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FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES | Commercial and Dietary Importance
2780 FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance Janick J and Moore JN (eds) (1996) Fruit Breeding (3. vols.). New York: John Wiley. Millam S and Spoor W (1999) Biotechnology and crop improvement. In: Simmonds NW and Smartt J (eds) Principles of Crop Improvement, 2nd edn, pp. 285–306. London: Blackwell Science. Moore JN and Janick J (eds) (1983) Methods in Fruit Breeding. W. Lafayette, In: Purdue University Press.
Roache FA (1985) Cultivated Fruits of Britain. Their Origin and History. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific. Smartt J and Simmonds NW (1995) Evolution of Crop Plants, 2nd edn. Harlow, UK: Longmans. Stalker HT and Chapman C (eds) (1989) Scientific Management of Germplasm: Characterization, Evaluation and Enhancement. Rome: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES Contents Commercial and Dietary Importance Fruits of the Sapindaceae Fruits of the Sapotaceae Lesser-known Fruits of Africa Fruits of Central and South America Lesser-known Fruits of Asia
Commercial and Dietary Importance S J R Underhill, Horticulture Postharvest Group, Hamilton, Queensland, Australia This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Copyright 1993, Academic Press.
Background 0001
0002
Tropical fruit are a botanically diverse group of fruit indigenous to tropical regions. Their representatives come from numerous families, including Anacardiaceae (mango, hog plum, imbu), Sapindaceae (rambutan, taun, lychee, longan), Passifloraceae (passion fruit), Bromeliaceae (pineapple) and Annonaceae (custard apple, soursop, sugar apple). Traditionally, tropical fruit were consumed locally, either grown in a subsistence-style agricultural structure or gathered from the wild. (See Mangoes; Pineapples.) Increasing production, a more efficient transportation system, and refrigerated storage have led to increased global consumption in recent years. Considerable quantities of tropical fruit are now exported each year to European, Japanese, and American markets. The vast majority of this production is consumed fresh, although processing industries have also been established. In an increasingly health-conscious population, tropical fruit are seen as an appropriate source of nutrition, added variety and exotic appeal.
Production Tropical fruit production is a large, rapidly expanding industry (Table 1). Bananas and pineapples, particularly from the Philippines, China, Mexico, and Brazil, represent the majority of world trade in tropical fruit. Collectively, these countries produced over 12 106 t of bananas and 3 106 t of pineapples in 1988. Although world production figures continue to rise, other fruit, such as mango, papaya, and lychee, are becoming increasingly popular. The subtropical regions of the world, particularly Colombia, Florida,
Table 1 Tropical fruit production for fresh consumption in selected growing regions in 1988 Banana ( 103 t) Australia Bangladesh Brazil China Colombia India Indonesia Kenya Malaysia Mexico Philippines Thailand
159 690 5139 2350 1300 1860 148 490 1080 3645 1606
Mango ( 103 t) 12 160 400
9450 410
780 378
Pineapple ( 103 t) 154 150 1016 430 230 790 350 191 199 293 2250 1771
Papaya ( 103 t)
Lychee ( 103 t) 2
1600 95 44 339 270
62 92
630
From Anonymous (1989) Fruit and Tropical Product. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications.
84
0003
tbl0001
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance
0004
South Africa, Vietnam, Panama, and Mexico, have rapidly expanded their tropical fruit production over the last 20 years. In many of these countries, tropical fruit have become an important source of export revenue. (See Bananas and Plantains.) Historically, fruit production was highly regionalized within the tropics. However, much of the current horticultural production is now removed from the place of origin of the particular species. For example, 91 860 t of lychee were produced by India in 1987, substantially more than the fruit’s native China production of 61 820 t. Granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis), native to the Americas, is now widely grown throughout the world.
History 0005
The increasing horticultural status of tropical fruit comes from their progressive importation into the more temperate regions of the world. This ‘Westernization’ of tropical fruit has become prominent over the last 100 years. Its origins extend back to the early 1550s with the transportation of pineapples from South America, and the shipment of bananas across the Caribbean in the 1770s. Many of these journeys have been immortalized in the history books: the expedition sponsored by King George III and Sir Joseph Banks to transport breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) to the West Indies, and the ensuing ‘mutiny on the Bounty,’ is a good example. Although this early distribution was fundamental to the subsequent development of tropical horticultural production, most of these fruit were already widely used by the local population. With transportation by air, it is now possible to move large quantities of tropical fruit anywhere in the world in a matter of days. Increased production and better cultivars will further aid the development of the fresh fruit industries in the future.
Economic Status 0006
0007
To assess their commercial importance, tropical fruits need to be divided into three arbitrary groups. Thus, familiar, well-established fruit, such as banana (Musa spp.) and pineapple, represent the majority of current tropical fruit production (Tables 1 and 2). In 1987, the European Community (EC) imported 238 936 t of pineapples, with France (66 304 t), Italy (43 644 t), and Germany (38 877 t) the main markets. Recent importation figures for the USA (1988) are around 100 000 t of pineapples, 2 873 000 t of banana, and 108 000 t of plantains. Mango and papaya dominate the second group and are characterized by rapid industry growth. In the 5 years from 1983 to 1987, imports of papaya into
2781
Table 2 Tropical fruit imported by Japan in 1988 Fruit
Quantity (t)
Exporter
Banana
760 409
Pineapple
138 156
Philippines 79%, Taiwan 11%, Ecuador 9%, Colombia 1% (China and Malaysia <1%) Philippines 94%, Taiwan 5% (Thailand, Indonesia, Hawaii, China, Malaysia and Australia <1%) Hawaii 100% (Fiji <1%) Philippines 79%, Mexico 18%, Thailand 1%, Taiwan 1% (Colombia, Fiji, Venezuela and USA <1%) Taiwan 100% Thailand 95%, Indonesia 3%, Philippines 2% (Singapore and Sri Lanka <1%) New Zealand 79%, USA 19%, Colombia 2% (Fiji <1%) Colombia 100% (Mexico <1%)
Papaya Mango
5 240 5 291
Lychee Durian
1 149 104
Passion fruit
15
Pitaya (Hylocereus undatus B.)
