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Future tasks of mankind and the responsibility of geosciences
Geofo~m
71
111970
Future Tasks of Mankind and the Responsibility of Geosciences Mensch und Umwelt:
Zukunftsaufgaben
L’homme et son environnement:
I. P. GERASI~OV,
der Geowissenschaften
mission des sciences de la terre
fvloscow*
Abstract: Man’s existence on the Earth is increasingly dependent upon how the natural resources of our planet will be used in the future. The destruction of the equilibrium between the forces, which in many areas has already begun, must be arrested. Research in the individual branches of the Geosciences is producing results, which are making possible the improvement of the interrelationships between man and the environment. The complexity of the problems is, however, increasingly demanding the abandonment of prevailing lines of research in favour of interdisciplinary work. In the Soviet Union the Geosciences are treading this new path with great success.
Zu~menf~ng: Die menschliche Existenz auf der Erde h5ngt in wachsendem MaDe davon ab, wie die na~rlichen Reichtiimer unseres Planeten in Zukunft genutzt werden. Die in vielen Bereichen schon begonnene Zerstorung des Gleichgewichts der Krafte mu6 aufgehalten werden. Die Forschungen der einzelnen geowissenschaftlichen Zweige liefern Ergebnisse, die eine Verbesserung der Wechselbeziehungen Mensch - Umland mijglich machen. Mehr und mehr erfordert aber die Komplexitiit der Probleme em Verlassen bisheriger Forschungswege und eine Hinwendung zu interdisziplinarer Arbeit. In der Sowjetunion beschreiten die Geowissenschaften den neuen Weg mit groDem Erfolg.
R&sum& L’existence de I’homme sur la terre depend de plus en plus de la facon dont seront utilisees dam l’avenir les richesses naturelles de notre planete. Dans de nombreuses regions deja doivent etre arretes des processus destructeurs de l’equilibre des forces. Les recherches de chaque branche des sciences de la terre foumissent des resultats qui rendent possible une amelioration des relations mutuelles entre l’homme et le milieu. De plus en plus, cependant, la complexite des problimes exige d’abandonner les voies de recherche suivies jusqu’ici et de se tourner vers un travail interdisciplinaire. En URSS les sciences de la terre se sont engagees darts ces voies nouvelles avec grand suc&s.
Most people are not aware of the continuous and versatile interaction which exists between society and nature and which rules human life on earth so generally, although this interaction is incessantly growing and the scope of matter exchange between Man and Nature attained by this time is enormous. Our society draws everything necessary for the satisfaction of its const~tly growing requirements from the natural geograp~c~ env~o~ent surrounding us whether it be food, energy or raw materials of any hind. Man extracts many billions of tons from the earth every year. Any social progress depends on the know how of this extensive use of the wide range of natural resources.
* Prof. Dr. 1. P. GERASIMOV, Institute of Geography, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Staromonetny per., 29, Moscow 17, USSR.
Nothing of the fact that misuse may destroy the environmental fortune, while clever action may restore the wealth respectively. Almost all elements of the earth’s crust are considered to be of economic value today - although depending partly on the economic system of the particular section of human society. Along with the growing exploitation of nature, the danger of overdoing so becomes more and more evident. Safe existence and continued prosperity of mankind in the future may be questioned. Many politicians don’t care as they don’t have any idea of the evolving problems. By burning fuel, for example, six billion tons of CO2 are being added to the atmosphere every year. The CO2-content of the atmosphere has artiticially been increased by 400 billion tons which is approximately 10 % during the past 100 years. The process is of course rapidly accelerating and is disturbing the thermal balance of the atmosphere.
