management Division was designated by the local government as the lead implementing agency for the ICM project. It TABLE 2
Functions of the Executive Committee and its office for Integrated Coastal Management project, Xiamen Executive Committee
Office of the Executive Committee
Exercise overall leadership over the implementation of the Xiamen Project Demonstration Supervise the activities of the programme
Organize and implement project activities
Review and approve the general project workplan and its annual workplan Review, approval and promote the implementation of project recommendations Coordinate various participating agencies in project activities implementation Appoint members of the Executive Agency consultation with the National Coordinator and the Programme Manager
Prepare the annual and overall plans including specific and sub-project activities, workplan, budget and oversee their operation Prepare and submit quarterly, annual and terminal reports to project and programme management Coordinate with the programme management and the national programme coordinator Receive and disburse project funds and/or equipment for project activities Coordinate and organize training activities
Receive, store and maintain a collection of coastal and marine related documents
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serves concurrently as the Project Office. Its management and coordination capabilities were upgraded in the course of project implementation. 2.3. Utilizing local expertise for information generation
Experts from local universities, research institutions and government agencies were involved in undertaking studies in generating the information needed for ICM programme formulation. 2.4. Mobilizing local media to enhance environmental awareness
Local media and government publicity machinery were used to keep the public informed of the activities. 2.5. Ensuring coordination and integration during all phases of activities
This was facilitated through strict compliance of project designs. The preparation of project proposals followed a standard format that emphasized cross-project integration and a clear and logical framework. The coverage of project/sub-project proposals is given in Table 3. 2.6. Integrating project activities as part of, or as a complement to, existing programmes of concerned line agencies
This was facilitated through the involvement of concerned line agencies in the initial planning of project activities and implementation of selected project activities. 2.7. Developing a mechanism to enable interaction between managers and scientists in order to effectively use research results for planning or for immediate management interventions
An integrated management task force (IMTF), which consisted of selected experts and managers from concerned scientific and management agencies, TABLE 3 Coverage of the Xiamen coastal environmental profile Natural environment and its relation to development Marine resources and their development status Urban socioeconomics and status of ecological environment Status of coastal water quality Characteristics of marine ecosystem and problems Status of marine environmental legislation Status of marine environmental management
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was established by the project management. Its primary function was to ensure technical integration of scientific results into management programmes. It also served as a functional bridge between experts of the project and managers of the local government.
2.8. Following a systematic process in integrated planning, programme implementation, monitoring and evaluation of management actions The management cube concept 1 was adopted, thus ensuring a holistic and integrated framework within Which subsequent activities were undertaken.
3. E N V I R O N M E N T A L PROFILING Environmental profiling is considered to be one of the first and more important steps in setting up an ICM programme in Xiamen. The profile will serve as the basis for developing coastal environmental policy and management strategies. The environmental profile of Xiamen was based primarily on secondary information collected by the Integrated Management Task Team. The Team is made up of 12 interdisciplinary experts and managers from the economic planning commission, and marine related environmental and management agencies. In addition to providing the basic ecological and socioeconomic information, the profile serves to (1) assess the state of the coastal and marine environment; (2) identify and determine the severity of environmental stress; (3) evaluate institutional and management constraints; (4) determine information gaps and the availability of national and local capability to undertake ICM programs, and (5) identify potential benefits and opportunities for, or constraints in, undertaking management interventions (Table 4). In short, the environmental profile is an areaspecific state of the marine environmental report. The preparation of the environmental profile was guided by the following three key elements: a coastal environmental profile, a strategic environmental management plan, and an environmental management plan (Fig. 4). An enormous amount of secondary information pertaining to the development and environmental conditions of Xiamen has been collected, much of which has served in the documentation of the socioeconomic and ecological changes that have occurred over time. This valuable secondary information was collected from various government line agencies, research institutions and universities. The compilation of the information has enabled the Xiamen Government to systematically analyse past records, publish results and electronically store databases. This collection will be