22
tbl0002
From Kitagawa H, Matsui T, Kawada K and Agravante JU (1990) Japan as a market of tropical fruit. Acta Horticultural 269: 41–45.
the EEC rose from 1358 to 5074 t. The UK imported 1556 t of papaya in 1989 alone. These fruit are becoming more widely grown in subtropical regions, such as Jamaica, India, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Israel, the USA and Brazil. (See Papayas.) The final group is made up of the lesser-known exotic fruits, such as lychee, durian (Durio zibethinus), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), pulasan (N. mutabile), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), black sapote (Diospyros digyna), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), carambola (Averrhoa carambola), and abiu (Pouteria caimito). These fruit are still relatively unknown in the northern hemisphere, with total imports into the EC around 9000 t in 1988. Tropical fruit not only represent an important source of income for many countries but also have a valuable social and cultural significance. It is from their diversity of uses that the true socioeconomic value of these fruits becomes evident.
0008
0009
Fresh Consumption The consumption of tropical fruit is greatest in their place of origin. The average Western European and Northern American consumes about 10 kg of citrus and banana per year. In parts of Africa, plantains may be consumed at the rate of 400 kg per person per year. Similar consumption rates exist for breadfruit in the West Indies. In their place of origin, these fruit represent a cheap and relatively plentiful food source. Historically, much of this production was easily
0010
2782 FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance
0011
obtained with relatively little horticultural input. Owing to this large local consumption, it is difficult to assess accurately the true economic value for many tropical fruit, particularly the more exotic types. Production is never fully documented in official records, and in many cases, import–export quantities of tropical fruit are unknown. In Java, for example, 90% of fruit consumed is grown in the home garden. The heavy reliance on subsistence farming makes assessment even more difficult. (See Citrus Fruits: Types on the Market.) The processing of tropical fruit has also developed into large industries (Table 3). Fruit have been canned, dried, frozen, or juiced, and marketed either as an individual product or in combination with other fruit types. Canned pineapple is probably the most obvious example. In 1990, over 920 000 t of canned pineapple were produced worldwide. Many of the South-east Asian countries, particularly Thailand, have already developed significant processing industries specializing in the exotic tropicals such as canned lychee and longan, dried mango, and frozen durian. Japan, the USA, and Europe are showing increasing interest in the processing of these more exotic fruit types, particularly mango, passion fruit, and soursop. Although quality is currently highly variable, it is through these products that many people first experience tropical fruit.
Other Uses 0012
tbl0003
The commercial value of tropical fruit is generally equated to their consumption as either a fresh or cooked product. There is, however, a strong dependence on products derived from these fruits. In Africa, large quantities of a weak beer are brewed from banana, representing an important nutritional source. Cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale), soursop (Annona muricata), and tamarind (Tamarindus indica) are all important sources of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages in many countries.
Table 3 Production of processed pineapple from selected countries
Australia Malaysia Philippines South Africa Thailand USA
Canned ( 103 t)
Juiced ( 103 t)
40 46 216 63 380 133
29 1 83 10 44
From Anonymous (1989) Fruit and Tropical Product. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications.
Tropical fruits have been extensively adopted in local medicine and religious practices. Bananas are widely favored as a treatment for stomach complaints, particularly ulcers. Tamarind extract is used as the basis of laxatives for bile disorders and in the treatment of fevers. For the more indulgent, carambola has been suggested in the treatment of hangovers. Much of the medicinal use of tropical fruits is restricted to folk medicine. There are, however, reports in Western medicine of tropical fruit being successfully administered. In 1977, a London hospital reported the control of a postoperative infection in a kidney transplant patient using strips of papaya flesh, where conventional techniques were ineffective. The strong anti-Gram-negative bacterial response of papaya has now been widely documented. Much can be learnt from local folk medicine, and it is likely that with more research, other beneficial chemical compounds will be isolated. Tropical fruit also have a strong cultural significance. In the Hindu religion, the banana plant is considered a symbol of fertility, and fruit are placed at the doorstep of the dwelling of newly married couples. In South China, bananas are also sometimes planted in the corner of rice fields as a symbol of prosperity for the coming harvest.
0013
0014
0015
Toxicity Many tropical fruit contain potentially toxic components. In most cases, these are restricted to the nonedible portions – mainly the seed, peel, and latex – and do not pose any real health risk. Many of these products have been widely utilized by the native population in local medicine. Durian seeds are known to induce breathing problems, and an extract made from langsat (Lansium domesticum) skin has been used as a hunting poison. The real danger occurs when these so-called nonedible components are inadvertently consumed along with the pulp. For example, jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) skin, which has carcinogenic properties when ingested over a long period, may be accidentally consumed in the same manner as one would eat grape skins. (See Carcinogens: Carcinogenic Substances in Food: Mechanisms.) Where ingestion of the pulp itself causes problems, it is usually attributed to the consumption of large quantities. A mild degree of toxicity in mamey fruit (Mammea americana) has been known to occur. It has been reported to cause digestive problems in the Caribbean Islands, and extracts fed to dogs have proven fatal. The akee (Blighia sapida) and sunsapote (Licania platypus) are other such fruit with known toxic properties.
