Future renewable energy option for recharging full electric vehicles

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 824–838

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Future renewable energy option for recharging full electric vehicles

MARK

A R T I C L E I N F O

A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Renewable energy sources Electric vehicle Energy storage systems Greenhouse gas emission Full electric vehicle EV recharging

In this paper, an overview of future energy option for charging mechanism associated with the full electric vehicle (FEV) is carried out. This review emphasizes the basic types of electric vehicles (EVs), various factors affecting to increase the number of FEVs to use, the CO2 emission and fuel economy, and a new charging mechanism for increasing the usage of FEVs. The EVs such as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), the hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and the FEVs are recharged externally. The HEVs are the one will cover longer traveling distance compared to PHEVs and FEVs because of internal combustion engine. The PHEVs provides on-board charging and an option for sustaining mode of operation. On the other hand, FEVs run only with the help of batteries and the electricity required for recharging the batteries is generated from the conventional power plants which produces more greenhouse gas emission. In order to overcome this problem, a new recharging mechanism is proposed, which has both the renewable sources (wind and solar) moreover it automatically recharges the battery banks present in the FEVs. A wind duct is incorporated for increasing the velocity of the wind and the model of both the wind and the photovoltaic (PV) system have been studied. Furthermore, the streamline plot of wind duct is simulated at various values of Reynolds number and the PV array is modeled using Simscape. The performance and comparison results indicate that the proposed system can be used for charging the batteries of EVs.

1. Introduction Nowadays vehicles have become a part and parcel of human life for both personal use and haulage. Hence, there is a never ending demand for oil today as well as in future and the amount of oil that will be present is crucial. This demand is due to the increase in population and prominent need for vehicles. Therefore, it has turned our concern with the forte towards the excess emission of greenhouse gasses. This motivated for a research on electric vehicles which are much more immaculate and eco-friendly. These vehicles are used to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels thereby decreasing the emission of greenhouse gasses and other pollutants. Though electric vehicles have existed since 1990s, their penetration into the market has not been high because these vehicles are not cost effective and recharging the batteries at 60 km or 70 km depends on the capacity of the EVs. The present market consists of hybrid vehicles deriving their energy from both the batteries and from the combustion engines. However, in order to mitigate the gasoline consumption, the plug-in electric vehicles have been introduced in the market which takes its energy from the grid. These vehicles are still under research for its improvements on battery-life, costs, and grid connection. An automatic charging mechanism is present in the EVs for reducing the traveling time. The drive train assembly is interfaced with the turbine and the output is given to a converter with fuzzy controller [1]. It consists of two turbines, one is used to charge the main battery packs present in the vehicle and the other is used to charge the auxiliary battery packs. The increasing greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced with the help of FEVs. The renewable energy sources produce fluctuating output power which will be stored in a storage system. A power factor correction method for an integral battery charger for traction drive is implemented by a fixed-point digital signal processor. The battery management system activates the current or voltage controlled charging modes of the battery packs [2]. The future battery technology and its cost for EVs are surveyed by Michela et al. The total battery packs define the overall cost of EVs. The transport sector has caused a serious damage to the quality of air especially in metropolitan areas [3]. The two EV charging scenarios such as the static and the dynamic methods are used for charging and an aggregator is employed to collect the information about the charging. The static problem is solved by using a linear program and the dynamic problem by a heuristic algorithm [4]. EV is a promising technology for the transport sector to reduce the emissions of poison gasses such as carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and other air pollutants. On the other hand, the electric cars and other EVs are not competitive with conventional vehicles that are commercially used. The batteries used in EVs and its technologies are still under development [5,6]. The electricity required for recharging the batteries should be generated through renewable or clean sources to achieve the standpoint of zero emission. Renewable energy (RE) based hybrid power generation has become popular due to concerns over the environment. To eliminate the grid connection and to reduce transmission loss the RE-based power generation can be used to serve local loads in remote areas [7]. Wind power generation system has less negative impact compared with fossil fuels; studied by Leung and Yang [8]. Among various wind generators, the permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) is more popular because of its generation capability. The output power quality can be improved by the supported power electronics [9,10]. A maximum power tracking and control system for increasing the amount of power is generated by the wind turbine. The efficiency and the life time of the turbine will be reduced if the design is improper and it also creates fatigue to the turbine http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.032 Received 9 July 2015Received in revised form 8 February 2017Accepted 8 March 2017 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 824–838

Table 1 Top electric vehicles and its various ratings. Name of EV

Battery type

Capacity (kWh)

Range (miles)

Charging time (hours)

Charging voltage/current

BMW Mini E

Lithium ion with Air cooled

35

96

26 4.5 3

110 V/12 Amp 240 V/32 Amp 240 V/48 Amp

Chevy Volt

Liquid cooled. Lithium manganese cells from LG Chem.