72
Also rivers, lakes and underground water, and even parts of the ocean are being polluted by sewage. It is estimated that at present sewage discharge totals 600-700 km3 per year. About one third of it urgently needs biochemical treatment before being usable once again. The quantity of clean water necessary for natural self-treatment of sewage averages up to about 4000 km3 or 12 % of the world’s total runoff. The amount of polluted water in 1980 is very likely to be 2.5-3 times as much as it was in 1960. The simple idea of just using half of the world’s runoff for sewage clearance would not solve the problem due to the irregular distribution and concentration and chemical form of pollution. Dumping radioactive residues into the deep ocean appears to be a particularly careless procedure. The dangerous substances may not remain in place and get entirely out of control. The serious consequences of soil erosion may be less spectacular. However, they also demonstrate an unbelievable lack of understanding natural ecology. Even worse, in spite of better knowledge, adequate measures are occasionally neglected for profit’s sake of a few. Six to seven million km2 are subject to soil erosion. This constitutes 40-50 % of the cultivated area of the world. Predatory clearance of forests, inadequate ploughing and disturbance of the naturally balanced runoff frequently prove to be disastrous. Under critical frontier conditions vast areas may not be cultivable any longer. International cooperation is indispensable in the case of natural resources which are for the general use of many countries: Sea fishing and hunting for example. About 90 % of seafish is being caught outside territorial waters. Overfishing is observed by region or species due to irregular distribution of the fish population and to the considerable difference in the development of the various nations’ fish economy. Also many details of fish migration are still not well known. Distance between fishing grounds and the market adds another complication to that problem. International research and control as yet are rather rudimentary. Whaling has been performed so unreasonably for centuries that after extinction of economically important species in the arctic waters the survial of the vast herds in the antarctic seas is questioned now. Similar to sea life migrating mammals and birds are also threatened. Shifting between reproduction areas and favourable fattening or hibernation areas their ecology in many cases still is insufficiently know or the local laws are not good for their protection. Hunting regulations therefore urgently need international cooperation based on scientific data. Colonial conditions usually have favoured ruthless exploitation. Unfortunately in some developing countries the political leaders after liberation are not well enough advised to withstand the false advantage of short-term profits simply by continuing to apply out-dated methods and systems of their former foreign masters.
Geoscientists and their international organisation raise their voice to stop the tragedy of wasting natural resources. Continuous research and accumulation of data are justified by the necessity of furnishing a base for all political-economic decisions of every possible level. Instruction aiming at the increase of geological knowledge is vital to secure survival and prosperity of all people now and in future. Besides the above mentioned examples and suggestions the preparation of a contructive program on rational utilization of all kinds of natural resources in all countries should be considered as shown by a small selection of a wide range of topics, as there are energy resources and food supply. Up to the mid-20th century the production of energy was chiefly based on burning combustible minerals or on the use of water power. Both are in fact limited. The use of water power is no technical problem but simply an economic one being controlled by the input-output balance. With the exception of fire wood, which for various reasons may be neglected, all fuel is kind of fossil energy resource, hence not replaceable. It is only due to the remarkable success of geological prospecting - simultaneously with technological progress - that the per capita-consumption of fuel energy all over the world and in spite of increasing world population has twentyfold mutliphed during one century, from 104 kWh in 1850 to 2105 kWh in 1950. Now mankind is able to make use of the immense energy resources represented by atomic power which has initiated a new direction of prospecting as well as a new valuation of mineral deposits. Along with improved technology of thermocouples and photoelectric cells vast and still unpredictable possibilities of utilizing solar radiation may arise. Exploitation of tides and ocean currents may be achieved faster and more efficiently. The problem of sufficient nourishment of the world population is certainly less important. FAO estimates 60 % of all people to eat less than 2 200 calories per day, and half of them even less than 2 000 - not to speak of their diet’s composition. Parallel to the growing world population (three billion in the early sixties, six billion by 2 000 and possibly 13 billion in 2050) food production must be doubled by the turn of the century at least, although fighting famine is much more a socialeconomic problem than it is a matter of exploiting the natural resources. Currently 10.4 % only of the entire land surface are being filled, says FAO, which means 0.5 ha per capita of the world population. The late British geographer Sir DUDLEY L. STAMP figured that there is three times more arable land on Earth. No matter how approximate this estimate may be, the possibilities of intensifying the use of agricultural land are certainly much more far-reaching. Chemization by means of fertilizing and of pest control is still restricted to rather limited areas. Yields are varying in a range as wide as lo-20 times. If quantity and quality
73
of crops could only be raised to the level achieved in Japan or Western Europe, a tremendous increase of world agricultural production would be the result. And yet this would not be the final answer. Experts point out, that a huge food resource can be opened by systematic fishing in the oceans. Presently the costs of all catches make up only less than 2 % of total agricultural production. Gwen or even plantation of sea algae may prove to be a considerable potential which is almost not explored yet. According to some courageous estimates the organic productivity of the oceans per area unit may rougbly be similar to that of the land surface. If the respective cautious compilatations based on this presumption prove to be true the entire globe - ocean included - may feed 100 billion people - thirty times more than today. Finally a third kind of food supply may develop from chemical synthesis of different organic raw materials. Just having passed the doorsteps of space age mankind may trust shortly to conquer resources nobody dares to dream of yet. The limited area and the limited resources of our planet obviously loose their relative importance rather rapidly. However, this optimistic view can easily turn into an utopic view if mankind does not successfully manage to apply proper methods of reconnaissance, of prospecting and recording, of scientitic documentation, and economically reasonable evaluation, of conserving and of protecting the riches presented by Nature against spontaneous plundering and irreplaceable exhaustion. Furthermore human society must organize itself in a suitable way to be able to solve these tasks of the future. Whatever happens, the most important if not decisive tool for altering our natural and human environment in favour of the continuous improvement of the living conditions is given by means of geosciences. The development of geographical science in the Soviet Union may be taken as an example. After more than five decades of Soviet rule a large number of institutes for geographic research and training have been founded in the Soviet Union. The Academy of Sciences and the geographic departments and faculties of universities combined their efforts for investigating the physical, human and regional potential of the huge country. Such inventory was indispensable for building up the platform from which any practical activity would start. It is obvious that geographic activity in the Soviet Union got decisive impulses from the fact that an utmost utilization of the natural resources was urgently needed for the accomplishment of the socialist Five Years Plans. Out of the manifold catalog of these activities the following two fields of investigation are especially worthwile to be mentioned.