0016
0017
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance
Limitations to Economic Development Cultivar Selection 0018
0019
The commercialization of tropical fruit has been limited in the past by little plant breeding and the existence of a wide range of cultivar types. Mango, for example, is one of 14 species of the genus Mangifera, all of which produce edible fruit. Within the species M. indica, there are numerous distinct cultivars. In India alone, there are over 500 named cultivars. Each cultivar may differ in fruit quality, storage life, environmental growth requirements, and disease and insect susceptibility. Cultivar selection and breeding are essential if the full potential of tropical fruit is to be achieved. Tropical tree fruit breeding is presently both laborintensive and time-consuming. These limitations may be reduced with the recent advancements in plant biotechnology. Storage
0020
0021
As more tropical fruit are transported around the world, there is an increasing reliance on storage. Unlike temperate fruit, most tropical fruits are difficult to store. They deteriorate rapidly after harvest and are highly susceptible to pathogen attack. If fruit are stored under ambient conditions, they become inedible within days. Even under optimal conditions, storage life is rarely longer than a few weeks. In the past, this has tended to limit the commercial success of many tropical fruit. In the production areas, rapid local consumption tends to reduce losses, but significant postharvest spoilage still occurs. The development of adequate storage and handling technology is necessary if the tropical fruit industries are to continue to expand. Although considerable postharvest research is under way worldwide, great reliance is still placed on expensive air transport to reduce transportation time. (See Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage; Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation.) The accessibility of fruit is also an important criterion in economic success. Many tropical fruits fail to establish a market niche because of irregular, highly seasonal supply, compounded by a short shelf-life. These problems will become less significant as more countries produce tropical fruit and our postharvest technology develops.
Nutritional Value 0022
The consumption of tropical fruit, like temperate fruit, acts to supplement the diet (Table 4). Although tropical fruit are generally a poor source of proteins and lipids, they provide notable amounts of amino
2783
acids (tryptophan, methionine, lysine), ascorbic acid (and other organic acids such as malic and tartaric acid), carotenes, vitamin E, carbohydrates, and fiber (hemicelluloses, cellulose and pectic substances, as well as more complex polymers such as lignin). Low concentrations (per 100 g) of various mineral elements, such as calcium (8–125 mg), iron (0.4–1.6 mg), potassium (84–170 mg), sodium (3–28 mg), and phosphorus (24–64 mg), have been reported. (Refer to individual nutrients.) Tropical fruit with a high starch content, such as plantains and breadfruit, comprise an entirely different dietary niche. These fruit contribute a significant portion of the daily carbohydrate intake. They are widely consumed and have a similar nutrient composition to potato. Compared to the European potato, they actually have a higher carbohydrate content. Nutritionally, tropical fruit consumption is of greatest importance to populations of the tropical regions. Not only is daily intake of these fruit and their products relatively high, but general dietary habits and total food consumption may be quite poor. This is particularly relevant in the less affluent societies. In Uganda, for example, the laborers’ basic rations are based on bananas. In the subtropical and temperate regions, consumption is generally limited to particular social groups. An interesting study of local fruit consumption in Beijing identified the infant component of the population as a significant consumer group (based on daily intake).
0023
0024
Factors Affecting Nutritional Value The nutritional value of tropical fruit is highly variable. During fruit ripening, storage and subsequent preparation, the nutritional characteristics of the product may be dramatically altered. Other factors, such as the cultivar type, growing region and maturity at harvest, will have a further impact.
0025
Fruit Maturity and Ripeness
The nutritional characteristics of tropical fruit depend on their physiological maturity. During maturation and ripening, fruit undergo numerous biochemical changes, which may affect nutritional status (Table 5). Starch is hydrolyzed into sugars, organic acids are produced, and ash, minerals, and water content are all increased. Fruit maturity becomes an important consideration as many tropical fruit are traditionally consumed at an immature state. Even when fruit are consumed ripe, considerable variability may still exist. The sugar content of pineapples, for instance, increases from 4 to 15% during the last 2 weeks of the ripening process. (See Ripening of Fruit.)
0026
tbl0004
Table 4 Composition of selected tropical fruit (per 100 g of edible portion) Botanicalname
Common name
Sapodilla, chico Pineapple Cherimoya Soursop, guanabana Artocarpus communis Breadfruit A. heterophyllus Jakfruit Averrhoa carambola Carambola Calocarpus mammosum Mamey sapote Carica papaya Papaya (ripe) Casimiroa edulis White sapote Chrysophyllum cainito Star-apple, caimito (ripe) Citrus grandis Pummelo Diospyros digyna Black sapote Durio zibethinus Durian, civet Eugenia dombeyi Grumichama Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen Litchi chinensis Lychee Lucuma caimito Abiu Mangifera indica Mango (ripe) Musa paradisiaca Plantain (mature) M. sapientum Common banana (mature) Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba Passiflora ligularis Sweet granadilla Rheedia madruno Madrono Sandoricum koetjape Santol Syzygium malaccense Malay apple Achras zapota Ananas comosus Annona cherimola A. muricata
Food Moisture Protein Fat Total Fiber Ash Calcium Phosphorus Iron VitaminA Thiamin Riboflavin Nicotinic Ascorbic energy (%) (g) (g) carbohydrate (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) acid acid (kcal) (g) (mg) (mg) 94 52 82 60
