Fuel cell technology for sustainable development in Pakistan – An over-view

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 53 (2016) 450–461

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Fuel cell technology for sustainable development in Pakistan – An over-view Rizwan Raza a,b,n, Nadeem Akram a, Muhammad Sufyan Javed a,c, Asia Rafique a, Kaleem Ullah a, Amjad Ali a, M. Saleem a, Riaz Ahmed c a

Department of Physics, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore 54000, Pakistan Department of Energy Technology, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), 10044 Stockholm, Sweden c COMSATS Headquarter, Islamabad, Pakistan b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 3 March 2015 Received in revised form 25 May 2015 Accepted 21 August 2015

Fuel cell technology holds the combination of benefits, which are barely offered by any other energy generating technology. Because the fuel used in this technology is found in abundance in nature and can also be renewed/sustained. Pakistan is blessed with renewable energy resources which are suitable for fuel cell technology. Therefore, fuel cell technology offers a great opportunity to meet the demand of energy and for the sustainable development of Pakistan. The energy research group at COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Lahore has made efforts to study the technical aspects of fuel cell technology and its commercial benefits. The research group is interested in finding ways and means of generating and storing the energy produced by using fuel cells. In this paper, the research activities on fuel cell technology in Pakistan have been reviewed and it is also discussed how this technology can resolve the current energy crises in Pakistan and can be the source of sustainable energy. It has been also reviewed that the country would greatly benefit from fuel cells and fuel cell hybrid system (environmental friendly technology), which could be the best solution for electricity production as well for automobile industry. & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Renewable energy Sustainable development Hydrogen fuels Fuel cells Electrodes

Contents 1. 2. 3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vision of political entities for renewable energy technology in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuel cells and its basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Types of fuel cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Applications and advantages of fuel cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Fuel cell technology in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Challenges and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. R&D culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A. Supplementary material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction The world is gradually moving towards serious power crises due to increase in the demand of energy [1]. Currently, Pakistan is facing worst energy crisis due to its growing population and poor

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Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Raza).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.08.049 1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

450 451 452 452 453 454 458 458 459 459 460

future planning of energy based infrastructure [2,3]. Pakistan is basically an agricultural country with five major rivers flowing all the year across the country starting from the north with several inter-river linked canals and many seasonal canals based on monsoon rainfall [4]. These rivers and link canals offer several

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locations where run-of-water power plants and water-reservoirs can be built. However, the power generation from hydel sources and construction of new water reservoirs has been ignored during last 35 years [5]. Mostly, the emphasis has been on short-term solutions by installing thermal power plants [6]. Thermal power plants use fossil fuels for power generation for which fuel is imported to Pakistan. The energy produced from the imported fuel offers a very expensive solution which a developing country like Pakistan cannot afford [7]. Power plants using nuclear energy have also been constructed but with a little capacity [8]. These thermal power plants pose a potential environmental threat which is also ignored. The principal sources of energy generation in Pakistan are oil (35.20%), hydel (29.90%), natural gas (29.00%), and nuclear and imported (5.80%) [9]. Currently, in Pakistan, the demand for energy is 17,000 MW on the average while the shortfall is 4000–5000 MW [9]. It is expected that energy demand could rise by 4–5% in the coming 10 years, which is about 1500 MW [9]. The predicted energy demand and supply in Pakistan for the years 2002–2030 are shown in Fig. 1. The reasons for this disastrous prediction are lopsided energy mix, lack of vision for utilization of indigenous fuel reserves and poor future energy planning infrastructure. Gas reserves have been depleted almost and prices of imported oils are rising expeditiously which cannot be afforded [10]. Recently, a large number of coal reservoirs have been discovered in central parts of Pakistan and continuous efforts have been made to get energy using coal [11]. The usage of fossil fuels especially the carbon in power generation is not environment friendly. On the other hand, renewable energy sources offer cheaper solution and are also environmental friendly [12,13]. Pakistan has to face challenges with proper energy planning with the use of renewable energy resources [14]. Therefore, beside focusing on such conventional energy sources, there is a need to explore non-conventional energy sources e.g., solar power, hydel power, geothermal, wind power, tidal, and biomass using fuel cell (FC) technology [15,16]. FC technology offers certain benefits which no other energy generating technology can offer [17]. In Pakistan, there are about 90 R&D organizations and 130 higher education institutes offering higher education and research [14]. However, due to certain economical factors exploration of alternative energy resources has been overlooked. The current government of Pakistan is focusing on the economic revival by promoting the R&D culture with a special priority to the energy production. To give direction to R&D in Pakistan, a National Research Agenda has been proposed. This agenda has targeted the certain key research areas including renewable energy technology 120

Supply Demand

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

2004

2008

2012

2016

2020

2024

2. Vision of political entities for renewable energy technology in Pakistan

2028

Years Fig. 1. Pakistan power sector need for reforms [77].

