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Gainful utilization of waste glass for production of sulphuric acid resistance concrete
Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
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Gainful utilization of waste glass for production of sulphuric acid resistance concrete Kunal Bisht a,⇑, K.I. Syed Ahmed Kabeer b, P.V. Ramana c a
Department of Civil Engineering, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Crescent School of Architecture, B. S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India c Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India b
h i g h l i g h t s Waste glass up to 21% replacement was evaluated as a potential substitute of river sand for production of acid resistant concrete. The formed minerals and molecular groups were analysed throughXRD, FTIR, FESEM and TGA / DTA analyses after acidic exposure.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 6 June 2019 Received in revised form 15 October 2019 Accepted 4 November 2019
Keywords: Waste glass Sulphuric acid Microstructure
a b s t r a c t Waste glass aggregates produced from mixed coloured beverage bottles was utilized in concrete. The present work inspects the performance of concrete with waste glass at different replacement stages (18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23% and 24%) when subjected to acidic (sulphuric acid) atmosphere. Performance of concrete was evaluated by determining transformation in mass, compressive strength and micro-structure. Beverage bottles being made of soda lime was found to be sacrificial in nature when the concrete samples were exposed to acidic environment and thus protected the strength giving products of cement hydration from damage. This was proved by the findings shown in the results of compressive strength examination when the samples were subjected to the exposure conditions. Micro-structural study which was executed to confirm the outcomes of hardened properties by conducting X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermo-gravimetric analysis and field emission scanning electron microscopy tests showed the hydration products were relatively less damaged in the presence of waste glass. The positive result of using waste glass was effective only up to a substitution level of 21%. Increased porosity due to higher incorporation of waste glass, greater than 21% led to the fall in performance of initial mechanical properties. However, the acid resistance of the concrete mixes with a maximum amount of waste glass (24%) is higher by 54% in terms of compressive strength at the end of 90 days exposure period. It is concluded that the best optimized performance in terms of compressive strength and acid resistance can be obtained at 21% substitution level. Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Production of excess amount of waste has forced countries all around the globe to use fertile grounds as disposal units [1]. Disposal of glass waste also adds to this uncontrolled dumping issue which is troubling ecological balance around the globe. Glass being non-biodegradable in nature causes severe damage to the environment. To overcome this issue of improper glass waste handling, different methods have been considered for disposal of different varieties of waste glass (WG) [2]. Out of the many types of glass ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Bisht). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117486 0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
products, Avancini et al. (2018) [3] showed that borosilicate based WG can be used for the preparation of glass – ceramics which are magnetic in nature. These can be used in fields of biomedical engineering and magnetic resonance imaging to name a few. Monich et al. (2018) [4] used WG of both boro – alumino – silicate and soda lime origin for the production of glass foam with the aim of reducing the cost involved in producing the same. Disposal of solar panels also produces WG, which Jimenez - Millan et al. (2018) [5] evaluated as a degreaser for the manufacture of ceramic bricks. According to the authors, addition of WG had helped in reducing the high plasticity of the clay mineral sepiolite without which this mineral would be difficult to work with. WG can also be used in the manufacturing of clay blocks where the surplus residue was
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successfully employed by Mao et al. (2018) [6] to immobilize heavy metals in electroplating sludge. The variety in types of materials that can be produced using WG does not end here. WG cullet recovered from urban waste was tried as a replacement of water glass in the manufacturing of fly ash grounded geopolymer concrete. The results as presented by Toniolo et al. (2018) [7] suggested that such a replacement will further reduce the CO2 emission associated with production of an already eco-friendly construction material. WG can also be utilized in production of abrasives. Being rich in silica, WG can be consumed as fine aggregate for concrete production [3]. The above waste utilization techniques might lessen a significant amount of WG which would in turn reduce the associated health problems. This research aims in improving the extent of utilization of WG in concrete and hence some studies with waste glass as substitute of river sand are discussed below. Batayneh et al. [2], Du H and Tan KH [3] and Borhan [4] noticed increase in performance of concrete mixes due to pozzolanic activity of WG. On contrary to this Taha and Nounu [5] Ismail and Al Hashmi [6] and de Castro and de Brito [7] also noticed drop in hardened properties of concrete mixtures at different replacement levels river sand which is basically related with nature of WG used in these studies. For concrete structures to last for their entire service life, durability parameters play a key role. Resistance to deterioration of concrete when exposed to acidic atmosphere (sulphuric acid) is also an alarming concern. When exposed to such a medium, concretes longevity reduces which starts with surficial damage. This damage indicates the growth of reaction products which strip out the concrete surfaces, leading to change in mass, size and shape of the concrete [14]. Considerable progress has been done in the past to study the change in chemistry this composite would exhibit when subjected to an acidic medium [15]. The studies conclude that H2SO4 reacts with Ca(OH)2 which is present in concrete to form gypsum [16– 17]. Gypsum further bonds with calcium aluminate hydrate present in concrete and develops ettringite [18–21]. Ettringite has greater volume than the products from which it is generated and leads to the concrete’s deterioration [22]. There are studies that can be traced where effect of incorporation of glass in concrete on acid attack mechanism has been evaluated. On such study presented by Chen et al. (2006) [23], Ling et al. (2011) [24] and Ling and Poon (2011) [25] proved that when concrete prepared with waste electronic glass, recycled glass and waste glass bottles as an alternate for river sand showed reduced vulnerability to damage. The researchers demonstrated that usage of glass waste in concrete enhances its physical and mechanical properties thus displays positive consequence towards mass loss and strength variation in comparison with reference concrete (see Table 1).