75.0 85.4 76.6 83.1
0.5 0.4 1.1 1.0
1.1 0.2 0.2 0.4
23.0 13.7 21.3 14.9
1.6 0.4 1.9 1.1
0.4 0.3 0.8 0.6
24 18 34 24
10 8 35 28
1.0 0.5 0.6 0.5
10 15 0 5
0.01 0.08 0.09 0.07
0.01 0.04 0.13 0.05
0.2 0.2 0.9 0.9
15 61 17 26
81 98 36 121 32 65 68
77.3 72.0 90.0 65.6 90.7 82.0 82.8
1.3 1.3 0.5 1.7 0.5 1.4 0.8
0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 1.6
20.1 25.4 8.8 31.1 8.3 15.7 14.5
1.8 1.0 0.6 2.0 0.6 1.7 1.0
0.8 1.0 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.3
27 22 5 40 20 8 21
33 38 18 28 13 18 17
1.9
Trace
0.4 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.8
90 115 110 15 5
0.10 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04
0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.03
0.7 0.4 0.3 2.0 0.3 0.5 1.0
29 8 35 22 46 23 11
34 66 67 53 60 60 140 59 122 110
90.3 82.0 81.1 85.3 84.9 83.1 60.6 83.5 65.6 68.8
0.6 0.7 2.2 0.6 0.5 0.8 1.4 0.5 1.0 1.2
0.2 1.2 0.8 0.3 0.1 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2
8.5 15.0 14.8 13.4 14.3 15.7 36.3 15.4 32.3 29.0
0.8 1.6 1.6 0.6
0.4 1.1 1.1 0.4
0 40 10 20
0.04 0.02 0.35 0.04
0.02 0.03 0.20 0.03
0.02 0.2 0.7 0.3
35 29 24 19
0.3 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.8
26 26 38 14 20 31 41 12 34 28
0.5 1.2 0.7 0.5
0.1 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.4
26 18 8 40 10 5 22 12 8 7
1.1 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5
0 130 630 175 65
0.02 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.04
0.03 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.04
0.9 3.4 0.4 0.06 0.7
72 49 53 20 15
46 94 46 46 32
87.1 76.3 87.2 87.0 90.9
0.1 2.4 0.6 0.8 0.6
0.0 2.8 0.1 0.1 0.1
12.6 17.3 11.9 11.8 8.0
0.1 4.2 1.0 0.1 0.7
0.2 1.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
6 10 12 4 6
9 64 22 17 16
0.5 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4
0 5 0 0 Trace
0.02 0.00 0.06 0.05 0.03
0.02 0.11 0.04 0.03 0.03
0.2 1.6 0.3 0.7 0.3
23 20 6 86 13
From Wilson D and Wilson I (1988) Tropical fruit food composition table. Rare Fruit Council of Australia Newsletter 51: 5–9.
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance tbl0005
2785
Table 5 Changes in the nutritional status of banana during ripening (expressed as a percentage of fresh weight) Constituents
Water Protein (N 6.25) Crude fat Reducing sugars (as invert) Nonreducing sugars (as sucrose) Total sugars Starch Protopectin (as calcium pectate) Pectin (as calcium pectate) Ash Total acid (as citric)
Days after harvest 0
3
5
7
9
11
74.4 0.86 0.10 0.24 0.62 0.86 20.65 0.53
75.6 0.89 0.23 2.81 4.85 7.66 12.85 0.56 0.27 0.79 0.25
75.4 0.88 0.31 7.24 6.52 13.76 6.00 0.31 0.36 0.79 0.32
75.9 0.81 0.47 10.73 6.12 16.85 2.93 0.34 0.34 0.76 0.29
76.4 0.86 0.35 12.98 3.89 16.87 1.73 0.21 0.37 0.72 0.26
77.4 0.86 0.17 15.31 2.60 17.91 1.21 0.22 0.40 0.74 0.23
0.74 0.18
From Loesecke HW (1960) Effect of harvesting and handling practices on composition of unprocessed food. In: Harris RS and Loesecke HW (eds) Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, pp. 58–91. New York: John Wiley.
Preparation 0027
Although the majority of tropical fruit are consumed fresh, there are many cases where consumption is only after some form of preparation. Cooking of the whole fruit, or a paste, is very common for many tropical fruit. This process may be necessary, as some fruit are purgative if eaten raw. The nutritional status of the fruit is dramatically affected as a result. Fresh green plantains, for example, have an energy count of 378–613 J (90–146 cal) per 100 g of edible portion, compared to 1508 J (359 cal) as a dried product and 323 J (77 cal) after cooking. Cultivar Type and Growing Region
0028
Many cultivar types have distinct nutritional characteristics. Although commonly equated to flavor, color, and taste, differences in ascorbic acid, protein, amino acid, and carotene levels are regularly reported. The growing region is also known to have an effect. Cherimoyas produced in Ecuador have 17 mg of ascorbic acid (per 100 g), whereas a similar cultivar grown in nearby Colombia has just 5 mg of ascorbic acid. See also: Bananas and Plantains; Carcinogens: Carcinogenic Substances in Food: Mechanisms; Citrus Fruits: Types on the Market; Mangoes; Papayas; Pineapples; Ripening of Fruit; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage; Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation
Further Reading Almeyda N and Martin FW (1977) Cultivation of Neglected Tropical Fruits with Promise. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service.
Anonymous (1989) Fruit and Tropical Product. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications. Collins JL (1960) The Pineapple. New York: Interscience. Hulme AC (1971) The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products. London: Academic Press. Kitagawa H, Matsui T, Kawada K and Agravante JU (1990) Japan as a market of tropical fruit. Acta Horticulturae 269: 41–45. Lindsay P and Cull B (1982) Fruit Growing in Warm Climates. New South Wales: Reed Books. Loesecke HW (1960) Effect of harvesting and handling practices on composition of unprocessed food. In: Harris RS and Loesecke HW (eds) Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, pp. 58–91. New York: John Wiley. Menzel CM, Watson BJ and Simpson DR (1988) The lychee in Australia. Queensland Agricultural Journal 114: 19–27. Miller CD, Bazore K and Bartow M (1957) Fruits of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Mukherjee SK (1971) Origin of mango (Mangifera indica). Economic Botany 26: 260. Oliviera JFS (1974) The nutritional value of some foods consumed on San Tome Island. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 3: 237. Page P (1984) Tropical Tree Fruits for Australia, Information Series Q 183018. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Primary Industries. Purseglove JW (1974) Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons. London: Longman. Samson JA (1980) Tropical Fruits. New York: Longman. Wills RBH, Lee TH, Graham D, McGlasson WB and Hall EG (1982) Postharvest: An Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables. Sydney: New South Wales University Press. Wilson D and Wilson I (1988) Tropical fruit food composition table. Rare Fruit Council of Australia Newsletter 51: 5–9.