0 2032

Demand (x1000 MW)

Supply (x1000 MW)

(RET) and FC technology. The major ruling party PML(N) is emphasizing on holistic science and technology strategy. In addition to the exploration of conventional power resources and nuclear energy resources, the government has shown interest in development and usage of non-conventional energy resources including wind, solar, biomass and renewable energy from FC technology. Several R&D organizations and higher education institutes have responded to the exploration of the cheap and alternative resources of energy. CIIT Lahore campus has proposed a center for FC technology and submitted a comprehensive proposal which is under approval. Beside this, many under-graduate, postgraduate and Ph.D. students have also been involved in FC related research areas e.g., materials for low temperature FC, high temperature FC, fuel flexible FC, direct carbon FC, bio FC and FC hybrid system. The FC technology has a variety of application ranging from stationary power plants to portable energy consumption [18,19]. Internationally, different countries are focusing on FC based energy sources and FC technology is successfully launched in different countries like Sweden, UK, Japan and USA. Also, India has spent billions of dollars on fuel cell and hydrogen energy research and educational programs. In USA, FC system/stack has been developed which can be integrated with hydrocarbon fuels like gasoline and diesel etc., due its operational temperature range 500–800 °C. In FC technology different type of fuels are used e.g., air, hydrogen gas, biogas, natural gas etc. [20,21]. The abundantly found fuel in nature and variety of applications of FC technology makes it a prime candidate to provide a great revolution for the sustainable development of Pakistan. The use of FC technology must be extensively explored as it offers cheaper alternatives to conventional and expensive power sources. In this contribution, a comprehensive overview of FC technology and its applications is proposed to advance this technology through research and development, particularly in Pakistan. This work is highly desired because of its value and utility for the general public. By starting from the basics of different types of fuel cells, the advantages and usefulness of diverse applications of FC technology has been briefly discussed. FC integrated hybrid system, FC based polygeneration systems and the potentials of different renewable energy resources in Pakistan are also presented. The status and involvement of different research institutes and higher education universities in developing FC technology in Pakistan is also discussed. At the end, certain challenges which are being faced to implement FC technology for sustainable development of Pakistan is described and several recommendations have been suggested which can help in solving these challenges.

120

100

0 2000

451

Pakistan is blessed with several renewable energy resources in abundance like wind, solar, hydel, biomass, tidal, geothermal, biofuels, etc [22–25]. These can be a prolific choice to not only combat the current crisis but also for fulfilling our energy needs for the -growth of industries, socio-economic and development in modern technologies [26]. In general, energy sources can be grouped as renewable sources and non-renewable sources, as shown in Fig. 2. The shortfall of the energy has the potential to hinder the economic growth of Pakistan and, therefore, different political parties have proposed policies to solve the energy crisis. In the general election of 2013, major political parties put the solution of energy shortage as the top priority in their manifestos [27]. Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz (PML-N) which currently holds the central/federal government is interested to create Ministry of Energy by merging the Ministries of Water & Power and Petroleum

452

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Fig. 2. The classification of available energy resources in Pakistan [78].

& Natural Resources. It proposes the reformation of National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA), abolishment of circular debt, rationalization of energy tariffs, consensus to construct projects of hydel power and development of renewable/sustainable energy resources [27]. Pakistan People's Party Parliamentarians (PPPP) propose to encourage the foreign investment in the energy sector, development of hydro-power generating plants by persuading private and public sector sectors and exploration of new areas for natural gas supply [27]. The energy policies of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) are to focus on the indigenous energy sources like coal, hydel, wind and solar power as an alternative to the expensive thermal power generation at affordable rates to an average citizen; and also to improve the energy generation efficiency, its transmission and distribution by reconstructing Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) [28]. Another political party Awami National Party (ANP) is also interested to implement the use of non-conventional energy resources for power generation on wider scale [27]. In short, all political parties have shown interest to explore and encourage the alternate energy sources. All these policies for the utilization of sustainable energy resources exist only in proposals and so far nothing is implemented practically. However, there is a high need to harness these renewable energy resources in actual practice, especially through FC technology for the sustainable development of Pakistan.