16

40

10 4

120 V/12 Amp 240 V/24 Amp

Ford Focus EV Smart FortwoED Tesla Model S Tesla Roadster

Lithium ion tri-metal cells from LG Chem. Lithium ion Standard (larger premium batteries optional) Lithium cobalt Liquid cooled

23 16.5 42 56

75 85 160 220

6–8 3.5–8 3–5 3.5

230 V/32 220 V/24 220 V/70 220 V/70

Think City Volvo Electric C30 Nissan LEAF Mitsubishi iMiEV

Lithium Lithium Lithium Lithium

24.5 24 24 16

99 93 100 128

8 8 8 7

110 V/48 Amp 230 V/16 Amp 230 V/30Amp 230 V/20Amp

ion batteries ion batteries manganese ion

Amp Amp Amp Amp

Table 2 Various types of EVs and used charging system. Type of electric vehicle

Battery charging

Internal combustion engine

Plug-in Electric Vehicle Hybrid Electric Vehicle Full Electric Vehicle

Internal (on-board) and /or external charging Internal (on-board)

Yes

External charging

No

Yes

Table 3 Comparison of different EVs with speed and maximum range. Vehicle type

Battery type

Mode of operation

Maximum speed (km/h)

Maximum driving range (km)

HEVs

NiMH

Charge sustaining

170

900–1200

PEVs

NiMH Li-ion Li-ion

Charge sustaining Charge depleting mixed mode Charge depleting

160 150 80–200

20–60 900 120–390

FEVs

Fig. 1. Comparison of fuel economy of different EVs.

components [11]. In addition, the other parameters such as yaw misalignment, wind shear, turbine imbalance, and turbine shadow decrease the power quality of turbine and the authors have suggested that the fixed speed wind turbines are widely used because of its ruggedness, simplicity and less maintenance [12–14]. The gearbox connected with the turbine creates many problems such as the increase in the size, weight, noise, continuous maintenance; reduction of efficiency and power losses; studied by Saccomando et al. [15]. On the other hand, the variable speed wind turbine has many advantages compared to fixed speed wind turbines such as high energy capturing capacity, better efficiency, operation at the maximum power point, and high power quality. 825

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 824–838

Fig. 2. Factors affecting to purchase full EV [6]. Table 4 Comparison of various battery technologies. Battery type

Lead-acid

Li-Ion

Ni-MH

Ni-Cd

Ni-Zn

Power density (W/ kg)

50–400

500–2000

80–300

80–350

150–300

Energy density (W h/kg) Cycles Capital cost of Power ($/kW) Advantages

20–100

90–200

50–80

40–60

55–75

500–2000 300–600

800–3000 1200–4000

600–2000 180

600–3000 500–1500

600–1200 700–2500

Low cost, mature technology, high specific power

High specific power, high voltage operation

High specific energy, long life, large temperature range

High specific energy, no degradation for deep charge/ discharge

High specific energy, high peak power, no degradation for deep charge/discharge

Fig. 3. Fuel economy comparison between different batteries. Table 5 Comparison of various parameters of battery and UC. Parameters

Battery

Ultracapacitors

Energy Density (W h/Kg) Specific Power (W/Kg) Charge Time Discharge Time Life Time

10–100 < 1000 1–5 h 0.3–3 h 1–5 Years

1–10 < 10000 0.3–30 S 0.3–30 S 10–12 Years

Fuel cells (FCs) are another green energy source used in EVs however, the performance is affected by its long time constant. At present, no energy storage devices satisfy the requirement of HEVs and EVs. On the other hand, the hybrid energy sources help us to overcome these drawbacks [16]. The EVs and its various ratings are shown in Table 1. The charging time required for the batteries depends on its type and input power. Huge variation can be observed in battery for distant travel. Most of the developed countries have used EVs for creating a green environment. According to the Table 1 the minimum charging required for full filling the EV is around 3–4 hours Thereby it will increase the traveling time of distant travel. However, many review studies have been published on electrical energy storage system (EESS) for conventional EVs; there is a lack of studies which review the flexible charging mechanism suitable for EESS for EVs and its longer driving range. This is one of the review studies which investigates the EESS and an automatic charging mechanism suitable for automatic propulsion system diligently and in a systemic manner to 826

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Table 6 Various manufacturers and electrical parameters of UC. Manufacturers

Rated capacitance (F)

Rated voltage (V)

Time constant (s)

Equivalent series resistance (m Ohm)

Energy density(W h/kg)

Power density (W/kg)

Weight (kg)

Maxwell Nesscap Spscap Panasonic Superfarad (Kiev) ECOND ESMA JURONG Asahi Glass

3000 5000 9500 2500 4000 80,000 140,000 1380

2.7 2.7 2.7 2.5 3 1.7 1.6 2.7

0.88 1.24 2.6 1.1 5 40 42 3.4

0.29 0.25 0.28 0.43 1.25 0.5 0.3 2.5

5.55 5.45 7.45 3.7 5 13.39 12 4.9

5400 5070 5010 1050 203 590 210 400

0.60 0.95 1.30 0.39 1.00 2.40 5.00 0.21

Fig. 4. Various components of EV with charging mechanism [67].

Fig. 5. Block diagram of proposed charging mechanism.

Fig. 6. Wind duct is placed in the spherical coordinate system.

alleviate the problem of global warming. In this work, an overview of electric vehicle technologies, various charging mechanisms, and the proposed charging mechanism for automatically charging the battery packs of EVs is discussed and explained. The automatic charging mechanism (ACM) using a renewable source recharges the batteries and satisfies the requirement of zero emission. For analyzing the environmental impact different charging profiles such as car park (CP), petrol stations (PS), and standard household (SH) are used for comparison [17]. There are 450 public charging points were monitored and various data were recorded including charging duration and time. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes various types of EVs; Section 3 describes various factors affecting to increase the usage of EVs; several conventional EESS used in different EVs are described in Section 4; an overview of novel ACM for EESS is presented in Section 5; and finally, conclusions are summarized in Section 6.