1. Study of physical conditions and of natural resources of the country. 2. Study of the regional distribution of national industry as well as of possibilities for regional development.
1. Study of physical ~~~~ and of natural resources. ~fe~n~~~ of physical geographyand devrlopment of its various z4ckdfk didpbes. At the beginning of the technical and scientific research work indicated, a thorough geodetic survey and a detailed topographic mapping of the country were carried out. Airphotographs were used to a large extent supplying the Soviet scientistis with information on the geographical conditions, and the maps produced served as base material for further specialized studies. The topographic survey was extended to the Arctic and Antarctic territories and was comp~ented by aerial and naval expeditions as well as research stations e~ab~~ed in the Polar Regions. Similar importance has to be attributed to the successful research in the fields of hydrology and meterorology, not only for collecting data but also for finding new methods for hydrometeorological investigation and for the mechanization of its results. The different branches of the Soviet Hydrometeorological Service made available the most valuable data on water resources which allowed prospections with regard to climate and hydrography. Various minstries engaged in problems of reforestation and a~ic~~r~ organization and along with these collected material on soil, groundwater and vegetation, as well as on terrestrial and aquatic fauna. The development of purely technical possibilities within the investigation of the Soviet natural resources has been a great stimulant to the progress of geosciences. On one hand the new techniques required the assistance of scientific theories and methods, on the other they opened an inexhaustible source of information. Technical specialization accelerated the origin of new scientific branches which later on acquired their independence as disciplines of the geosciences. Some years ago, Soviet scientists such as G. A. AVSJUK, M. I. BUDYKO, A. A. GRIGORIEV, F. F. DAVITAYA, S. V. KALESNIK, W. B. SOCHAVA and myself have summarized the development occurred and the results achieved in various fields of physical geography, both from the theoretical and methodological view point. Their reports make evident the enormous progress in the following fields: ClimrrtoZogy: In the USSR, the theories concerning prevision and types of dimatic phenomena have successfully been developed based on dynamic meteorology and complex climat-
74
ography. There is a tendency to study the radiation balance and the circulation of humidity and their respective influence on the formation of the climate. Hydrology.’ Prominent subjects of research have been the theory of the water balance, and the relations which exist between different perimeters (superficial water, ground water) and their modes of transformation. Geo~~~~~: The dynamism of numerous exogene processes was studied (erosion, deflation, abrasion), In addition research was promoted on morphotectonics and morphostructure based on the general theory of interaction between internal and external forces whioh form the relief, and of the most recent crustal movements. Gkrciology: A theory was formed on the process of congelation after studying the exchange of mass and temperature in glaciers of various types. Pedology: Newly discovered soils of the taiga, the desert and the high-mountains were studied to understand the dynamism of soil formation and the circulation of chemical substances within the soil. B&geogrephy: Ecological studies on plant associations and animals were most successful. During the last few years, studies in this field have been extended to trophical analyses and to the discovery of quantitative laws the biomass follows in function of the environmental conditions. The results obtained in the above mentioned fields of research gradually became principal elements of our modern theoretical physical geography. Parallel to this it turned out to be more and more difficult to establish a general theory valid for the total complex of physical geography because of the increasing differentiation of its various disciplines. The search for general synthetic subjects was therefore intensified anticipating that they would marvellously help to link the somewhat diverging new physical-geographic disciplines. The most appropriate field of research in this respect is the study of the landscape. The origin of landscape study traces as far back as the scientific ideas of V. V. DOKUCHAEV which have duly been evaluated by L. S. BERG. Departing from the basic concept of the existence of certain combinations - or complexes - of mutually linked elements it was the first task of physical geography to study these complexes of the natural environment. They were suggested to be called natural landscapes. This approach aims at the revelation of the internal organization and of the very complex variety of local particularities of climate, relief, soil, vegetation and animal life. The greatest difficulty of the ecological approach consists in establishing appropriate methods for determining, describing and systematizing the intrinsic elements of the landscape. Landscape studies have been intensified mainly thanks to the successful research within the individual branch disciplines issued from geography in the past years, such as