3. Fuel cells and its basics A standard fuel cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy very efficiently without combustion. In this respect, it is like a lead accumulator, a commonly used battery. However, there are basic differences in the working of the two devices. In FC, fuel

is fed continuously from the outside whereas in the lead accumulator, chemicals are stored in the chamber which can be recharged through external sources of electricity [29]. In FCs, some renewable fuels, e.g., hydrogen gas, natural gas, biogas etc., are being used. It is renewable, because it is abundantly available in the universe and thus can be renewed and replenished without any end. The hydrogen can be obtained from water and many other sources. Hydrogen is also available in sufficient quantities in the earth's atmosphere which also contains oxygen [30]. These two elements are used in the working of a fuel cell, where they combine to produce heat, electricity, and water in the form of vapors [31]. A fuel cell usually contains two porous electrodes that are separated by a dense electrolyte/membrane. A catalyst, usually platinum is employed to accelerate the process. Hydrogen and oxygen are fed at anode and cathode respectively and oxidation process takes place at the anode in the presence of a catalyst in such a way that hydrogen splits into electron and proton. Both charge carriers are now pushed, off course through separate routes, towards the cathode and electrons travel along an external path through a load whereas the protons through the electrolyte where they recombine with oxygen to produce water and heat [31–32]. The basic fuel cell working principle is illustrated in Fig. 3. In 1839, Sir William R. Grove proposed that if electricity can be used to split water then it can also be possible to produce electricity by using hydrogen and oxygen in a reverse process. In 1889, Carl Langer and Ludwig Mond proposed the term 'fuel cell'. In 1932, a fuel cell was made that employed nickel electrodes and alloys as electrolytic material using used oxygen and hydrogen as fuel. In 1959, a complete system capable of producing 5 kW electricity was launched [31–35]. We may need to consider reactions taking place at each electrode separately for understanding, how the reactions between hydrogen and oxygen generate an electric current and where the electrons come from. The basic function of fuel cell is based on the chemical reactions [36] as follows: At the anode, hydrogen splits into proton and electron in the presence of catalyst,

2H2 → 4H+ + 4e− At the cathode, the proton and electron recombine with oxygen to produce water,

O2 + 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2 O Thus, the overall reaction is:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O

3.1. Types of fuel cells The fuel cells are generally categorized by the type of electrolyte material. There are many types of electrolytes that can be used in developing a fuel cell. A number of fuel cells have been developed and can be listed as Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC), Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC), Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC), Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC), Zinc–Air Fuel Cell (ZAFC) and Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC) [31–39]. The solid electrolyte has many advantages because it does not allow the corrosion and its handling is also easier in comparison to liquid electrolytes [31–39]. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells use Nafion/Teflon as membranes, which allow protons to pass through them. Both sides of the membrane are coated with platinum or its alloy that acts as a catalyst. The electrolyte consists of poly-perflourosulfonic

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453

Fig. 3. General concept of fuel cell working (PEMFC).

acid also named as polytetraflouro ethylene which is a solid polymeric material. The working temperature of these cells ranges from 60 to 80 °C. The power density of such cells is quite high [33] and electrodes are made from platinum coated on carbon. Platinum is an expensive material and increases the cost of the cell. In phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), concentrated phosphoric acid is used as an electrolyte. Electrodes are made from platinum or its alloys that also serves as a catalyst. The cell can work satisfactorily over a temperature range extending from 150 °C to 220 °C [31–35]. Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) uses a liquid solution of lithium, sodium or potassium carbonates as an electrolyte. The operating temperature of this cell is about 650 °C as the carbonate electrolyte provides good conductivity at high temperature [31–35]. In solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), solid material is used as an electrolyte. Typical materials for electrolyte in SOFC include solid zirconia along with small amount of ytrria, samarium doped ceria, and gadolinium doped ceria etc. This type of fuel cell is suitable for generating electric power with capacity of hundreds of megawatts at large scale. Such systems are modular, reliable, and fuel adaptable with low emission of harmful gases (NOx and SOx). SOFC stack systems are also considered suitable as local power generation systems for rural areas without access of public grids. Furthermore, they have high efficiency, low noise, long-term stability and low costs of maintenance [37]. The operating temperature is in range 600–1000 °C and this is why, SOFC is very suitable for polygeneration [38]. On the other side, different chemical and mechanical compatibility problems limit the use of SOFCs due to long start-up and cooling-down. There are number of researchers who have worked to minimize the operating temperature to find possible solutions and claimed SOFC may bring energy production to a new generation, if successful and sustainable counter-measures are built up [40–52]. For alkaline fuel cell (AFC), the electrolyte consists of an aqueous solution of alkaline potassium hydroxide. The performance of these cells is very high because cathode reacts very fast in the alkaline electrolytes. This type of cell has been used very successfully for producing electricity and water in space missions. These cells provide good results over a temperature range of 150–200 °C [31–35].