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TABLE 4
Contents of the Strategic Management Plan Strategic objectives Management organization Marine functional zonation Accident preparedness and response Monitoring system Human resource development Advanced information system Monitoring and evaluation Management approaches and plans Legislation system Protection of the sea area Management capacity Public sense and participation Sustainable financial mechanism Framework for implementation Estimate of required funding important for future use, specifically, in the preparation of the future state of the marine environmental report, for the preparation of the Integrated Environmental Impact Assessment, and for subsequent revisions and formulation of development and environmental management plans. 4. STRATEGIC E N V I R O N M E N T A L M A N A G E M E N T PLAN A strategic environmental management plan (SEMP) was developed, based primarily on the information gathered from the environmental profile. The Integrated Management Task Force (IMTF) organized numerous consultation meetings with various line agencies and experts to formulate the SEMP covering the key elements shown in Fig. 4. The SEMP document assessed the causes and effects of the identified environmental problems and the associated risks; evaluated existing management measures, if any; and prioritized types of management actions that could be undertaken to resolve them. In particular, the SEMP placed special emphasis on developing the necessary coastal/marine policies and management strategies that could be undertaken by the local government. It also developed an ICM management framework within which an ICM programme should be developed. The SEMP is an important document and therefore should be discussed at various levels of government. The document was submitted to the Executive Committee of the Demonstration Project. The SEMP was approved by the Executive Committee and is being prepared for adoption by the government. The main coverage of SEMP is given in Table 4.
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Because the Xiamen Government had already created an overall development policy to serve as their guide in future development of Xiamen, the SEMP was built upon the existing policy. The Xiamen Government policy statement was 'to develop Xiamen into a beautiful, modern, industrialized, city-port'. The policy highlighted the local I
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government's development focus and priorities, specifically with respect to industrialization, seaport development, protection of the environment, and development of maritime trade. In other words, it permits economic development without sacrificing the ecological environment. In addition, the use of the existing policy was to provide a conducive policy environment. However, further institutional and jurisdictional clarifications were made.
5. IMPLEMENTATION OF M A N A G E M E N T ACTION One of the advantages of local government involvement right at the initial phase of ICM project implementation is that any project output can be appropriately integrated into the work programme, and directly executed by the concerned line agencies. At present, a number of government actions are being executed. These actions are closely related to the recommendations contained in the SEMP. Some of these are outlined below. 5.1. Establishment of a marine management and coordination mechanism
In late 1995, the Xiamen Government established a Marine Management and Coordination Working Committee/Task Force (locally known as the Leading Group). The Committee membership includes essentially the same agencies as those listed under the Executive Committee for the Demonstration Project and was chaired by the same Executive ViceMayor. The main difference is the inclusion of four vice-mayors in charge of agriculture, fisheries, port, city planning and construction, and science and technology. A Marine Management and Coordination Office (MMCO) was created upon the existing staff and facilities of the current Marine Management Division with functions under the direct administration of the Municipal Government. Thus, the roles of the then Marine Management Division, which was formerly under the Science and Technology Commission, were changed from that of a technical nature to that of management and coordination. The significance of these government actions is the creation of an institutional and authoritative mechanism that can effectively address the cross-agency management issues related to the utilization of sea-space and marine resources. It also provides an organizational structure that can implement the adopted recommendations of the SEMP and the forthcoming ICM action programme. Details of the functions and operations of the new establishment are given in Ref. 5.