Roache FA (1985) Cultivated Fruits of Britain. Their Origin and History. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific. Smartt J and Simmonds NW (1995) Evolution of Crop Plants, 2nd edn. Harlow, UK: Longmans. Stalker HT and Chapman C (eds) (1989) Scientific Management of Germplasm: Characterization, Evaluation and Enhancement. Rome: International Board for Plant Genetic Resources.
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES Contents Commercial and Dietary Importance Fruits of the Sapindaceae Fruits of the Sapotaceae Lesser-known Fruits of Africa Fruits of Central and South America Lesser-known Fruits of Asia
Commercial and Dietary Importance S J R Underhill, Horticulture Postharvest Group, Hamilton, Queensland, Australia This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Copyright 1993, Academic Press.
Background 0001
0002
Tropical fruit are a botanically diverse group of fruit indigenous to tropical regions. Their representatives come from numerous families, including Anacardiaceae (mango, hog plum, imbu), Sapindaceae (rambutan, taun, lychee, longan), Passifloraceae (passion fruit), Bromeliaceae (pineapple) and Annonaceae (custard apple, soursop, sugar apple). Traditionally, tropical fruit were consumed locally, either grown in a subsistence-style agricultural structure or gathered from the wild. (See Mangoes; Pineapples.) Increasing production, a more efficient transportation system, and refrigerated storage have led to increased global consumption in recent years. Considerable quantities of tropical fruit are now exported each year to European, Japanese, and American markets. The vast majority of this production is consumed fresh, although processing industries have also been established. In an increasingly health-conscious population, tropical fruit are seen as an appropriate source of nutrition, added variety and exotic appeal.
Production Tropical fruit production is a large, rapidly expanding industry (Table 1). Bananas and pineapples, particularly from the Philippines, China, Mexico, and Brazil, represent the majority of world trade in tropical fruit. Collectively, these countries produced over 12 106 t of bananas and 3 106 t of pineapples in 1988. Although world production figures continue to rise, other fruit, such as mango, papaya, and lychee, are becoming increasingly popular. The subtropical regions of the world, particularly Colombia, Florida,
Table 1 Tropical fruit production for fresh consumption in selected growing regions in 1988 Banana ( 103 t) Australia Bangladesh Brazil China Colombia India Indonesia Kenya Malaysia Mexico Philippines Thailand
159 690 5139 2350 1300 1860 148 490 1080 3645 1606
Mango ( 103 t) 12 160 400
9450 410
780 378
Pineapple ( 103 t) 154 150 1016 430 230 790 350 191 199 293 2250 1771
Papaya ( 103 t)
Lychee ( 103 t) 2
1600 95 44 339 270
62 92
630
From Anonymous (1989) Fruit and Tropical Product. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications.
84
0003
tbl0001
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance
0004
South Africa, Vietnam, Panama, and Mexico, have rapidly expanded their tropical fruit production over the last 20 years. In many of these countries, tropical fruit have become an important source of export revenue. (See Bananas and Plantains.) Historically, fruit production was highly regionalized within the tropics. However, much of the current horticultural production is now removed from the place of origin of the particular species. For example, 91 860 t of lychee were produced by India in 1987, substantially more than the fruit’s native China production of 61 820 t. Granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis), native to the Americas, is now widely grown throughout the world.
History 0005
The increasing horticultural status of tropical fruit comes from their progressive importation into the more temperate regions of the world. This ‘Westernization’ of tropical fruit has become prominent over the last 100 years. Its origins extend back to the early 1550s with the transportation of pineapples from South America, and the shipment of bananas across the Caribbean in the 1770s. Many of these journeys have been immortalized in the history books: the expedition sponsored by King George III and Sir Joseph Banks to transport breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) to the West Indies, and the ensuing ‘mutiny on the Bounty,’ is a good example. Although this early distribution was fundamental to the subsequent development of tropical horticultural production, most of these fruit were already widely used by the local population. With transportation by air, it is now possible to move large quantities of tropical fruit anywhere in the world in a matter of days. Increased production and better cultivars will further aid the development of the fresh fruit industries in the future.
Economic Status 0006
0007
To assess their commercial importance, tropical fruits need to be divided into three arbitrary groups. Thus, familiar, well-established fruit, such as banana (Musa spp.) and pineapple, represent the majority of current tropical fruit production (Tables 1 and 2). In 1987, the European Community (EC) imported 238 936 t of pineapples, with France (66 304 t), Italy (43 644 t), and Germany (38 877 t) the main markets. Recent importation figures for the USA (1988) are around 100 000 t of pineapples, 2 873 000 t of banana, and 108 000 t of plantains. Mango and papaya dominate the second group and are characterized by rapid industry growth. In the 5 years from 1983 to 1987, imports of papaya into
2781
Table 2 Tropical fruit imported by Japan in 1988 Fruit
Quantity (t)
Exporter
Banana
760 409
Pineapple
138 156
Philippines 79%, Taiwan 11%, Ecuador 9%, Colombia 1% (China and Malaysia <1%) Philippines 94%, Taiwan 5% (Thailand, Indonesia, Hawaii, China, Malaysia and Australia <1%) Hawaii 100% (Fiji <1%) Philippines 79%, Mexico 18%, Thailand 1%, Taiwan 1% (Colombia, Fiji, Venezuela and USA <1%) Taiwan 100% Thailand 95%, Indonesia 3%, Philippines 2% (Singapore and Sri Lanka <1%) New Zealand 79%, USA 19%, Colombia 2% (Fiji <1%) Colombia 100% (Mexico <1%)
Papaya Mango
5 240 5 291
Lychee Durian
1 149 104
Passion fruit
15
Pitaya (Hylocereus undatus B.)