The electrolyte used in direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is similar to that used in PEM fuel cell. However, its working is different from PEM in the sense that the catalyst at anode draws the hydrogen directly from the liquid methanol and hence it does not require a fuel reformer to obtain hydrogen form methanol. Its operating temperature is also low in comparison to some other cells. It works quite efficiently over a temperature range of 50–100 °C [31–35]. The regenerative fuel cells are a sort of closed-loop system for producing electricity from water. In fact, it would be a great achievement if human being could utilize water as a future fuel for meeting its fuel requirements. In this cell, a solar electrolyzer separates the water into hydrogen and oxygen which are supplied to the fuel cell, which produces electricity along with water. The same process is repeated again and again by sending water back to solar electrolyzer through a closed loop arrangement [31–35]. In zinc–air fuel cell (ZAFC), a gas diffusion electrode system is used. The gas diffusion electrodes are porous membrane through which atmospheric oxygen is allowed to pass. This oxygen is transformed into hydroxyl ions and water. This hydroxyl ion passes through the electrolyte to reach at the zinc anode to convert it to zinc oxide. As a result of this reaction, a potential difference is created and a large number of such cells can be arranged in either series or parallel set up, to provide required value of voltage and current for any application [31–35]. A Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies is summarized in Table 1 [46, 53–55]. 3.2. Applications and advantages of fuel cells The fuel cells are useful for many systems. However, there are mainly three areas which are being more focused presently for fuel cell applications [31–33]. These uses are transportation (cars, buses, trucks, submarines, ships, spacecrafts etc.), stationary power (power for remote locations, back-up power, stand alone power plants for towns and cities, distributed generation for buildings and co-generation) and portable power (cell phones, radios and laptops etc.). Fuel cells have high potential for above mentioned applications due to considerable advantages and benefits [31–33] over currently available sources of energy. The list of benefits could be very

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Table 1 Comparison of fuel cell technologies. Fuel cell type

Common electrolyte

Operating temp. (°C)

System output

Electrical efficiency

PEMFC

Polymer poly-perfluorosulfonic acid

50–80

1–250 KW

53–60%(Transportation)25–35% (Stationary)

AFC

Aqueous solutionof potassium hydroxide socked in a matrix

Applications

Advantages

Disadvantages

-Backup power -Portable power -Transportation

-Solid electrolyte reduces corrosion -Low temperature -Quick start up

-Requires expensive catalyst -High sensitivity to fuel impurities -Waste heat temperature not suitable for combined heat and power (CHP)

90–100

10– 100 KW

60%

-Military -Space

PAFC

Liquid phosphoric acid socked in a matrix

150–200

50 KW– 1 MW

4 40%

-Distributed generation

MCFC

Liquid solution of Lithium, sodium or potassium carbonates socked in a matrix

600–700

1 KW– 1 MW

45–47%

-Electric utility -Large distributed generation

SOFC

Yttria stabilized Zirconia

600–1000

o1 KW–

35–43%

-Auxiliary power

Sammarium doped Ceria

3 MW

long; however important ones are given below to show the significance of fuel cell. i. Effectiveness: temperature is an important parameter which limits the efficiency of a heat engine. Fuel cells do not involve any combustion process and thus are free from such type of limitation. For this reason, these are highly efficient with respect to combustion engines [33–35]. ii. Pollutions free: fuel cells do not pollute our environment because they do not generate any contaminants. They produce water and heat as a byproduct which can be used for other purposes [33–35]. iii) Simplicity: fuel cells are very simple, reliable, and noiseless because their functioning is independent of any moving parts. They have pretty long life which can be as large as 40,000 h. Furthermore, these can be stacked in modular form to match any power requirement [33–35].

4. Fuel cell technology in Pakistan As discussed earlier, Pakistan is an energy deficient country facing extreme energy problems. A large chunk of government exchequer is exhausted for this purpose. Government is spending 13 Billion US dollars every year to import crude oil and eatable oil to minimize this difficulty with nearly 1% annual growth-rate [56]. People of the urban and rural areas of the country are facing shortage of electricity. On the other hand people living in remote rural areas of the country do not have an easy access to commercial-energy sources like natural gas, petrol, diesel and electricity. If these people are to be brought at par with other parts of the country, then cheap energy has to be delivered at their door steps. This would require a huge infrastructure, which at present seems to be impossible due to its tremendous cost. If something has to be done positively, then this is possible only through the use

-Electric utility -Large distributed generation

-Cathode reaction isfaster in alkaline electrolyte, leads to higher performance -Higher overallefficiency with CHP -Increased tolerance to impurities in hydrogen -High efficiency -Fuel flexibility -Can use a variety of catalysts -Suitable for CHP -High efficiency

-Fuel flexibility -Can use a variety of catalysts -Suitable for CHP -Variety of fuels