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Fig. 7. Boundary layer thickness for different values of RN (a–c) Rotational (d–f) Axial.

2. Types of electric vehicles There are different manufacturers making EVs which comes under three types. 1) PHEVs, 2) HEVs and 3) FEVs. Table 2 shows the types of EVs and the corresponding battery charging method. From Table 2, it is indicated that FEVs don't have internal charging facility and the driving distance coverage is less compared to other EVs. 2.1. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles PHEVs received much attention in the transportation sector as a promising technology to reduce CO2 emissions. It has both the internal combustion engine (ICE) and battery packs and the fossil fuel consumption can be remarkably reduced in PHEVs by including grid electricity. By using the external source for recharging the batteries (electric mode) it only promises to cover a minimum distance of 16 km. Gasoline is widely used fossil fuel in PHEVs and the diesel and ethanol are used to a lesser extent. These vehicles have the capability to run using fossil fuel or electricity or the combination of both. It has different advantages such as lower greenhouse emission, higher fuel economy, less consumption and the dependence on oil, high power efficiency, and the introduction of vehicle to grid technology [18]. The electric grid is used to charge the battery packs of PHEVs through standard electrical outlet 110 V/220 V AC. Ultra-capacitors (UCs) and batteries are commonly used energy storage devices in vehicular applications. The battery has high energy density compared to UCs and store on-board electric energy. On the other hand, UCs has higher power density than batteries and longer life cycle with fast charging and discharging response [19]. The uncoordinated charging load increases the gap between the valley load and peak load of EVs. A proper charging system is designed using a coordinated system for valley filling the load. The cooperative charging system schedules its power and controls all the EVs through an aggregator. The necessary and sufficient conditions for the valley filling charging system are derived for both the cooperative and uncooperative systems [20]. In addition, regenerative braking is an alternative on-board battery charging facility. The PHEVs are charged from the grid and it emits less CO2 and other pollutants than conventional HEVs with ICE. Comparing both PHEVs and HEVs, the PHEVs provide reduction in greenhouse gasses at 828

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Fig. 8. Streamline plot for different values of RN (a) RN=1×103 (b) RN=2×104 (c) RN=5×105.

Fig. 9. Effect of duct angle on shear stress (a) rotational (b) axial.

the range of 40–65%, the range of NOx reduction is around 25–55%, and reduction in gasoline consumption range is around 45–80% [21]. According to zero emission concern, the electricity required to recharge the battery packs must come from renewable energy sources such as the wind, solar, or hydropower [22,23]. 2.2. Hybrid electric vehicles HEVs are equipped with a combination of two power sources such as an electric motor system and an internal combustion engine. Full HEVs had the capability to perform either in conventional vehicle transmission mode or in an electric power mode [24]. The ICE and gasoline as fuel is used in conventional vehicle transmission mode and battery is used to drive the electric motor in the electric power mode of operation. The HEVs, when it is used as a motor, have two features such as the ability to turn the wheels of the vehicle and the automatic charging of the batteries when it acts as a generator [25]. 2.3. Full electric vehicles FEVs are new and an upcoming technology to reduce emission and other pollutants. These vehicles are powered by fuel cells or a traction motor or by an electric motor. Gasoline ICE or diesel engines are not preferred to be used in this type of vehicle. Electricity is provided through rechargeable battery packs and in some cases, flywheels or UCs are also used. Charging the battery pack can be done through external charging stations or electricity points present in parks or standard electricity outlets available at home. FEV provides a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emission compared with HEVs and PHEVs. The percentage of emission reduction is potentially much higher in FEV than PHEVs [26]. The battery packs have the capability to drive the EV motor with inherently higher torque and this vehicle accelerates much faster. The performance of FEV is hauteur when compared to conventional diesel and gasoline vehicles [27]. Today various manufacturers with different kinds of EVs are available in the market which is listed in Table 1. Recent FEVs are using state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries for better performance compared to the other batteries such as NiMH, older version of Li-ion etc. 829

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 824–838

Fig. 10. Implementation of PV array using Simscape (a) model of SM 55 (b) the PV array.

Fig. 11. I-V characteristics of SM55 module for various irradiance levels.

Fig. 12. Experimental and simulated P-V data for various irradiance levels.

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 824–838

Fig. 13. Topology structure of the novel hybrid electrical energy.

Table 7 Environmental impact of three individual EV user charging profile and the proposed method. Charging points

BMW Mini E CP PS SH Chevy Volt CP PS SH Nissan Leaf CP PS SH

No. of events

Total [kWh]

Total kgCO2

Average gCO2

Average gCO2/kWh

EV

Proposed

EV

Proposed

EV

Proposed

EV

Proposed

394 262 178

3776.83 2149.37 1282.51

3776.83 2149.37 1282.51

1870.47 1121.93 509.37

145.64 78.46 35.39

4010.48 3204.64 1958.49

235.75 185.48 84.35

418.37 390.63 271.82

24.52 22.61 11.71

263 229 153

1335.28 1893.52 973.39

1335.28 1893.52 973.39

605.74 810.29 402.31

43.79 57.31 29.46

1845.61 2214.72 1268.37

97.37 126.52 75.38

363.56 267.85 199.37

19.18 15.11 11.85

272 225 152

2238.24 1229.59 923.67

2238.24 1229.59 923.67

1108.04 612.49 417.38

79.37 43.62 29.85

2846.82 1845.79 1286.31

175.7 97.47 71.57

345.96 337.76 211.68

21.35 17.84 11.78

Table 8 Environmental impact per kilometer for each EV user profile for three different EVs. Charging points