pedology and plant ecology. Many scientists focussed their particular attention on the systematization and classification of their topic as well as on the principles and methods of their cartographic presentation. Unfortunately the results of their efforts both theoretical and practical often were insufficient and their discussion sometimes seemed to be too dogmatic. At the same time a general theory of physical geography developed under the influence of the ideas of V. V. DOKUCHAEV calling for a continuous exchange of energy and substance between the principal elements of the natural environment. DOKUCHAEV’s concept became the essential point of GRIGORIEV’s theory of the phyticogeographic sphere which was considered to be one of the spheres constituting the Earth like lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and also biosphere as understood by VERNADSKY. GRIGORIEV has shown in his studies that differences in the natural environment are essentially caused by the difference of temperature and humidity received on every point of the globe’s surface. This led to the conclusion that any process undergoing in the nature in general as well as in its various parts (i.e. landscapes) originates from energetic facts. In other words, this represents an approach to the landscape not from a mere description of its morphological character but from its dynamism, its structure and productive forces. Theoretical research in physical geography in the USSR has created conditions under which a global theory of geosciences may be born in the future.
2. Regional distribution of national industry. Increase of regianal productivity. Origin of regional geography
in the USSR. Problems of the distribution of national industries and of the regional development of their productivity have at all times been an important research field of the socio-economic sciences. They are not only revelant to economic geography but, as far as general laws are concerned, also to political economy. Due to their vital importance for the planned socialist economy these problems have always been associated with practical planning activities as carried out by state organizations. Thus the Marxist political economy exerted a quite natural influence on Soviet economic geography. The first elaborations, both scientific and practical, of economico-geographical problems done with regard to the Plan G. 0. E. L. R. 0. and associated with the names of G. N. KRZHIZHANOVSKY and I. G. ALEXANDROV have without any doubt initiated a new trend in econome ic and geographic sciences of the world. They supplied a scientific basis for dividing the country in economic districts and for the determination of areal units comprising centers of energy and industry. Soviet literature on
75
this subject abounds in the treatment of genera! problems and methods of economic geography and specially of the development of what is called regionul direction. N. N. KOLQSOVSKY successfully applied theoretical and technical achievements to the problems of dividing the country into economic districts. Field research and ap plied studies on the geo~ap~c d~~ibution of resources in the USSR offer a vaste field of activity for a great number of economic geographers who are now employed at research instituties and planning organizations. One of the institutions involved in the investigation of territorial complexes, hence in regional planning, is the Council for Productive Forces (S. 0. P. S.), fast directed by S. G. STRUMILIN, later by V. S. NEMCHINOV, and today by N. N. NEKRASOV. Research of S. 0. P. S. revealed the important link which exists between study of recently developed areas, the discovery of natural resources, the estimation of their economic value and the plans for economic growth. This hind of geographic research by means of countless interdisciplinary activities characterizes Soviet geography which to a very large extent has been its inventor. Some long-term interdisciplinary programs carried out in Yakutia, Pamir, Kasakhstan and the Greater Caucasus are especially worth to be mentioned here. They were possible thanks to the combined
efforts of research institutes of different scientific orientation. The results of these expeditions are reported to the respective scientific councils and to special commissions of techno-economic practice. Furthermore, regional committees are informed about the results and instructed as to how the economic growth could be accelerated. Along with the studies on industry, agriculture and commerce, geographic investigation of settlement and population, both nation-wide and regional, have been promoted by big research programs. Within the prospective economic expansion a great importance is attributed to problems of urbanization, population migration and of administrative geography. New mathematical methods will certainly allow to answer the still pending questions in the near future. There is no doubt about the close cohaboration of economists and economic geographers solving soon the problems involved. The ~~rd~cip~~ activity is no longer considered being a handicap for the future development of one particular science. Quite to the contrary has it been proved that the neuralgic points of the most active and progressive scientific programs are frequently located at the joint of different sciences. Soviet geosciences will be understood as continuous interaction between ah its highly specialized branch disciplines and neighbouring sciences.