-Expensive removal of CO2 from fuel -Require expensive platinum catalyst -Low current and power -Large size/weight -High temperature speed corrosion and breakdown of cell component -Slow start up -High temperature enhances corrosion and breakdown of cell components -Slow start up -Brittleness of ceramic electrolyte with thermal cycling

of alternative energy sources. Fortunately, Pakistan is lucky enough to have many of the energy sources that can be renewed repeatedly. Solar energy is one of such sources that are most copious and widely spread in the country [57]. Wind, micro-hydro, biomass, and biogas are other important sources of energy that can be effectively utilized to meet the challenges of energy shortfall [58]. The northern areas of Pakistan are highly suitable for developing micro-hydro systems and it is anticipated that these systems can generate about 300 MW of electricity [59]. a. Study consequences We need to develop fuel cells because they will provide electric power for many applications in Pakistan. In stationary power applications fuel cells can be used at a fixed location like at homes, grocery stores and industrial buildings and as well as for backup power units where a diesel generator or lead–acid batteries could not be used because of the pollution they generate. Fuel cells can also be used for transportation application i.e. to power cars, buses, passenger vehicles and auxiliary power units for highway, off-road vehicles and in communication equipment that can be moved from one place to another [60,61]. Fuel cells are also used in portable device for power applications. Thus the functioning of the mobile and stationary power stations based on FC technology will help to decrease the dependence of power production through conventional ways. a. Potential of fuel cell based hybrid systems in Pakistan The FC-energy market in the world is well surveyed with billion dollars investment which increased three times more since 2012 [62] based on its wide applications in various power and energy sectors. The annual demands of portable generators and emergency power supplies are in millions. Similary in Pakistan, the energy market is increasing annually which can be focussed.

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FC technology can also be integrated with several renewable energy resources to work in hybrid for multiple applications. As discussed earlier, Pakistan is very rich in having several renewable energy resources. In fuel cell, the SOFC has gained attention because of their high energy conversion efficiency and fuel flexibility. The basic operation and working principle of SOFC are depicted in Fig. 4. Different kinds of fuels such as gases (e.g., hydrogen, syngas, and bio-gas), liquids (e.g. methanol, ethanol and glycerol) and solids (carbon and lignin) can be used in SOFCs. The SOFCs are one of such systems, which generate power and heat in the same time during its operation. Therefore multi-fueled SOFCs can be used as hybrid and polygeneration system and will be the best option for Pakistan current energy scenario. In the following we discuss the several FC systems hybrid with different renewable energy resources available in Pakistan. i. SOFC–Biomass hybrid system Promising renewable energy technologies (RET) based on hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuel are considered as an alternative energy resources for fossil fuels and environmental polluted fuels. Biomass is a promising renewable energy source among

Fig. 4. Basic operation of SOFC.

455

all other sources. Biomass can be generated from multiple wastes such as kitchen waste, animal's waste, forestry waste, municipal solid waste, agricultural waste, poultry waste and sewage waste etc. All of these wastes can be turned into useful biogas by gasification using a bio-gasifier. The biogas has methane as major content and minute amounts of some other gases also present. This biogas can be directly used as fuel to solid oxide fuel cell as SOFC can operate for multiple fuels. The internal reforming for biogas inside SOFC offers an advantage where the need of purification of biogas to hydrogen gas is avoided. SOFC–Biomass hybrid system can be used for several applications such as electricity production for portable devices, stationary units and combined heat and power system (CHP) etc. Fig. 5 shows the block diagram for a SOFC–Biomass hybrid system. ii. SOFC–Wind hybrid system Wind is a suitable renewable energy source to produce electric power for 24 h as solar energy is only available during the day time. To utilize the wind from environment a wind turbine/mill is used to convert wind energy into electricity. A wind turbine first converts the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy, which rotates the shaft of electric generator to produce the electricity. This electric power can be used to produce hydrogen and oxygen from electrolysis of water. The produced hydrogen and oxygen can be used as a fuel to solid oxide fuel cell. The water is produced during the operation of fuel cell which can again be used to produce hydrogen and oxygen in the electrolyzer. Fuel Cell can be further used in variety of applications ranging from portable devices to heavy duty devices. Hydrogen can also be used directly in hydrogen based FC transportation systems. Fig. 6 shows the possible utilization of wind energy as a hybrid SOFC system. iii. SOFC–Coal hybrid system Hydrogen has great ability to meet the future energy and fuel needs. One of the greatest advantages of hydrogen is its ability to be produced from an extensive variety of sources. One of

Fig. 5. Solid oxide fuel cell-Biomass hybrid system.