Mitsubishi i-MiEV CP PS SH Tesla Model S CP PS SH Nissan Leaf CP PS SH

Total [kWh]

Average gCO2/kWh

Environmental impact per kilometer [gCO2/km]

EV

Proposed

EV

Proposed

EV

Proposed

3776.83 2149.37 1282.51

3776.83 2149.37 1282.51

418.37 390.63 271.82

24.52 22.61 11.71

58.59 54.71 38.07

3.43 3.17 1.64

1335.28 1893.52 973.39

1335.28 1893.52 973.39

363.56 267.85 199.37

19.18 15.11 11.85

50.91 37.51 27.92

2.68 2.11 1.65

2238.24 1229.59 923.67

2238.24 1229.59 923.67

345.96 337.76 211.68

21.35 17.84 11.78

48.45 47.31 29.65

2.99 2.49 1.56

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Fig. 14. Hourly generated electricity by both wind and solar.

Fig. 15. Hourly load of EV versus generated electricity.

Fig. 16. Comparison of traveling time of different EVs.

2.4. Comparison of EVs A comparison between three different electric vehicles is listed in Table 3. FEV requires high energy battery packs because it is always in depletion mode of operation [28]. On the other hand, PHEVs enable on-board charging sustainable or charge depletion mode. Therefore, the consideration of battery is disparaged when it is compared to FEVs. Finally, the HEVs provide longer traveling distance compared to PHEVs and FEVs [29]. There are two efficiency measures such as well-to-wheel and tank-to-wheel that are useful to evaluate the tailpipe emission and fuel economy respectively. The well-to-wheel efficiency indicator is the pointer which indicates the fuel/electricity production from the oil-well to the tank. On the other hand, the tank-to-wheel efficiency indicates the actual fuel economy of the car itself [30]. The tank-to-wheel efficiency of the FEVs is affected by charging and discharging of the battery. The net efficiency also depends on the better performance of the driving system. Another difference between conventional ICE and FEV in terms of efficiency is the power generation system and the type of generator used. The difference between ICE and FEV are clearly presented in [31]. Typical values of well-to-wheel and tank-to-wheel fuel economies are shown in Fig. 1. The tank-to-wheel efficiency is used to estimate the fuel economy of the vehicle both in the same and different category. However, the well-to-wheel is used to estimate the tailpipe emission of different types of vehicles.

3. Problems on usage of FEVs FEVs have proven to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to other conventional vehicles. The intention of electric vehicle utilization leads to pollution free and immaculate environment. To minimize the usage of fossil fuel in the automotive sector and to reduce carbondi-oxide, nitrogen oxides, and other air pollutants emission in the environment the EVs can be used and in turn, they also promise to overcome the intermittent problem of fossil fuel existence and the global warming conditions. Various factors affecting the usage of FEVs are as follows: 832

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• • •

Availability of public charging station for FEV users. The important factor to affect the wide usage of EVs is a lack of charging infrastructure despite the low greenhouse gas emission and high energy efficiency [32]. In addition, EVs provide limited driving range and longer recharging time. It may be a crucial problem to push forward the market penetration of EVs. Environmental concern The users are aware of the environmental concerns and its destruction and damages caused by these poisonous gasses and the effort to solve them. Awareness of energy conservation, climate issues, and clean energy are the factors that influence the purchase of environmentally safe products. Consumer knowledge