71
111970
Future Tasks of Mankind and the Responsibility of Geosciences Mensch und Umwelt:
Zukunftsaufgaben
L’homme et son environnement:
I. P. GERASI~OV,
der Geowissenschaften
mission des sciences de la terre
fvloscow*
Abstract: Man’s existence on the Earth is increasingly dependent upon how the natural resources of our planet will be used in the future. The destruction of the equilibrium between the forces, which in many areas has already begun, must be arrested. Research in the individual branches of the Geosciences is producing results, which are making possible the improvement of the interrelationships between man and the environment. The complexity of the problems is, however, increasingly demanding the abandonment of prevailing lines of research in favour of interdisciplinary work. In the Soviet Union the Geosciences are treading this new path with great success.
Zu~menf~ng: Die menschliche Existenz auf der Erde h5ngt in wachsendem MaDe davon ab, wie die na~rlichen Reichtiimer unseres Planeten in Zukunft genutzt werden. Die in vielen Bereichen schon begonnene Zerstorung des Gleichgewichts der Krafte mu6 aufgehalten werden. Die Forschungen der einzelnen geowissenschaftlichen Zweige liefern Ergebnisse, die eine Verbesserung der Wechselbeziehungen Mensch - Umland mijglich machen. Mehr und mehr erfordert aber die Komplexitiit der Probleme em Verlassen bisheriger Forschungswege und eine Hinwendung zu interdisziplinarer Arbeit. In der Sowjetunion beschreiten die Geowissenschaften den neuen Weg mit groDem Erfolg.
R&sum& L’existence de I’homme sur la terre depend de plus en plus de la facon dont seront utilisees dam l’avenir les richesses naturelles de notre planete. Dans de nombreuses regions deja doivent etre arretes des processus destructeurs de l’equilibre des forces. Les recherches de chaque branche des sciences de la terre foumissent des resultats qui rendent possible une amelioration des relations mutuelles entre l’homme et le milieu. De plus en plus, cependant, la complexite des problimes exige d’abandonner les voies de recherche suivies jusqu’ici et de se tourner vers un travail interdisciplinaire. En URSS les sciences de la terre se sont engagees darts ces voies nouvelles avec grand suc&s.
Most people are not aware of the continuous and versatile interaction which exists between society and nature and which rules human life on earth so generally, although this interaction is incessantly growing and the scope of matter exchange between Man and Nature attained by this time is enormous. Our society draws everything necessary for the satisfaction of its const~tly growing requirements from the natural geograp~c~ env~o~ent surrounding us whether it be food, energy or raw materials of any hind. Man extracts many billions of tons from the earth every year. Any social progress depends on the know how of this extensive use of the wide range of natural resources.
* Prof. Dr. 1. P. GERASIMOV, Institute of Geography, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Staromonetny per., 29, Moscow 17, USSR.
Nothing of the fact that misuse may destroy the environmental fortune, while clever action may restore the wealth respectively. Almost all elements of the earth’s crust are considered to be of economic value today - although depending partly on the economic system of the particular section of human society. Along with the growing exploitation of nature, the danger of overdoing so becomes more and more evident. Safe existence and continued prosperity of mankind in the future may be questioned. Many politicians don’t care as they don’t have any idea of the evolving problems. By burning fuel, for example, six billion tons of CO2 are being added to the atmosphere every year. The CO2-content of the atmosphere has artiticially been increased by 400 billion tons which is approximately 10 % during the past 100 years. The process is of course rapidly accelerating and is disturbing the thermal balance of the atmosphere.