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Fig. 6. Solid oxide fuel cell–Wind hybrid system.

Fig. 7. Solid oxide fuel cell–Coal hybrid system.

these sources is coal. Hydrogen is produced from coal by coal gasification process. Coal gasification produces wide variety of products such as diesel, natural gas, hydrogen gas, ethanol, methanol, industrial gas and jet fuels. Hydrogen, natural gas and ethanol can be used directly as a fuel to SOFC. The efficiency of SOFC with combined heat and power (CHP) systems reaches to 85% which is about double to conventional engines. This offers a huge advantage of usage of SOFC–coal hybrid. Fig. 7 shows the scenario of coal usage to the end user through fuel cell technology.

iv. Polygeneration system based on MGT/SOFC Polygeneration is a process which produces more than one product simultaneously from a single fuel source. Therefore, the total efficiency is higher and the emissions to environment are less in such systems. Hence, polygeneration can be a promising technology to meet the user demands regarding energy security and controlling global warming. Three different polygeneration systems for space heating, cooling and providing hot domestic water are visualized in this section which are polygeneration system for

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457

Fig. 8. Polygeneration based MGT/SOFC.

fuel cell, polygeneration system based on atmospheric SOFC/MGT and polygeneration system based on pressurized SOFC/MGT as shown in Fig. 8. c) Involvement of different research groups i. In COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore, our research group has made different studies on FC technology to identify similar technology in Pakistan. In future, these cells could prove as alternative energy sources for various applications [35]. The main objectives of the research group are to meet the current energy crisis as well as to address the shortage of fuel especially the natural gas using the indigenous resources. The lack of vision of usage of natural gas has resulted in massive strategic failure causing the shortage of gas supply during the winter times. The activities in research group aim towards particular applications of FC-technology in this scenario. Low temperature PEM-FC-technology is being focused to meet the demands of mobile and auto industry applications. While SOFC-hybrid technology is being studied to provide solution for the stationary applications. The group is actively involved in studying the different aspects of FC-technology to provide solutions to these crises. Some members of the group are focusing on the aspect of experimental science of the FC-technology and some are working on the engineering application of the technology. Different prototypes are being developed especially for SOFC-hybrid with biomass for stationary applications. Beside this, a sub-group is working on theoretical understanding of the technology. The simulations are being performed using DFT and COMSOL.

Group has submitted several projects to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) and Pakistan Science Foundation (PSF) to develop FC technology in Pakistan. Based on the few of the approved small projects, a fuel cell laboratory has been established in which fuel cell activities are going on. But still more projects and more human power is needed to make it successful. CIIT group wants to establish an advance FC research center at COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Lahore and submitted the concept paper (PC-1) of 800 million Pak Rupees (PKR). It is an important step in contributing towards achieving the cited objectives of the Government of Pakistan. The research and development activities as well as the development of products from the proposed center will play a vital role in meeting the future energy scenario of Pakistan. The main aim of the center is to develop costeffective reliable fuel cells for commercialization. In addition to these projects three PhD projects on SOFC (especially Biogas, Natural gas, Bioethanol, and Direct Carbon fueled based SOFCs) are also initiated and several graduate/undergraduate research projects have been completed in our group. Our initial target will be the smart homes/houses which need the power, heating and cooling system. The first aim is to get 0.5–1 kW systems. This is currently carried out through a small HEC project with some additional internal funding of CIIT in collaboration with FC research group at KTH, Stockholm Sweden. The milestone reached to date is described as below; ● Materials scaled-up to pilot production. ● New materials and functionality developments. ● Individual cell, component development and tests.

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● Cell test facilities in operation. ● Prototype designed. If all the components are prepared/fabricated using indigenous resources considering all the challenges of FC-technology, the cost can be reduced effectively. The other way to address the cost is to minimize the FC components (single component FC) because the simpler technology and fabrication process will greatly reduce the fabrication costs. Beside this, simple technology will have high production reproducibility unlike conventional way with MEA (anode, electrolyte and cathode) with complex technologies and low product yield. Current FC prices are extremely high i.e. 2000–5000 USD/kW. Based on our research and expertize, the estimated cost has been calculated to be about 300–500 USD/kW for indigenous system see supplementary information material). We have reported earlier, using different approaches to reduce the present cost of electrode and electrolyte materials for solid oxide fuel cell. For example, ● ● ● ●