Since the electric vehicle is environment-friendly and widely accepted as a green energy product, consumers' knowledge about this product is useful for taking a decision towards adopting FEVs. According to green and energy efficient technologies, the knowledge about energy consumption, conservation, and performance of new technologies will affect the adoption [33]. Various analysis and extensive testing show that the fuel consumption of conventional vehicle has been affected by the drivers' input compared to EVs. A global survey has been conducted for plug-in electric vehicles (PEV). The customer preferences and opinion about PEV and charging services have been surveyed for thirteen countries [34]. Analysis of different factors affecting to purchase of EV is shown in Fig. 2. 4. Electrical energy storage system The most widely used energy storage systems (ESS) in EVs are: (a) battery energy storage (BES), (b) ultra-capacitor energy storage (UCES), (c) flywheel energy storage (FES), and (d) hybrid energy storage (HES). Various models of EVs with different approaches based on energy demand, travel demand, and environmental analysis have been studied [35]. 4.1. Battery energy storage system BES is the most widely used energy storage in the transport sector and it has few main types: Lead Acid, Li-Ion, Ni-MH, Ni-Zn, and Na-S [36]. Li-Ion is a type of rechargeable battery with less memory effect and low self-discharging [37]. The comparison between various battery technologies and its advantages are presented in Table 4. Instead of using a heavy lead plate and acid electrodes of lead-acid batteries, a lightweight lithium anode and lithium iron phosphate cathodes are used. Li-ion batteries are the direct replacement of lead-acid with no modifications in drive systems and it is a promising technology for next-generation EVs [38,39]. The electric vehicles such as Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf, and Tesla Roadster use lithium-ion batteries for electricity [40]. The Honda Fit EV, Ford Focus Electric, and Mitsubishi i-MiEV are moving to Li-ion batteries [41]. The comparison of all the battery technologies mentioned in Table 4 shows that each battery technology has its own advantages on properties such as energy density, power, response time and cost. But the BES cannot meet few requirements such as high efficiency, high power charge/ discharge capacity, and long cycle life [42]. The NiMH battery consists of nickel hydroxide as positive electrode, and the alloy of vanadium, titanium, nickel, and other metals as a negative electrode. These batteries can be recycled and its components are harmless to the environment [43]. NiMH batteries have many advantages such as higher volumetric energy and power, wide operation temperature range, long life cycle [44]. Nickel-zinc batteries have low cost, high energy and power density, no harm to the environment, deep cycle capability and the operation temperature ranges from −10 °C to 50 °C. This battery suffers from poor life cycle. Hence, it is not suitable for vehicular applications [45]. The Nickel-cadmium batteries can be fully discharged without any damage so it has a long lifetime. The cadmium is a kind of heavy metal which pollutes the environment if it is not properly disposed. Another disadvantage of Ni-Cd batteries is higher cost [46]. The comparison of fuel economy between different batteries is shown in Fig. 3. The fuel economy is calculated only for Indian urban driving cycle [47]. From Fig. 3, it is indicated that NiMH battery has best fuel efficiency. But in all EVs, the Li-ion batteries give considerable potential and still, researches are going to make them suitable for EVs. From the above review, power battery will be the choice of EVs and charging stations (supercharging with battery swapping facility) for recharging the batteries are the future direction for EV manufacturers. Alternatively, some research institutes are doing research on improving the performance of EESS and other devices such as UCES, FES, and HES. 4.2. Ultra-capacitor energy storage system The UC stores energy on two parallel plates which is separated by an insulator. UC has a long life because there is no chemical variation on the electrodes. The capacitance of UC is around 10,000 times greater than that of the conventional electrolytic capacitor. Compared to conventional battery, the energy density of UC is approximately 10% and power density is 10–100 times greater [48]. The current of UC will vary rapidly during charging and discharging. The UCs may be used as an energy storage medium for pulse load or power buffer for power electronic systems and it is a green energy resource [49–51]. UCs are considered as a primary power source such as fuel cell (FC), ICE or battery. Comparison between UC and battery is listed in Table 5. Recent development in UC is a lithium-ion capacitor, it has a higher voltage range and the energy density is much higher [52]. Many automotive manufactures use UCs to store braking energy for improving the driveline efficiency. The Mazda 6 incorporated an UC recovering system for reducing the fuel consumption by 10%. Various manufacturers and the corresponding electrical parameters of UCs are listed in Table 6. Various researches and development institutes are working on increasing the performance of UCs [53]. New nanostructured electrodes are developed for increasing the energy density, introducing new electrolyte for improving the power density and decreasing the production cost that is considered in the development. 4.3. Flywheel energy storage system The FES system has three main parts: flywheel rotor, motor/generator, and power conversion subsystem. The energy storage can be increased by accelerating the rotor at a very high speed. The stored energy utilized from the flywheel should be operated in a generator mode for producing electricity. The power conversion subsystem is used to condition the electric power in both the motor/generator unit. The wind vehicle application 833