22
tbl0002
From Kitagawa H, Matsui T, Kawada K and Agravante JU (1990) Japan as a market of tropical fruit. Acta Horticultural 269: 41–45.
the EEC rose from 1358 to 5074 t. The UK imported 1556 t of papaya in 1989 alone. These fruit are becoming more widely grown in subtropical regions, such as Jamaica, India, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Israel, the USA and Brazil. (See Papayas.) The final group is made up of the lesser-known exotic fruits, such as lychee, durian (Durio zibethinus), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), pulasan (N. mutabile), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), black sapote (Diospyros digyna), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), carambola (Averrhoa carambola), and abiu (Pouteria caimito). These fruit are still relatively unknown in the northern hemisphere, with total imports into the EC around 9000 t in 1988. Tropical fruit not only represent an important source of income for many countries but also have a valuable social and cultural significance. It is from their diversity of uses that the true socioeconomic value of these fruits becomes evident.
0008
0009
Fresh Consumption The consumption of tropical fruit is greatest in their place of origin. The average Western European and Northern American consumes about 10 kg of citrus and banana per year. In parts of Africa, plantains may be consumed at the rate of 400 kg per person per year. Similar consumption rates exist for breadfruit in the West Indies. In their place of origin, these fruit represent a cheap and relatively plentiful food source. Historically, much of this production was easily
0010
2782 FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance
0011
obtained with relatively little horticultural input. Owing to this large local consumption, it is difficult to assess accurately the true economic value for many tropical fruit, particularly the more exotic types. Production is never fully documented in official records, and in many cases, import–export quantities of tropical fruit are unknown. In Java, for example, 90% of fruit consumed is grown in the home garden. The heavy reliance on subsistence farming makes assessment even more difficult. (See Citrus Fruits: Types on the Market.) The processing of tropical fruit has also developed into large industries (Table 3). Fruit have been canned, dried, frozen, or juiced, and marketed either as an individual product or in combination with other fruit types. Canned pineapple is probably the most obvious example. In 1990, over 920 000 t of canned pineapple were produced worldwide. Many of the South-east Asian countries, particularly Thailand, have already developed significant processing industries specializing in the exotic tropicals such as canned lychee and longan, dried mango, and frozen durian. Japan, the USA, and Europe are showing increasing interest in the processing of these more exotic fruit types, particularly mango, passion fruit, and soursop. Although quality is currently highly variable, it is through these products that many people first experience tropical fruit.
Other Uses 0012
tbl0003
The commercial value of tropical fruit is generally equated to their consumption as either a fresh or cooked product. There is, however, a strong dependence on products derived from these fruits. In Africa, large quantities of a weak beer are brewed from banana, representing an important nutritional source. Cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale), soursop (Annona muricata), and tamarind (Tamarindus indica) are all important sources of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages in many countries.
Table 3 Production of processed pineapple from selected countries
Australia Malaysia Philippines South Africa Thailand USA
Canned ( 103 t)
Juiced ( 103 t)
40 46 216 63 380 133
29 1 83 10 44
From Anonymous (1989) Fruit and Tropical Product. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications.
Tropical fruits have been extensively adopted in local medicine and religious practices. Bananas are widely favored as a treatment for stomach complaints, particularly ulcers. Tamarind extract is used as the basis of laxatives for bile disorders and in the treatment of fevers. For the more indulgent, carambola has been suggested in the treatment of hangovers. Much of the medicinal use of tropical fruits is restricted to folk medicine. There are, however, reports in Western medicine of tropical fruit being successfully administered. In 1977, a London hospital reported the control of a postoperative infection in a kidney transplant patient using strips of papaya flesh, where conventional techniques were ineffective. The strong anti-Gram-negative bacterial response of papaya has now been widely documented. Much can be learnt from local folk medicine, and it is likely that with more research, other beneficial chemical compounds will be isolated. Tropical fruit also have a strong cultural significance. In the Hindu religion, the banana plant is considered a symbol of fertility, and fruit are placed at the doorstep of the dwelling of newly married couples. In South China, bananas are also sometimes planted in the corner of rice fields as a symbol of prosperity for the coming harvest.
0013
0014
0015
Toxicity Many tropical fruit contain potentially toxic components. In most cases, these are restricted to the nonedible portions – mainly the seed, peel, and latex – and do not pose any real health risk. Many of these products have been widely utilized by the native population in local medicine. Durian seeds are known to induce breathing problems, and an extract made from langsat (Lansium domesticum) skin has been used as a hunting poison. The real danger occurs when these so-called nonedible components are inadvertently consumed along with the pulp. For example, jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) skin, which has carcinogenic properties when ingested over a long period, may be accidentally consumed in the same manner as one would eat grape skins. (See Carcinogens: Carcinogenic Substances in Food: Mechanisms.) Where ingestion of the pulp itself causes problems, it is usually attributed to the consumption of large quantities. A mild degree of toxicity in mamey fruit (Mammea americana) has been known to occur. It has been reported to cause digestive problems in the Caribbean Islands, and extracts fed to dogs have proven fatal. The akee (Blighia sapida) and sunsapote (Licania platypus) are other such fruit with known toxic properties.