Use of cheap raw materials Lowering of sintering temperature Reduction of sintering time Lowering of operating/working temperature It has been noted that the substitution of zinc compound (Zn(NO3)2.6H2O) in place of nickel oxide (NiO) has reduced the cost by a factor of E25 in addition to the lowering of manufacturing and operating temperature, which also reduces the cost indirectly by saving energy and time. Moreover, the cost has been further reduced by a factor of 35 and 18 when samarium nitrate (Sm(NO3)3.6H2O) and gadolinium nitrate (Gd(NO3)3.6H2O) are respectively replaced by calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2.4H2O). The lowering of working temperature from 1000 to 550 °C is a major achievement that would not only reduce the running cost but it may help in commercialization of solid oxide fuel cell [63–64].

involved in synthesis and characterization of different catalytic materials for polymer electrolyte fuel cells [72]. Different types of catalysts were developed for PEMFCs [73]. vii. A research group at Department of Electric Power and Energy at University of Management and Technology (UMT), Lahore has also commenced research on proton exchange membrane fuel cells. However their focus is on theoretical aspects of working of PEMFC. Thermodynamic and electrochemical characteristics of PEMFC under steady state and transient conditions are being analyzed and studied using different dynamic models [74]. viii. Department of electrical and industrial engineering at Pakistan naval engineering college (PNEC), Karachi is also working on design and fabrication of low cost high efficiency sustainable and renewable energy system that is based upon solar and wind power generation. ix. Department of Electrical Engineering and Chemical Engineering of UET Peshawar have also started work on FC-technology, but due to lack of experimental facilities, they have so far focused on theoretical and modeling aspects of the FCs. Despite being efficient, environmental friendly and highly suitable for several applications, FC technology still faces several hurdles towards effective utilization and commercialization. These problems include high costs of fuel cell components, concerns about the use of hydrogen as fuel and flexibility of fuel storage place. Our group at CIIT, Lahore is working to overcome these barriers and is focusing on following objectives:-


To design high efficient and more stable materials through the density functional theory (DFT) approach.


To develop functional nanocomposite materials for fuel cells and lithium-ion batteries.


Investigation and feasibility of quantum-dot-based materials in new-generation fuel cells.


To develop fuel cell based hybrid & polygeneration system.
Development of cost effective energy storage devices like; batteries, super-capacitor etc.

i. Different research organizations including Pakistan Institute of Science and Technology (PINSTECH) and National Development Complex (NDC) have initiated R&D program to develop fuel cells indigenously. PINSTECH has fabricated and tested low power fuel cell stacks successfully. This fuel cell stack system can be extended to produce power according to requirement, particularly for automobiles and off grid utilizations, etc. [65]. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) for PEM fuel cell has also been fabricated using route-catalyst-membrane (CCM) and composite bipolar plates for PEMFC [66–68]. ii. Ministry of Environment, Pakistan, has constituted a Technical Review Group (TRG) which comprises eminent professionals from government and private sectors, educational institutions, NGOs and citizen forums. The group has been assigned to prepare a feasibility report for “introducing fuel cell technology in the country” [69]. iii. In NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, one research group is working on fuel cell technology. They are working with the collaboration of German University in the area of fuel cells [70]. iv. University of Engineering and Technology Lahore (UET) is also working on fuel cell technology with special focus on SOFC with the collaboration of CIIT [71]. Center for Energy Research and Development at UET is focusing on renewable sources. v. Physics Department of Bahaud-din-Zakariya University, Multan is also involved in the same research area ofknowledge and produced two PhDs in the field of SOFCs. vi. National Center for Physics (NCP) and department of chemistry at Qauid-e-Azam University (QAU), Islamabad are actively


To develop prototypes of energy conversion devices.
To find investments from industries for commercialization of the technology.

5. Challenges and recommendations In order to attain sustainable development in energy infrastructure especially in FC technology in Pakistan, certain factors must be considered. Few of such factors are challenging and one must have a concrete planning to tackle them. Intensive efforts are also needed to solve the problems and to meet the high international standards. In the following, outline of main challenges which need urgent consideration and give recommendations which can be adopted. The energy crisis can be overcome if we increase the use of renewable energy sources instead of nonrenewable energy sources. Moreover, government should encourage private sector investment in RETs through incentives and by developing renewable energy markets as well as facilitate the development of a domestic RET manufacturing industry.