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of FES has a vital role in energy research [54]. A special transmission is used to supply the flywheel energy to the vehicle. It has high energy density around 100–130 Wh/kg, long lifetime and energy efficiency of the flywheel is around 90% [55]. In practice, the FES system eliminates many disadvantages such as heavy weight, low capacity, long charging time and a shorter lifetime of battery powered system. 4.4. Hybrid energy storage system Each EESS described in the previous subsection has its own strength. The EESS with single power source does not satisfy the energy and power requirements of EVs. To achieve the maximum efficiency of EESS, the battery can be combined with the UC [56]. There are different types of HES that can be formed by battery and UC. The UC can be connected in parallel with battery or it can be connected with the battery through DC-DC converter [57]. The bidirectional dc-dc converters are used to manage the power flow either from load to source for recharging the batteries or from the source to load for acceleration [58]. The FC can be combined with a battery to increase the specific power, energy density, and efficiency. Various topologies have been developed such as hybrid ESSs for EVs, FC hybrid vehicles (FCHVs) and PHEVs to improve miles per gallon (MPG) efficiency. It is evident that the hybrid EESS has advantages with respect to high power and high energy density. It has also been noted that many technical disputes such as charging, propel the vehicle by using the stored power, reliability and durability of EESS, noise and package density are associated. So optimal design is required for simple, proper control and high performance EESS. 5. ACM for hybrid storage system The batteries present in the electric vehicles such as FEVs and PHEVs need to be charged through dedicated recharging stations, standard household outlets and electricity grid. However, the need for more charging time and charging in outside location while long travel leads to over demand for the construction of public recharging stations [59,60]. To overcome these difficulties, a novel automatic charging mechanism is proposed for FEVs to increase the traveling distance, eliminating the need for recharging stations and renewable sources are used to recharging the batteries for satisfying the condition of zero emission. For comparison with CO2 emission, the proposed scheme is compared with three familiarly used electric vehicles such as Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Nissan Leaf, and Tesla Model S [70–72]. 5.1. Principle of ACM The vehicle which runs on fuel produces more greenhouse gas emission that is pumped into the atmosphere. The cost is increasing day by day for controlling the pollution. Green energy utilization in EVs becomes popular to reduce the pollutants produced by fuel vehicles. The major disadvantage of EV is storage of energy and distance to be traveled with the same charge. This study is mainly focused to solve this problem. The ACM automatically charges the battery packs present in the EVs. The advanced permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) and the drive systems are used for producing power. A solar PV array is used to generate the solar power and both the systems are integrated with a control unit. The ARM-7 based controller with sensing system is communicated through controller area network (CAN). A high power converter is used to fast charging of storage system present in the EVs. Various parts present in EV are shown in Fig. 4. A turbine with gear arrangement, connected with a variable speed PMSG and a control system is designed in a way to operate the turbine properly. If the vehicle is moving, the PMSG generates power it which is proportional to the speed of the vehicle. A variable speed wind turbine is used to increase the power quality and to reduce the mechanical stress. The battery management system is interfaced with the sealed battery packs via CAN bus communication. It also measures the SOC of battery and the power under running condition. The block diagram of proposed system is shown in Fig. 5. The SOC represents the amount of energy that contains the battery which should be maintained between 20% and 95%. The controller always senses the SOC and maintain 20 < SOC < 95. The advantages of ACM are given below: 1. Energy storage through green energy harvesting leads to eliminate pollutants. 2. Recharging stations are not required for charging the battery packs of EV resulting the reduction of traveling time. 3. ACM overcomes the future fuel crisis. A wind duct is constructed on the top of the EV. The shape of the wind duct is like a rectangular cone, ie: the outlet mouth is slowly reducing. An automatic opening valve is incorporated at the end of the duct to release the pressure when it is higher than the allowable pressure of the duct. 5.2. Wind duct model The spherical coordinate system can be built upon three mutually perpendicular axes x, y, and z with radial displacement (r) and two angular displacements (θ and φ). The length of the duct is 'l', height is 'h', and the inside velocity of boundary layer for the three directions are Ur, Uθ, Uφ. The suffix 'i' indicate the inlet, 'o' indicates the outlet of the duct and the 's' represents the outer surface of the wind duct. The incremental area dA of the surface of a sphere is dA = r 2 sin θdθdφ . The wind duct is placed in the spherical coordinate system which is shown in Fig. 6. The wind duct is considered as an axisymmetric convergent nozzle and the Navier-Stokes equation related to incompressible flow for a spherical coordinate system based on [61] as: 2 2⎞ ⎛ ⎡ 1 ∂ 2Ur ∂p ∂U U ∂U U U Uφ + Uθ ⎟ 1 ∂ 2 (r 2Ur ) cot θ ∂Ur ⎤ ρ ⎜⎜Ur r + θ r + r r − + ⎥ ⎟ = − ∂r + η ⎢⎣ r 2 ∂θ 2 + r 2 ∂ 2θ ∂ r r ∂ θ r r r 2 ∂θ ⎦ ⎝ ⎠

(1) ⎛ ⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ Uφ2 cot θ ⎞ ∂U U ∂U UU ⎟ = − ∂p + η ⎢ 1 ∂ ⎜r 2 ∂Uθ ⎟ + 1 ∂ ⎜ 1 ∂ (Uθ sin θ ) ⎟ + 2 ∂Ur ⎥ ρ ⎜⎜Ur θ + θ θ + r θ − ⎟ ⎠ r ∂θ r r r ∂θ r 2 ∂θ ⎝ sin θ ∂θ r 2 ∂θ ⎦ ⎣ r 2 ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ⎠

(2) 834

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∂Uφ

Ur

+

∂r

Ur Uφ Uφ Uθ cot θ Uφ −(1 + tan2 θ ) ⎤ η ⎡ 1 ∂ 2Uφ Uθ ∂Uφ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂Uφ ⎞ cot θ ∂Uφ 2 ∂U ⎥ + − = ⎢ 2 + 2 ⎜r 2 + 2 r + 2 ⎟+ r ∂θ r r ρ ⎣ r ∂θ 2 r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂θ r ∂θ r tan2 θ ⎦

(3)

1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ (r Ur ) = − (Uθ sin θ ) r 2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ

(4)

The following boundary layer approximations Ur = Uθ , equations can be reduced as follows:

Ur

−

∂θ 2

>>

∂2 ∂r 2

,

∂ ∂φ

= 0, Uφ = 0 can be applied for the axisymmetric wind duct and the above

⎛ 1 ∂ 2Ur ⎞ ⎤ Uφ2 ∂Ur U ∂U 1 ⎡ ∂p + θ r − = − ⎢ + η⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ⎝ r ∂θ 2 ⎠ ⎦ ∂r r ∂θ r ρ ⎣ ∂r

Uφ2

Ur

∂2

cot θ = −

r

∂Uφ ∂r

+

(5)

1 ∂p ρr ∂θ

(6)

η ⎛ 1 ∂ 2Uφ ⎞ Uθ ∂Uφ Uφ Ur ⎟ − = ⎜ 2 r ∂θ r ρ ⎝ r ∂θ 2 ⎠

(7)

∂Ur 2Ur 1 ∂Uθ + + =0 ∂r r r ∂θ

(8)