72
Also rivers, lakes and underground water, and even parts of the ocean are being polluted by sewage. It is estimated that at present sewage discharge totals 600-700 km3 per year. About one third of it urgently needs biochemical treatment before being usable once again. The quantity of clean water necessary for natural self-treatment of sewage averages up to about 4000 km3 or 12 % of the world’s total runoff. The amount of polluted water in 1980 is very likely to be 2.5-3 times as much as it was in 1960. The simple idea of just using half of the world’s runoff for sewage clearance would not solve the problem due to the irregular distribution and concentration and chemical form of pollution. Dumping radioactive residues into the deep ocean appears to be a particularly careless procedure. The dangerous substances may not remain in place and get entirely out of control. The serious consequences of soil erosion may be less spectacular. However, they also demonstrate an unbelievable lack of understanding natural ecology. Even worse, in spite of better knowledge, adequate measures are occasionally neglected for profit’s sake of a few. Six to seven million km2 are subject to soil erosion. This constitutes 40-50 % of the cultivated area of the world. Predatory clearance of forests, inadequate ploughing and disturbance of the naturally balanced runoff frequently prove to be disastrous. Under critical frontier conditions vast areas may not be cultivable any longer. International cooperation is indispensable in the case of natural resources which are for the general use of many countries: Sea fishing and hunting for example. About 90 % of seafish is being caught outside territorial waters. Overfishing is observed by region or species due to irregular distribution of the fish population and to the considerable difference in the development of the various nations’ fish economy. Also many details of fish migration are still not well known. Distance between fishing grounds and the market adds another complication to that problem. International research and control as yet are rather rudimentary. Whaling has been performed so unreasonably for centuries that after extinction of economically important species in the arctic waters the survial of the vast herds in the antarctic seas is questioned now. Similar to sea life migrating mammals and birds are also threatened. Shifting between reproduction areas and favourable fattening or hibernation areas their ecology in many cases still is insufficiently know or the local laws are not good for their protection. Hunting regulations therefore urgently need international cooperation based on scientific data. Colonial conditions usually have favoured ruthless exploitation. Unfortunately in some developing countries the political leaders after liberation are not well enough advised to withstand the false advantage of short-term profits simply by continuing to apply out-dated methods and systems of their former foreign masters.
Geoscientists and their international organisation raise their voice to stop the tragedy of wasting natural resources. Continuous research and accumulation of data are justified by the necessity of furnishing a base for all political-economic decisions of every possible level. Instruction aiming at the increase of geological knowledge is vital to secure survival and prosperity of all people now and in future. Besides the above mentioned examples and suggestions the preparation of a contructive program on rational utilization of all kinds of natural resources in all countries should be considered as shown by a small selection of a wide range of topics, as there are energy resources and food supply. Up to the mid-20th century the production of energy was chiefly based on burning combustible minerals or on the use of water power. Both are in fact limited. The use of water power is no technical problem but simply an economic one being controlled by the input-output balance. With the exception of fire wood, which for various reasons may be neglected, all fuel is kind of fossil energy resource, hence not replaceable. It is only due to the remarkable success of geological prospecting - simultaneously with technological progress - that the per capita-consumption of fuel energy all over the world and in spite of increasing world population has twentyfold mutliphed during one century, from 104 kWh in 1850 to 2105 kWh in 1950. Now mankind is able to make use of the immense energy resources represented by atomic power which has initiated a new direction of prospecting as well as a new valuation of mineral deposits. Along with improved technology of thermocouples and photoelectric cells vast and still unpredictable possibilities of utilizing solar radiation may arise. Exploitation of tides and ocean currents may be achieved faster and more efficiently. The problem of sufficient nourishment of the world population is certainly less important. FAO estimates 60 % of all people to eat less than 2 200 calories per day, and half of them even less than 2 000 - not to speak of their diet’s composition. Parallel to the growing world population (three billion in the early sixties, six billion by 2 000 and possibly 13 billion in 2050) food production must be doubled by the turn of the century at least, although fighting famine is much more a socialeconomic problem than it is a matter of exploiting the natural resources. Currently 10.4 % only of the entire land surface are being filled, says FAO, which means 0.5 ha per capita of the world population. The late British geographer Sir DUDLEY L. STAMP figured that there is three times more arable land on Earth. No matter how approximate this estimate may be, the possibilities of intensifying the use of agricultural land are certainly much more far-reaching. Chemization by means of fertilizing and of pest control is still restricted to rather limited areas. Yields are varying in a range as wide as lo-20 times. If quantity and quality
73
of crops could only be raised to the level achieved in Japan or Western Europe, a tremendous increase of world agricultural production would be the result. And yet this would not be the final answer. Experts point out, that a huge food resource can be opened by systematic fishing in the oceans. Presently the costs of all catches make up only less than 2 % of total agricultural production. Gwen or even plantation of sea algae may prove to be a considerable potential which is almost not explored yet. According to some courageous estimates the organic productivity of the oceans per area unit may rougbly be similar to that of the land surface. If the respective cautious compilatations based on this presumption prove to be true the entire globe - ocean included - may feed 100 billion people - thirty times more than today. Finally a third kind of food supply may develop from chemical synthesis of different organic raw materials. Just having passed the doorsteps of space age mankind may trust shortly to conquer resources nobody dares to dream of yet. The limited area and the limited resources of our planet obviously loose their relative importance rather rapidly. However, this optimistic view can easily turn into an utopic view if mankind does not successfully manage to apply proper methods of reconnaissance, of prospecting and recording, of scientitic documentation, and economically reasonable evaluation, of conserving and of protecting the riches presented by Nature against spontaneous plundering and irreplaceable exhaustion. Furthermore human society must organize itself in a suitable way to be able to solve these tasks of the future. Whatever happens, the most important if not decisive tool for altering our natural and human environment in favour of the continuous improvement of the living conditions is given by means of geosciences. The development of geographical science in the Soviet Union may be taken as an example. After more than five decades of Soviet rule a large number of institutes for geographic research and training have been founded in the Soviet Union. The Academy of Sciences and the geographic departments and faculties of universities combined their efforts for investigating the physical, human and regional potential of the huge country. Such inventory was indispensable for building up the platform from which any practical activity would start. It is obvious that geographic activity in the Soviet Union got decisive impulses from the fact that an utmost utilization of the natural resources was urgently needed for the accomplishment of the socialist Five Years Plans. Out of the manifold catalog of these activities the following two fields of investigation are especially worthwile to be mentioned.