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5.2. Harmonization o f national legislation
A major focus of the ICM project is to clarify the legislative and jurisdictional issues related to marine resource and sea-space utilization. A legal group was set up to review related existing national legislation and local ordinances, to determine the areas of conflicts, identify areas that required further clarification and changes, and draft local legislation that could harmonize or strengthen the implementationof national legislation. A common problem was the overlapping functional jurisdiction of central line agencies. The implementation of this legislation by corresponding central agencies at the local level often resulted in serious interagency conflicts. For example, there are overlapping jurisdictions in the use of the East and West Harbor between agencies such as fisheries, port and harbour, tourism, aquaculture and environmental protection. The legal group has now looked into the establishment of basic law on the Use of Sea-Space and Marine Resources. The basic law is to be enacted at the local level within which all existing national legislation will be coordinated or integrated. The legal group has, over the past 2 years, successfully submitted new or modified ordinances and administrative orders, which have been promulgated by the municipal government. These include legislation on management of water resources, management of sea transport, development and management of tourism resources, preservation and management of the egret nature reserves at Dayu Island, administrative orders related to the removal of fish farms in coastal areas allocated for the construction of shipyards, and control and management of eel fry gathering in Xiamen coastal waters. New legislation or modifications of old legislation are being studied by the legal group. These include sea-space utilization and management (basic law), management of aquaculture practices in intertidal and shallow coastal waters, management and control of ports and harbours, and marine environmental management. 5.3. Integrated law enforcement
A significant achievement of the newly established Marine Management and Coordination Office (MMCO) has been its ability to mobilize the various law-enforcing agencies to collectively enforce management measures related to illegal activities that fall within the overlapping functional jurisdiction. Two of these successful law enforcement actions were (1) the resolution of conflicts arising from illegal establishment of fish farms in areas designated for shipyard development, and (2) unregulated
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eel fry gathering in navigational channels. The collective involvement of concerned enforcing agencies has not only improved the effectiveness of law enforcement but also its cost-effectiveness, by sharing interagency resources for the common goal. 6
5.4. Integrated marine pollution monitoring Through the initiatives of the Project, the four major agencies in Xiamen that were involved in marine pollution monitoring have agreed to cooperate in undertaking a joint integrated marine pollution monitoring programme. These four agencies are the Environmental Protection Agency, the Marine Information and Monitoring Station of the State Oceanic Administration, the Fisheries Environment Monitoring Station of the Fisheries Department, Monitoring Station of Port Management and the Environmental Quality Monitoring Station of the Aquaculture Division of the Fisheries Department. The integrated monitoring programme is being coordinated by the Third Institute of Oceanography. The integrated marine pollution monitoring programme mobilizes existing national and local financial and manpower resources through the adoption of common sampling and analytical techniques, division of responsibilities and labour, strengthening of local capacities, and integration and dissemination of monitoring results. This will promote a wider and more effective use of marine pollution monitoring information by concerned agencies.
5.5. Public awareness campaign The then Marine Management Division had implemented a number of activities related to increasing public awareness and concern for the marine environment. In collaboration with the media, it has successfully organized a weekly column in a local newspaper focusing on marine resources and their environment. In addition, it has organized municipalwide knowledge contests on the marine environment with other line agencies. Focus has been especially on school children from the primary and secondary levels, as well as government line agencies. A book on T h e Sea a n d X i a m e n (in the local Chinese dialect) was published in 1994. Also, selected articles from writers on the marine environment entitled 'We love the sea' were published in 1995. These activities were fully broadcasted through local TV and radio stations. A video on the marine environment was also produced. Public awareness has a far-reaching impact in promoting government concerns and management actions. In the past, strong public opinion has
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resulted in the allocation of close to 300 million yuan to clean up the Yuandang lagoon, which was heavily polluted with domestic and industrial wastes, and the construction of sewage treatment plants. In recent years, public concerns on environmental degradation and support for a clean marine environment, as well as increased knowledge on the socioeconomic benefits of their sustained use, are contributing to an increase in debates and resolutions tabled at the People's Assembly and one political consultation conference. In the forthcoming meetings, resolutions tabled for debate, cover topics such as strengthening pollution prevention and management, improvement of the health conditions of the sea, improvement of marine legislation and enforcement, improvement of the legal basis for administration, functional zonation, reduction of use conflicts, improvement of marine management and coordination. 5.6. ICM training