6. R&D culture For sustainable progress in FC technology, significant research is needed. For this, R&D projects play a pivotal role. A competitive research culture will also help in low cost products and their evaluation. All the R&D organization and universities need to be

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engaged and funded in energy related research and education. A centralized R&D organization focusing on FC technology must be established so that the state of the art manufacturing, characterization, and production tools can be brought under the same roof. For this reason, physics department at CIIT Lahore has proposed an FC technology based energy center. ii) Proper resources assessment A comprehensive assessment of FC-hybrid technologies, integrated energy resources, R&D resources and human resources etc. are needed. This is most important, as it helps to plan, formulate, asses and analyze. iii) Training human power Trained and qualified human resources are a basic need for sustainable research and development in any field. To make FC technology as knowledge intensive and to deploy this to cover a wide range of scientific disciplines, one should have sufficient man-power. This can be partially achieved by introducing new programs covering these technologies at university level. The training of the skilled and semi-skilled manpower is required to install, operate and trouble-shoot the developed systems. This will help in setting up new niche/consumer market eventually leading to economic activities and establishing local industries. iv) Step forward-energy center One of the progresses is to initiate the energy centers focusing on FC technology. These energy centers can be setup in regions/ provinces as well as on central/federal level. This will setup certain laboratory facilities needed for research and implementation of energy producing technology. At CIIT Lahore, an energy center has already been announced and some basic FC laboratories are being developed. v) Public awareness The public must be made aware of the benefits and advantages of these emerging technologies. This can be achieved through seminars and public talks by providing necessary information. Print and electronic media can be the most effective tool. Different demo units can also be placed at public places. vi) Public sector involvement Public sector involvement is one of the fundamentals to start and sustain development in any field. There are several incentives for the government to launch FC technology in Pakistan. The basic one is help which FC technology offers to reduce the current energy crisis. The others include clean environment, new job markets, raising the living standards of public in remote areas, stopping the urbanization and reduction in imports of fossils fuel based energy [75–79]. All these factors will help in boasting the economy of Pakistan. The government must also reduce taxation on R&D equipment and on ultimate commercialization of the technology. Government funded R&D projects and facilitation in setting up the markets will help and boast the FC-technology in Pakistan. vii) Private sector participation Energy crises in Pakistan can be diminished to some extent with the active participation of public–private partnership. Private sector must participate to develop the infrastructure in FC technology and they must charge the actual cost of services from customers so that the government burden of subsidies can be minimize. Private sector in Pakistan produced power generation of capacity of 7100 MW to meet the need of power sector, out of which 800 MW is obtained by wind [75]. But still, there is a short fall of energy in Pakistan so we have to move towards the renewable energy technologies. viii) Regulation of risk analysis and ethics of technology

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Risk is an important issue to consider in the early stages of any new technology. The risk analysis comprises of foretelling and decreasing undesired events that could occur when a fuel cell is fueling for some applications. The main risk is handling the fuel that cannot be limited by precautionary measures. As we know that all suitable fuels used in fuel cells readily catch fire, which is very dangerous. Precautionary measures must be taken to diminish those risks to an acceptable level. ix) Effective cost of FC technology The current cost of 1–3 kW stationary SOFC systems is between $5000 and $6000 per kW. If this technology is used on large-scale, then it is expected to reduce costs by a factor of ten in a decade [62]. The advancement in fuel cell technology has reduced the size, weight and cost of electrical vehicles and the estimated cost of automobile fuel cells had fallen by 80% in 2010 [76]. The fuel economy of fuel cell buses is 40% higher than diesel buses [75]. Lux's described that fuel cell market including vehicle and fuel cell forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion up to 2030 [77]. These recent developments in FC technology and policies can be adapted in Pakistan as it will not only offer a solution to the prevailing energy crisis but can also prove as alternative to other conventional resources. The commercialization of FC technology in Pakistan will also improve the economy as new job opportunities will also be created.

7. Summary Pakistan is trying to resolve its energy crisis through conventional energy resources but so far little success has been obtained. To resolve this issue, an effective long term solution must be adopted in terms of renewable energy technology in addition to the conventional ways. Pakistan is blessed with several renewable energy resources which can fulfill its energy needs. But due to certain social, economic, technical, institutional and bureaucratic barriers, these resources have not been harvested. To strengthen the renewable energy technologies in Pakistan, a holistic approach must be employed. The public and private sector should invest in renewable energy technologies for sustainable energy future. The major necessities which are operated on non-renewable energy resources must be converted to renewable ways. Fuel cell technology is one of most promising renewable energy technologies due its compatibility/usefulness with several renewable energy resources and being combustion free. In addition, the diverse applications of FC technology make it the most suitable candidate to justify our future energy demands and sustainable development of Pakistan. The fuel used in FC Technology is cheap and has high efficiency as compared to the conventional fuels. However, presently the energy produced from FC is not cheap. The cost will be dramatically reduced in future by the development of improved fuel storage techniques and cheap electrolytes. It is not easy and short term way to adopt fuel cell technology, if considered all hurdles and issues. But it can be possible/successful, and sustained, by long-term commitment from fundamental research to commercial development and effective policies. Therefore, FCs hybrid systems are most suitable for Pakistan.

Appendix A. Supplementary material Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.08.049.

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