Numerous researchers have evaluated the work on hardened characteristics of concrete samples with waste glass (WG). The prime motive of this study is to examine the variation produced in performance of concrete samples when WG and Portland pozzolana cement were blended together and subjected to acid curing. Secondly an attempt has also been made to study the microstructural variations happening in the cement matrix due to presence of WG when subjected to attack from an acidic medium. The techniques employed to judge this are listed in the subsequent sections. 2. Research origination Many researchers have noticed rise in hardened physical and mechanical properties by using waste glass in concrete mixtures as a replacement of river sand in range of 18% – 24% [2,8–13,25]. However, Bisht and Ramana [2] verified 21% substitution level as an optimum percentage. In the present study similar substitution levels were considered to achieve optimum substitution level when composites made with and without WG are exposed to acid attack (sulphuric acid). So as to exemplify the deterioration on these formed amalgams, different tests were performed which includes study of variation in mass and strength. Along with this, morphological characteristics of formed samples are examined by conducting X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). 3. Experimental outline 3.1. Materials In the current work fly-ash based Portland pozzolana cement with specific gravity of 3.11 was employed. This cement type satisfied the stipulations set by IS: 1489 (1991) [26] and ASTM C340-67 [27]. Elemental composition of cement captured using Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDAX) is reported in Table 2 and Fig. 1. River sand having specific gravity 2.66 is used which belonged to the grading curve classified as Zone 2 according to IS: 383–2016 [28]. The particle size grading of sand is presented in Fig. 2. Coarse aggregates (10 mm & 20 mm) having specific gravity of 2.59 were employed. The crushed mixed coloured beverage bottles WG as shown in Fig. 3 was allowed to pass through 600 mm sieve and retained on 150 mm sieve after which they were used to replace fine aggregate in various percentages. Fig. 4 shows the FE-SEM images of WG which illustrates uniform texture. The physical and mechanical features of raw-materials are listed in Table 3. Super-plasticizer (poly-carboxylic ether polymer based) was employed to attain proper workability.
Table 1 Summary of studies conducted for evaluating the effect of inclusion of waste glass in concrete. Author
Percentage Substitution & Source
Chemical Composition of Glass
Cementitious Material
Effect
Chen et al. (2006) [23]
10, 20, 30 and 40% Electronic Glass (38m 300 mm)
SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO
Portland Cement
Positive
Ling et al. (2011) [24]
Up to 100% Recycled Glass 23% Coarser (5–100 mm) Up to 100% Glass Bottles Large Glass (5–10 mm) Medium Glass (2.36 – 5 mm) Small Glass (<2.36 mm)
White Portland Cement + Metakaolin
Positive effect at higher substitution level
White Portland Cement + Metakaolin + Fly-ash
Positive
Ling and Poon (2011) [25]
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486 Table 2 Chemical composition of cement. Compound
Percentage
Free Lime Magnesium Oxide Alumina Calcium Oxide Ferric Oxide Silica Sodium Oxide Potassium Oxide
0.80% 1.11% 8.47% 44.75% 3.83% 32.01% 0.23% 0.42%
3.2. Mixture quantities The replacement of river sand with waste glass in concrete mixtures was done at different percentages as 0%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23% and 24% as mentioned in Table 4 having uniform water cement ratio (0.40). The nomenclature used for above mentioned substitution levels is WG0, WG18, WG19, WG20, WG21, WG22, WG23 and WG24 respectively. Replacement of river sand by waste glass was done on volume basis. Percentage of chemical admixture was adjusted appropriately to sustain compaction factor at 0.9. Mixing, casting and curing of materials were done as per ASTM C138 (2008) [37].
Fig. 3. Waste glass.
4. Experimental plan 4.1. Fresh property Fresh property of concrete mixture was inspected by conducting compaction factor test in accordance with IS 1199 (1959)
Fig. 4. FESEM of waste glass.
Fig. 1. Waste glass EDAX.