Xiamen has served as one of the training sites for the annual regional ICM training course. The highly practice-oriented training course, using concrete field examples from Xiamen and other sites as case studies, is highly successful in the dissemination of experience and lessons learned in coastal and marine management. 5.7. Designation of functional zones
A major activity undertaken by MMCO is the preparation and implementation of a functional zonation scheme. Functional zones are areas (or natural resources) allocated for specific and/or prioritized economic development, and nature preservation and protection. These zones will be based largely on the functional characteristics of the area (or natural resources) concerned. In the past, resource management agencies prepared individual sectoral zonation plans, the implementation of which resulted in interagency and multiple-use conflicts. This occurred because the designated zones overlapped with those of other agencies. A primary purpose of an integrated functional zonation scheme is to ensure the allocation of sea-space or marine resources for optimal use. The integration will determine which activities will have the least impacts on the environment and will help to avoid and/or minimize use-conflicts. Through the study and integration of existing functional zones, a coordinated, legalized functional zonation scheme will be produced. 5.8. Other activities
A number of other activities being undertaken through the Project are expected to generate appropriate recommendations for management
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actions. These include the development of a sustainable financing mechanism with a proposed environmental management fund, and the implementation of an integrated waste-management action plan, among others.
6. EVALUATION C R I T E R I A During the initial phase of project implementation, five criteria have been agreed upon with the local government as a measure to evaluate the success of the project over a period of 5 years. These are: 1. The establishment of an integrated coastal management mechanism (including sustainable financing mechanism); 2. The establishment of a proper legislative system for coastal and marine management; 3. The improvement of marine environmental conditions; 4. The establishment of a monitoring and assessment system; 5. The establishment of an information and training mechanism. Certainly not all the five have been fully achieved. However, considerable advances have been made, specifically in the following: • Establishment of a functional marine management and coordination mechanism; • Improvement of the local legislation; • The formulation of an integrated marine pollution monitoring program; • Initiation of an ICM training programme for information dissemination; • Human capacity development.
7. INDICATORS OF C H A N G E The implementation of the Xiamen Project has promoted positive changes in the perception and attitude of government officials and researchers resulting in organizational and institutional improvements in marine environmental management. These changes have been reported in the March issue of UPDATES 6 and are summarized below. 7.1. Perception and attitude Although it is difficult to quantify socioeconomic or ecological impacts arising from the positive changes of attitude and perception at various
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levels of the government and communities, it is essential to document these changes. Therefore, this study will document changes among policymakers, agency managers, scientists and the common public, qualitatively. The Project was initially perceived by many (including policy-makers and scientists) as a scientific research programme because it was originally coordinated through the Science and Technology Commission instead of the Municipal Government. This perception has indeed created difficulties in the initial phase of developing a management-oriented research and the formulation of an action plan. Much time and effort spent to forge a change of perception has brought about a delay in the implementation of the initial phase. Subsequently, this perception change of policy makers and many others has led to the establishment of MMCO, the creation of a more proactive environmental policy, a consensus to enact local ordinances to harmonize with national legislative measures, the adoption of a management-oriented and interdisciplinary research, and the adoption of integrated planning and management.
7.2. Proactive environmental policy The development policy of the municipal government has provided economic development directions and goals. This has enabled the integration of marine environmental management in the SEMP to promote a proactive environmental policy, and has allowed the reactive management of strategies to correct adverse environmental impacts. The adverse environmental conditions of the Yuandang lagoon and the high cost in its clean-up were useful lessons in promoting environmental consciousness and a stronger political commitment to prevent its occurrence. The political leadership is now more receptive to a proactive approach.
7.3. Organizational arrangement The establishment of MMCO marked a major organizational change in the history of the management of the marine area in Xiamen. In the past, there was no single organization or interagency consultative mechanism for resolving use-conflicts, to address adverse environmental problems, or to execute proactive environmental management programmes. MMCO now has the necessary mandate and legal authority to coordinate with concerned agencies on the use and management of the marine areas.