1. Study of physical conditions and of natural resources of the country. 2. Study of the regional distribution of national industry as well as of possibilities for regional development.
1. Study of physical ~~~~ and of natural resources. ~fe~n~~~ of physical geographyand devrlopment of its various z4ckdfk didpbes. At the beginning of the technical and scientific research work indicated, a thorough geodetic survey and a detailed topographic mapping of the country were carried out. Airphotographs were used to a large extent supplying the Soviet scientistis with information on the geographical conditions, and the maps produced served as base material for further specialized studies. The topographic survey was extended to the Arctic and Antarctic territories and was comp~ented by aerial and naval expeditions as well as research stations e~ab~~ed in the Polar Regions. Similar importance has to be attributed to the successful research in the fields of hydrology and meterorology, not only for collecting data but also for finding new methods for hydrometeorological investigation and for the mechanization of its results. The different branches of the Soviet Hydrometeorological Service made available the most valuable data on water resources which allowed prospections with regard to climate and hydrography. Various minstries engaged in problems of reforestation and a~ic~~r~ organization and along with these collected material on soil, groundwater and vegetation, as well as on terrestrial and aquatic fauna. The development of purely technical possibilities within the investigation of the Soviet natural resources has been a great stimulant to the progress of geosciences. On one hand the new techniques required the assistance of scientific theories and methods, on the other they opened an inexhaustible source of information. Technical specialization accelerated the origin of new scientific branches which later on acquired their independence as disciplines of the geosciences. Some years ago, Soviet scientists such as G. A. AVSJUK, M. I. BUDYKO, A. A. GRIGORIEV, F. F. DAVITAYA, S. V. KALESNIK, W. B. SOCHAVA and myself have summarized the development occurred and the results achieved in various fields of physical geography, both from the theoretical and methodological view point. Their reports make evident the enormous progress in the following fields: ClimrrtoZogy: In the USSR, the theories concerning prevision and types of dimatic phenomena have successfully been developed based on dynamic meteorology and complex climat-
74
ography. There is a tendency to study the radiation balance and the circulation of humidity and their respective influence on the formation of the climate. Hydrology.’ Prominent subjects of research have been the theory of the water balance, and the relations which exist between different perimeters (superficial water, ground water) and their modes of transformation. Geo~~~~~: The dynamism of numerous exogene processes was studied (erosion, deflation, abrasion), In addition research was promoted on morphotectonics and morphostructure based on the general theory of interaction between internal and external forces whioh form the relief, and of the most recent crustal movements. Gkrciology: A theory was formed on the process of congelation after studying the exchange of mass and temperature in glaciers of various types. Pedology: Newly discovered soils of the taiga, the desert and the high-mountains were studied to understand the dynamism of soil formation and the circulation of chemical substances within the soil. B&geogrephy: Ecological studies on plant associations and animals were most successful. During the last few years, studies in this field have been extended to trophical analyses and to the discovery of quantitative laws the biomass follows in function of the environmental conditions. The results obtained in the above mentioned fields of research gradually became principal elements of our modern theoretical physical geography. Parallel to this it turned out to be more and more difficult to establish a general theory valid for the total complex of physical geography because of the increasing differentiation of its various disciplines. The search for general synthetic subjects was therefore intensified anticipating that they would marvellously help to link the somewhat diverging new physical-geographic disciplines. The most appropriate field of research in this respect is the study of the landscape. The origin of landscape study traces as far back as the scientific ideas of V. V. DOKUCHAEV which have duly been evaluated by L. S. BERG. Departing from the basic concept of the existence of certain combinations - or complexes - of mutually linked elements it was the first task of physical geography to study these complexes of the natural environment. They were suggested to be called natural landscapes. This approach aims at the revelation of the internal organization and of the very complex variety of local particularities of climate, relief, soil, vegetation and animal life. The greatest difficulty of the ecological approach consists in establishing appropriate methods for determining, describing and systematizing the intrinsic elements of the landscape. Landscape studies have been intensified mainly thanks to the successful research within the individual branch disciplines issued from geography in the past years, such as