0016
0017
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance
Limitations to Economic Development Cultivar Selection 0018
0019
The commercialization of tropical fruit has been limited in the past by little plant breeding and the existence of a wide range of cultivar types. Mango, for example, is one of 14 species of the genus Mangifera, all of which produce edible fruit. Within the species M. indica, there are numerous distinct cultivars. In India alone, there are over 500 named cultivars. Each cultivar may differ in fruit quality, storage life, environmental growth requirements, and disease and insect susceptibility. Cultivar selection and breeding are essential if the full potential of tropical fruit is to be achieved. Tropical tree fruit breeding is presently both laborintensive and time-consuming. These limitations may be reduced with the recent advancements in plant biotechnology. Storage
0020
0021
As more tropical fruit are transported around the world, there is an increasing reliance on storage. Unlike temperate fruit, most tropical fruits are difficult to store. They deteriorate rapidly after harvest and are highly susceptible to pathogen attack. If fruit are stored under ambient conditions, they become inedible within days. Even under optimal conditions, storage life is rarely longer than a few weeks. In the past, this has tended to limit the commercial success of many tropical fruit. In the production areas, rapid local consumption tends to reduce losses, but significant postharvest spoilage still occurs. The development of adequate storage and handling technology is necessary if the tropical fruit industries are to continue to expand. Although considerable postharvest research is under way worldwide, great reliance is still placed on expensive air transport to reduce transportation time. (See Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage; Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation.) The accessibility of fruit is also an important criterion in economic success. Many tropical fruits fail to establish a market niche because of irregular, highly seasonal supply, compounded by a short shelf-life. These problems will become less significant as more countries produce tropical fruit and our postharvest technology develops.
Nutritional Value 0022
The consumption of tropical fruit, like temperate fruit, acts to supplement the diet (Table 4). Although tropical fruit are generally a poor source of proteins and lipids, they provide notable amounts of amino
2783
acids (tryptophan, methionine, lysine), ascorbic acid (and other organic acids such as malic and tartaric acid), carotenes, vitamin E, carbohydrates, and fiber (hemicelluloses, cellulose and pectic substances, as well as more complex polymers such as lignin). Low concentrations (per 100 g) of various mineral elements, such as calcium (8–125 mg), iron (0.4–1.6 mg), potassium (84–170 mg), sodium (3–28 mg), and phosphorus (24–64 mg), have been reported. (Refer to individual nutrients.) Tropical fruit with a high starch content, such as plantains and breadfruit, comprise an entirely different dietary niche. These fruit contribute a significant portion of the daily carbohydrate intake. They are widely consumed and have a similar nutrient composition to potato. Compared to the European potato, they actually have a higher carbohydrate content. Nutritionally, tropical fruit consumption is of greatest importance to populations of the tropical regions. Not only is daily intake of these fruit and their products relatively high, but general dietary habits and total food consumption may be quite poor. This is particularly relevant in the less affluent societies. In Uganda, for example, the laborers’ basic rations are based on bananas. In the subtropical and temperate regions, consumption is generally limited to particular social groups. An interesting study of local fruit consumption in Beijing identified the infant component of the population as a significant consumer group (based on daily intake).
0023
0024
Factors Affecting Nutritional Value The nutritional value of tropical fruit is highly variable. During fruit ripening, storage and subsequent preparation, the nutritional characteristics of the product may be dramatically altered. Other factors, such as the cultivar type, growing region and maturity at harvest, will have a further impact.
0025
Fruit Maturity and Ripeness
The nutritional characteristics of tropical fruit depend on their physiological maturity. During maturation and ripening, fruit undergo numerous biochemical changes, which may affect nutritional status (Table 5). Starch is hydrolyzed into sugars, organic acids are produced, and ash, minerals, and water content are all increased. Fruit maturity becomes an important consideration as many tropical fruit are traditionally consumed at an immature state. Even when fruit are consumed ripe, considerable variability may still exist. The sugar content of pineapples, for instance, increases from 4 to 15% during the last 2 weeks of the ripening process. (See Ripening of Fruit.)
0026
tbl0004
Table 4 Composition of selected tropical fruit (per 100 g of edible portion) Botanicalname
Common name
Sapodilla, chico Pineapple Cherimoya Soursop, guanabana Artocarpus communis Breadfruit A. heterophyllus Jakfruit Averrhoa carambola Carambola Calocarpus mammosum Mamey sapote Carica papaya Papaya (ripe) Casimiroa edulis White sapote Chrysophyllum cainito Star-apple, caimito (ripe) Citrus grandis Pummelo Diospyros digyna Black sapote Durio zibethinus Durian, civet Eugenia dombeyi Grumichama Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen Litchi chinensis Lychee Lucuma caimito Abiu Mangifera indica Mango (ripe) Musa paradisiaca Plantain (mature) M. sapientum Common banana (mature) Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba Passiflora ligularis Sweet granadilla Rheedia madruno Madrono Sandoricum koetjape Santol Syzygium malaccense Malay apple Achras zapota Ananas comosus Annona cherimola A. muricata
Food Moisture Protein Fat Total Fiber Ash Calcium Phosphorus Iron VitaminA Thiamin Riboflavin Nicotinic Ascorbic energy (%) (g) (g) carbohydrate (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg) acid acid (kcal) (g) (mg) (mg) 94 52 82 60
75.0 85.4 76.6 83.1
0.5 0.4 1.1 1.0
1.1 0.2 0.2 0.4
23.0 13.7 21.3 14.9
1.6 0.4 1.9 1.1
0.4 0.3 0.8 0.6
24 18 34 24
10 8 35 28
1.0 0.5 0.6 0.5
10 15 0 5
0.01 0.08 0.09 0.07
0.01 0.04 0.13 0.05
0.2 0.2 0.9 0.9
15 61 17 26
81 98 36 121 32 65 68
77.3 72.0 90.0 65.6 90.7 82.0 82.8
1.3 1.3 0.5 1.7 0.5 1.4 0.8
0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 1.6
20.1 25.4 8.8 31.1 8.3 15.7 14.5
1.8 1.0 0.6 2.0 0.6 1.7 1.0
0.8 1.0 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.3
27 22 5 40 20 8 21
33 38 18 28 13 18 17
1.9
Trace
0.4 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.8
90 115 110 15 5
0.10 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04
0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.03
0.7 0.4 0.3 2.0 0.3 0.5 1.0
29 8 35 22 46 23 11
34 66 67 53 60 60 140 59 122 110
90.3 82.0 81.1 85.3 84.9 83.1 60.6 83.5 65.6 68.8
0.6 0.7 2.2 0.6 0.5 0.8 1.4 0.5 1.0 1.2
0.2 1.2 0.8 0.3 0.1 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2
8.5 15.0 14.8 13.4 14.3 15.7 36.3 15.4 32.3 29.0
0.8 1.6 1.6 0.6
0.4 1.1 1.1 0.4
0 40 10 20
0.04 0.02 0.35 0.04
0.02 0.03 0.20 0.03
0.02 0.2 0.7 0.3
35 29 24 19
0.3 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.8
26 26 38 14 20 31 41 12 34 28
0.5 1.2 0.7 0.5
0.1 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.4
26 18 8 40 10 5 22 12 8 7
1.1 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.5
0 130 630 175 65
0.02 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.04
0.03 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.04
0.9 3.4 0.4 0.06 0.7
72 49 53 20 15
46 94 46 46 32
87.1 76.3 87.2 87.0 90.9
0.1 2.4 0.6 0.8 0.6
0.0 2.8 0.1 0.1 0.1
12.6 17.3 11.9 11.8 8.0
0.1 4.2 1.0 0.1 0.7
0.2 1.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
6 10 12 4 6
9 64 22 17 16
0.5 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4
0 5 0 0 Trace
0.02 0.00 0.06 0.05 0.03
0.02 0.11 0.04 0.03 0.03
0.2 1.6 0.3 0.7 0.3
23 20 6 86 13
From Wilson D and Wilson I (1988) Tropical fruit food composition table. Rare Fruit Council of Australia Newsletter 51: 5–9.