7.4. Management approach The acceptance of an integrated management approach is a major change from the conventional management regime that is manifested through a
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series of management actions involving policy, planning, legislation, law enforcement, monitoring and research. 7.5. Research
Most researchers in Xiamen had little or no experience in undertaking interdisciplinary, management-oriented research. Although a multidisciplinary team was established, most research proposals showed little or no coordination with each other. There were even difficulties in the use of a log-framework. There were also initial resistance amongst scientists to meet the stringent management-oriented research requirements. It took a considerable amount of time through lectures, open discussions and exercises before such management-oriented research was accepted and implemented. The change from the conventional research approach to a management-solving approach was finally realized. In fact, according to the Science and Technology Commission, there was an increase in research fund allocation for management-oriented research as a result of the ability of the researchers to submit proposals that met management requirements.
8. LESSONS L E A R N E D Much has been learned from the implementation of the Xiamen Project. The major lessons learned to date are listed below: 1. Make ICM a government initiative/programme and fully involve the local government in ICM programme development and implementation; 2. Harmonize national legislation, which is an essential step toward the effective application of laws and regulations at the local level; 3. Coordination mechanisms should be established as soon as possible to undertake the formulation and execution of ICM programme; 4. A sustainable financing mechanism must be established within the project-life in order to sustain ICM activities; 5. The public awareness campaign can be used as a tool to forge political commitments and cooperation of the stakeholders, in addition to raising general environmental concerns; 6. Initial efforts should be placed in the identification of local leadership and to strengthen the local capacity to implement the ICM project; 7. The ICM programme should build upon the capacity of local agencies to enable them to undertake integrated management;
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8. Management decisions in ICM rely heavily on scientific information. Scientific investigation should therefore address identified management issues; 9. The time taken to formulate an ICM programme should not be too long. Detailed planning should be integrated into the implementation process; 10. Consultation and consensus building among stakeholders helps to resolve interagency and use-conflicts.
9. C O N C L U S I O N The initiation of ICM in Xiamen has indeed created a strong impact on the management regime of sea space and marine resources in Xiamen. There is greater public awareness of environmental concerns, a stronger political will to address environmental problems, and improved perception on the integrated management system among the resource managers and concerned scientific community. The ICM programme that is taking shape in Xiamen was manifested through the establishment of an institutional and organizational arrangement, improvement of legislative framework, development of sustainable financing mechanism, strengthening of local capacity, and the integration of law enforcement and environmental monitoring programmes. More importantly, the ICM approach and objectives complement the government's economic development goals for Xiamen and certainly fall within the framework of Chapter 17 of Agenda 21. In fact, the ICM programme is a testimony of Agenda 21 in action, at the local level.
REFERENCES 1. Chua, T. E. and Scura, L. E (eds), Integrative framework and methods for coastal area management. ICLARM Conference Proceedings, Vol. 37, 1992. 2. Chua, T. E. and Scura, L. E (eds), Managing ASEAN's coastal resources for sustainable development: roles of policy-makers, scientists, donors, media and communities. ICLARM Conference Proceedings Vol. 30. Department of Science and Technology, Department of Aquaculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and Department of Tourism, Philippines; and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 1991. 3. Hotta, K. and Dutton, I. M. (eds), Coastal Management in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues and Approaches. Japan International Marine Science and Technology Federation, Tokyo, 1995.
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4. SCrensen, J., The international proliferation of integrated coastal zone management efforts. Ocean and Coastal Management 1993, 21, 45-80. 5. Chen, G. and Chua, T. E., Institutional mechanism for marine area management--an effort of the municipal government of Xiamen, China. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Integrated Coastal Management: Lessons learned from successes and failures, Xiamen, China, 14-16 November 1996. 6. Updates, Programme Development and Management Office, Vol. II, No. 1, March 1996. 7. Chua, T. E., Essential elements of integrated coastal zone management. Ocean and Coastal Management 1993, 21, 81-108.