To estimate the boundary layer parameters, different boundary condition have been considered. Ur (r , α ) = Uθ (r , α ) = Uφ (r , α ) = 0, Ur (r , α − βr r ) = Urs, Uφ (r , α − βr r ) = Uφs, P(r , α − βδmax r ) = Pβmax , Ur (ri, θ ) = Urn . To solve the above equations with boundary conditions the flow inside the duct is turbulent and the velocity profile is considered based on 1/n power distribution, here we choose n=7 and Ur and M becomes, Ur = Urs (M / βr )1/7 M = r (α − θ ) The axial velocity outside the boundary layer of wind duct can be calculated as:

Uro 2πr 2 (1 − cos α ) =

α

∫α−β r Ur r 2 sin θdθdφ + Ur 2πr 2 (1 −

cos α )

(9)

r

⎞ ⎛ r ⎞2 ⎛ βr Urs 1 = ⎜ i ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎝r ⎠ ⎝ Uri 8 r tan α /2 ⎠

(10)

Now the boundary layer momentum integral in the r direction can be determined from equation (3.27) and the value of sinθ is very small so it is negligible. α

α

∫α−β r Urθ ∂∂Uθr dθ = 1r ∫α−β r Ur r 2 sin θdθdφ + Ur 2πr 2 (1 − r

cos α )

(11)

r

The wall shear stress can be calculated directly the relation used by Maddahian et al. [62]. The turbulent shear stress in the r direction is as follows: 2/3 1/4 ⎛U Uφ ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ γrθ = 0.0225ρUr ⎜⎜ r + βφ ⎠ ⎝ βr ⎠ ⎝ βr

(12)

The incompressible flow in a convergent rectangular duct with inlet mouth size of 1-meter length, 1 m width, and 0.5-meter height, and the outlet mouth size of 0.6 m width, 0.25 m height, and inlet velocity ratio of 0.6 are chosen. The boundary layer thickness of the rectangular duct will vary with duct angle. If the duct angle increases, both the rotational and axial velocities increases and the thickness of both the axial and rotational boundary layer decreases. To study the boundary layer thickness various values of RN have been chosen. The rotational and axial boundary layer thickness is estimated for three different values RN (RN=1×103, 2×104, and 5×105). The effect of RN on both the rotational and axial boundary layer is shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7(a–c) shows the rotational boundary layer thickness for different values of RN and it indicates that the rotational boundary layer thickness decreases if RN increases. Fig. 7(d–f) shows the axial boundary layer thickness and it depicts that if RN increases the axial boundary layer thickness decreases. The streamlines plot with different values of RN for the wind duct is shown in Fig. 8. Fig. 8(a) depicts the more attached flow in the middle and it coincides at the mouth of the wind duct. Fig. 8(b) shows the streamline plot for RN=2×104 and it is observed that the streamlines are lesser than that of Fig. 8(a). Fig. 8(c) shows that the streamline plot for RN=5×105 and it indicates that there is are two vortexes found in the corners of the wind duct. From Fig. 8 one can easily understand that if RN increases the streamline flow decreases. The shear stress, angle of the duct, and the boundary layer are closely related to each other. If the duct angle increases then the shear stress of wall decreases gradually. Fig. 9 shows the shear stress of duct wall for various angles. The inlet velocity of rectangular duct increases if the speed of vehicle increases. Fig. 9(a) shows the shear stress of rotational direction and it decreases gradually if duct angle increases. On the other hand, the increase in inlet velocity automatically increases the streamline flow along with the rotational and axial direction as a result the shear stress increases. Fig. 9(b) shows the shear stress of axial direction, which decreases gradually if duct angle increases. When comparing both the rotational and axial shear stress the rotational stress is greater than axial shear stress. The shear stress is less in the mouth of the duct. 5.3. Model of PV array The vehicle contains the PV array of 4×10 and each module has 36 mono-crystalline solar cells. The measured voltage and current are taken under one sun at 35 °C. The real values of voltage and current are same as [63]. The PV module (SM55) has been modeled using Simscape and it is shown in Fig. 10. The Simscape model has been designed for the mono-crystalline solar array which has 4×10 modules and each module has 36 serially connected 835

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 824–838

solar cells which are shown in Fig. 10(a). I-V characteristics of the mono-crystalline solar module (SM55) were obtained by a source measuring unit. The solar cell modeling parameters are calculated based on Mohammad et al. [64] and the values are estimated for five different irradiances (200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 W/m2) levels. Finally, the simulated values are compared with the experimental values. The main focus of this work is to combine the renewable energies and recharging the batteries automatically thus increasing the travel distance. The parameter values obtained by the above simulation model have been plotted against the experimental data and that are shown in Fig. 11. It is noted that the simulated data are closely matched with the experimental data. Now by examining the power-voltage (p-I) characteristics of a solar module, we can see that power generated by the solar module depends on the level of irradiance. The P-I characteristic of a solar module is shown in Fig. 12. From Fig. 12, it is indicated that the output power is high at high irradiance level. Moreover, the simulated values are closely matched with the experimental values at low irradiance level and it slightly deviated at high irradiance level (700 and 1000 W/m2) of maximum power region. 5.4. Proposed hybrid EESS A hybrid electrical energy storage system based on renewable energy recharging with the DC-DC converter is proposed. The bi-directional DCDC converter [65,66] and the switchover between series-parallel of UC banks for the new recharging scheme are shown in Fig. 13. The hybrid EESS consists of banks of UC and battery sources, bi-directional DC-DC converter, and H-bridge inverter. The UC banks act as a power buffer which is controlled by series-parallel switching for energy release and absorption. The energy generated by the wind turbine is transformed into the battery bank through the control unit with some control strategy. The new hybrid EESS has the following features:

• • • •

The hybrid power source can be formed by connecting the UC banks in parallel with the battery banks. The control unit executes certain control strategy for the battery banks getting to get charged. The high energy density of battery banks and high power density of UC banks produce an effective power flow to the drive system. The control unit charges the battery banks from the renewable sources [67]. The proposed bi-directional DC-DC converter satisfies the requirements of hybrid EESS and its characteristic has been experimentally verified in ref [65]. The converter achieved wide voltage range due to the series-parallel switchover of UC banks.