pedology and plant ecology. Many scientists focussed their particular attention on the systematization and classification of their topic as well as on the principles and methods of their cartographic presentation. Unfortunately the results of their efforts both theoretical and practical often were insufficient and their discussion sometimes seemed to be too dogmatic. At the same time a general theory of physical geography developed under the influence of the ideas of V. V. DOKUCHAEV calling for a continuous exchange of energy and substance between the principal elements of the natural environment. DOKUCHAEV’s concept became the essential point of GRIGORIEV’s theory of the phyticogeographic sphere which was considered to be one of the spheres constituting the Earth like lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and also biosphere as understood by VERNADSKY. GRIGORIEV has shown in his studies that differences in the natural environment are essentially caused by the difference of temperature and humidity received on every point of the globe’s surface. This led to the conclusion that any process undergoing in the nature in general as well as in its various parts (i.e. landscapes) originates from energetic facts. In other words, this represents an approach to the landscape not from a mere description of its morphological character but from its dynamism, its structure and productive forces. Theoretical research in physical geography in the USSR has created conditions under which a global theory of geosciences may be born in the future.
2. Regional distribution of national industry. Increase of regianal productivity. Origin of regional geography
in the USSR. Problems of the distribution of national industries and of the regional development of their productivity have at all times been an important research field of the socio-economic sciences. They are not only revelant to economic geography but, as far as general laws are concerned, also to political economy. Due to their vital importance for the planned socialist economy these problems have always been associated with practical planning activities as carried out by state organizations. Thus the Marxist political economy exerted a quite natural influence on Soviet economic geography. The first elaborations, both scientific and practical, of economico-geographical problems done with regard to the Plan G. 0. E. L. R. 0. and associated with the names of G. N. KRZHIZHANOVSKY and I. G. ALEXANDROV have without any doubt initiated a new trend in econome ic and geographic sciences of the world. They supplied a scientific basis for dividing the country in economic districts and for the determination of areal units comprising centers of energy and industry. Soviet literature on
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this subject abounds in the treatment of genera! problems and methods of economic geography and specially of the development of what is called regionul direction. N. N. KOLQSOVSKY successfully applied theoretical and technical achievements to the problems of dividing the country into economic districts. Field research and ap plied studies on the geo~ap~c d~~ibution of resources in the USSR offer a vaste field of activity for a great number of economic geographers who are now employed at research instituties and planning organizations. One of the institutions involved in the investigation of territorial complexes, hence in regional planning, is the Council for Productive Forces (S. 0. P. S.), fast directed by S. G. STRUMILIN, later by V. S. NEMCHINOV, and today by N. N. NEKRASOV. Research of S. 0. P. S. revealed the important link which exists between study of recently developed areas, the discovery of natural resources, the estimation of their economic value and the plans for economic growth. This hind of geographic research by means of countless interdisciplinary activities characterizes Soviet geography which to a very large extent has been its inventor. Some long-term interdisciplinary programs carried out in Yakutia, Pamir, Kasakhstan and the Greater Caucasus are especially worth to be mentioned here. They were possible thanks to the combined
efforts of research institutes of different scientific orientation. The results of these expeditions are reported to the respective scientific councils and to special commissions of techno-economic practice. Furthermore, regional committees are informed about the results and instructed as to how the economic growth could be accelerated. Along with the studies on industry, agriculture and commerce, geographic investigation of settlement and population, both nation-wide and regional, have been promoted by big research programs. Within the prospective economic expansion a great importance is attributed to problems of urbanization, population migration and of administrative geography. New mathematical methods will certainly allow to answer the still pending questions in the near future. There is no doubt about the close cohaboration of economists and economic geographers solving soon the problems involved. The ~~rd~cip~~ activity is no longer considered being a handicap for the future development of one particular science. Quite to the contrary has it been proved that the neuralgic points of the most active and progressive scientific programs are frequently located at the joint of different sciences. Soviet geosciences will be understood as continuous interaction between ah its highly specialized branch disciplines and neighbouring sciences.