FRUITS OF TROPICAL CLIMATES/Commercial and Dietary Importance tbl0005
2785
Table 5 Changes in the nutritional status of banana during ripening (expressed as a percentage of fresh weight) Constituents
Water Protein (N 6.25) Crude fat Reducing sugars (as invert) Nonreducing sugars (as sucrose) Total sugars Starch Protopectin (as calcium pectate) Pectin (as calcium pectate) Ash Total acid (as citric)
Days after harvest 0
3
5
7
9
11
74.4 0.86 0.10 0.24 0.62 0.86 20.65 0.53
75.6 0.89 0.23 2.81 4.85 7.66 12.85 0.56 0.27 0.79 0.25
75.4 0.88 0.31 7.24 6.52 13.76 6.00 0.31 0.36 0.79 0.32
75.9 0.81 0.47 10.73 6.12 16.85 2.93 0.34 0.34 0.76 0.29
76.4 0.86 0.35 12.98 3.89 16.87 1.73 0.21 0.37 0.72 0.26
77.4 0.86 0.17 15.31 2.60 17.91 1.21 0.22 0.40 0.74 0.23
0.74 0.18
From Loesecke HW (1960) Effect of harvesting and handling practices on composition of unprocessed food. In: Harris RS and Loesecke HW (eds) Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, pp. 58–91. New York: John Wiley.
Preparation 0027
Although the majority of tropical fruit are consumed fresh, there are many cases where consumption is only after some form of preparation. Cooking of the whole fruit, or a paste, is very common for many tropical fruit. This process may be necessary, as some fruit are purgative if eaten raw. The nutritional status of the fruit is dramatically affected as a result. Fresh green plantains, for example, have an energy count of 378–613 J (90–146 cal) per 100 g of edible portion, compared to 1508 J (359 cal) as a dried product and 323 J (77 cal) after cooking. Cultivar Type and Growing Region
0028
Many cultivar types have distinct nutritional characteristics. Although commonly equated to flavor, color, and taste, differences in ascorbic acid, protein, amino acid, and carotene levels are regularly reported. The growing region is also known to have an effect. Cherimoyas produced in Ecuador have 17 mg of ascorbic acid (per 100 g), whereas a similar cultivar grown in nearby Colombia has just 5 mg of ascorbic acid. See also: Bananas and Plantains; Carcinogens: Carcinogenic Substances in Food: Mechanisms; Citrus Fruits: Types on the Market; Mangoes; Papayas; Pineapples; Ripening of Fruit; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage; Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation
Further Reading Almeyda N and Martin FW (1977) Cultivation of Neglected Tropical Fruits with Promise. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service.
Anonymous (1989) Fruit and Tropical Product. London: Commonwealth Secretariat Publications. Collins JL (1960) The Pineapple. New York: Interscience. Hulme AC (1971) The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products. London: Academic Press. Kitagawa H, Matsui T, Kawada K and Agravante JU (1990) Japan as a market of tropical fruit. Acta Horticulturae 269: 41–45. Lindsay P and Cull B (1982) Fruit Growing in Warm Climates. New South Wales: Reed Books. Loesecke HW (1960) Effect of harvesting and handling practices on composition of unprocessed food. In: Harris RS and Loesecke HW (eds) Nutritional Evaluation of Food Processing, pp. 58–91. New York: John Wiley. Menzel CM, Watson BJ and Simpson DR (1988) The lychee in Australia. Queensland Agricultural Journal 114: 19–27. Miller CD, Bazore K and Bartow M (1957) Fruits of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Mukherjee SK (1971) Origin of mango (Mangifera indica). Economic Botany 26: 260. Oliviera JFS (1974) The nutritional value of some foods consumed on San Tome Island. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 3: 237. Page P (1984) Tropical Tree Fruits for Australia, Information Series Q 183018. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Primary Industries. Purseglove JW (1974) Tropical Crops: Dicotyledons. London: Longman. Samson JA (1980) Tropical Fruits. New York: Longman. Wills RBH, Lee TH, Graham D, McGlasson WB and Hall EG (1982) Postharvest: An Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables. Sydney: New South Wales University Press. Wilson D and Wilson I (1988) Tropical fruit food composition table. Rare Fruit Council of Australia Newsletter 51: 5–9.