This approach tremendously increases the traveling distance compared to the traditional design. The novel hybrid EESS is suitable for FEVs. From the eclectic studies, we recognize that the future work of the proposed EESS must be integrated with different control algorithms. 5.5. Comparison of ACM with other methods Three different charging profiles for three different EV are presented in Table 7. For car parks and petrol stations, it is shown that fast chargers are located and a large number of charge events have been utilized. It can be noted that it is apparent that night-time charging is favored by many over the household charging points. A series of macros developed in Microsoft Excel for each charge events and the real-time CO2 intensity data were matched with each charge events. The grams of CO2 (gCO2) produced by every charge events dependent on the energy consumed by that charge event and the total kilograms of CO2 (kgCO2) can be calculated by adding every individual charge events, provided by the measure of each user profile. The average CO2 emission was determined by dividing the kgCO2 value by the number of charge events of each charging profile. Table 7 indicates that the total kgCO2 emitted by the charging profile are dependent on the total kWh of energy consumed by that profile. The three EVs recharging kWh, total kgCO2, average gCO2, and average gCO2/kWh for the three charging profiles are compared with the proposed system and the result shows that the proposed system consumes same kWh but the total kgCO2, average gCO2, and average gCO2/kWh is much less than other EVs (BMW Mini E, Chevy Volt, and Nisan Leaf). It also be noted that the environmental impacts are closely dependent on the levels of charge consumption and a large environmental impact may occur over the lifetime of an EV. The comparison between the environmental impact per kilometer for three different profile for three different EVs is listed in Table 8. The gCO2/kWh emission of each EV was converted to the required gCO2/km using the energy consumption (kWh/km) values. Table 8 presents the environmental impacts of three different EVs compared with the proposed scheme for each user profile. Table 8 indicates that the average gCO2/kWh and the corresponding environmental impact per kilometer for the proposed method are much lesser than other EV schemes. The hourly generated electricity during a day time from morning 5 A.M to night 9 PM is considered for analysis. The electricity generated by the renewable source (the wind and solar) is shown in Fig. 14. The power generated by wind generator under vehicle running condition is greater than the power generated by the PV cells. The PV can generate the power during both the running and non-running conditions. So the EESS simultaneously charges the battery in both the running and non-running conditions. The discharging of the battery is less than that of the charging of battery because the charge is produced automatically which is done by the charge controller. The hourly required load and the power generated by both the renewable sources are shown in Fig. 15. In some cases such as hour 8, 13, and 18 in Fig. 15, the vehicle is at rest even though electricity is generated by PV cells. The control unit charges the battery if the vehicle is at rest and automatically charges the battery at running by both the generation methods. The total power generated by the renewable sources is enough to charge the battery packs of EVs. Comparison of traveling time that is required for different electric vehicles such as BMW Mini E, Chevy Volt, Ford Focus EV, Tesla Roadster, Volvo Electric C30, Nissan LEAF, and Mitsubishi iMiEV [68] are compared with the proposed system which is shown in Fig. 16. Assume that all vehicles are initially fully charged and each electric vehicle has different capacity and the traveling distance is covered after the first charge. Here, 10 hour travel time is considered and the corresponding distance is calculated including the waiting time required for consecutive charging. We have taken the technical data given by the manufacturer and compared it with the proposed system. The comparison results show that the proposed system reduced the traveling time in at the ratio of almost 3:1. 5.6. Practicability In order to achieve high efficiency and high power generation, a wind duct is used to direct the wind. The clean and efficient power generation reduces the greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, the structure is simple and easy to accommodate in EVs for automatically recharging the EESS. This system provides an exact solution to eliminate present needs of more recharging stations. It is a promising choice for recharging the EESS of 836

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FEVs [69]. From the practicability point of view, the EESS should be compact, less cost, easily integrated with the existing system, and the control strategy should be easily implemented. Based on the considerable performance shown above, the proposed method is an excellent choice for EVs. 6. Conclusion In this paper, an overview of automatic charging mechanism associated with electric vehicles is carried out. This review covered the basic types of EVs, fuel economy, various charging mechanisms, and a novel automatic recharging mechanism for FEVs. The FEV needs high power source because its mode of operation is always on depleting mode. The wind duct is incorporated to increase the velocity of the wind and the model has been studied. The boundary layer thickness for various values of RN and the rotational and axial boundary layer thickness have been estimated. The shear stress, angle of the duct, and the boundary layer are closely related to each other. 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C. Chellaswamy,, R. Ramesh Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Rajalakshmi Institute of Technology and Department of ECE, St.Peters University, Chennai, India Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Saveetha Engineering College, Chennai, India E-mail address: [email protected]

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Corresponding author.

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