[38]. The test equipment contains 2 hopper vessels with hinges attached at the bottom of these vessels with a cylinder placed at the base. Freshly prepared concrete was allowed to pass through these pre-oiled vessels by opening the hinge. Then the placed concrete was allowed to fall in cylindrical container. Upper layer of the cylindrical container was levelled and then weight was noted. The measured weight was then deducted by the weight of unfilled cylindrical container. After that filled cylindrical container was compacted using a vibrator and then weight was noted. The determined weight was then subtracted by the weight of unfilled cylindrical container. The compaction factor was determined as per the provisions given in the code mentioned above.
4.2. Compressive strength
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of sand.
Compressive strength of the concrete mixes was evaluated on three numbers of 100 mm concrete cubes at an interval of 28 days, 90 days and 180 days water curing according to ASTM C39 / C39M [39] and IS 516 (1959) [30]. The cube specimens were tested for their strength under a fixed loading of 140 kg/cm2/min till specimen fractures.
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Table 3 Properties of raw materials. Analysis
Property
Results
PPC
Setting TimeIS 4031 (Part V) (1988) [29] Compressive Strength IS 516 (1959) [30]
Initial time – 115 min Final time – 248 min
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Waste Glass Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Waste Glass Cement Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Waste Glass Coarse Aggregate
Waste Glass
Waste Glass
3 Day – 24.5 MPa 7 Day – 34.5 MPa 28 Day – 45.2 MPa 0.50% 0.50% 0.30% 2.59 2.66 2.33 3.11 10, 20 mm < 4.75 mm 0.150 – 0.600 mm 24.03%
Water Absorption ASTM C 642 (2008) [31] Specific GravityIS 2386 (Part lll) (1963) [32] Size IS 383 (2016) [33] Crushing ValueIS 2386 (Part lV) (1963) [34] Pozzolanic ActivityASTM C311 (2003) [35] Alkali Silica ReactionIS 2386–7 (1963) [36]
82%
Not deleterious
subsequent exposure to acid. Samples of dimension 10 mm were sliced with a concrete grinder. Processed specimens were achieved by wet polishing on Buhler disks. The grinded specimens were further smoothened by using diamond paste and after that dried at 100 °C for one days. 4.6. Tga Thermal examination was performed on crushed samples at a heating degree of 10 °C/min from 27 °C up to 950 °C. Experiment was carried out in nitrogen atmosphere with a flow rate of 50 ml/min. 4.7. Ftir Infrared radiation was performed on crushed samples and inspected in the region between 450 cm 1 and 4500 cm. 1 Here one unit of crushed sample was blended with 300 units of Potassium bromide powder. Mixing was done carefully to cast pellets which were evaluated to spot the occurrence of molecular groups. 5. Results and discussions 5.1. Workability
4.3. Resistance to acid attack To judge the concrete specimen’s resistance to acid attack, ASTM C 267 – 97 [40] was used. The concrete performance was evaluated after 7 days, 28 days and 90 days of exposure to the acidic environment. The concrete samples of 100 mm size were oven dried and weighed, after which they were placed in a 3% diluted sulphuric acid until their testing period. Three samples were tested at every testing interval; and the solution was changed in three weeks. The performance of the specimens against acid attack was gauged with the respect to variation in weight and compressive strength as per ASTM C39 / C39M – 18 [39] and IS: 516-1959 [30] respectively. The outcomes of these observed values under acidic exposure were then compared with values obtained after 28-days of water cured samples.
In this research, quantity of chemical admixture to be included while mixing was precisely examined to retain their compaction factor value as 0.9 as illustrated in Fig. 5. From this figure we can see that the requirement of super – plasticizer increases with rise in WG percentage. When related to reference concrete, the mix with 24% of WG (WG24) has 33% more super – plasticizer content. This might be because, WG particles are finer than sand, have
4.4. Xrd After completion of hardened property test, the samples were crushed and passed by 90 mm IS sieve. The sieved powder of all mixes was examined by XRD technique at a scanning range of 10° 80° under CuKa radiation of wavelength 1.54 Å. 4.5. Fe-sem FE-SEM was employed to identify any microstructural changes if occurred in concrete samples by addition of WG and their
Fig. 5. Percentage of admixture in waste glass concrete mixes.
Table 4 Concrete mix proportions by weight for a constant w/c ratio (0.4). Mix Designation
Percentage of WG %
Cement
Fine Aggregate Kg/m3
Waste Glass
Coarse Aggregate
Admixture (%) by Weight of Cement %
WG0 WG18 WG19 WG20 WG21 WG22 WG23 WG24
0 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
384 384 384 384 384 384 384 384
811.2 665.2 657.1 648.9 640.8 632.7 624.6 616.5
0 127.9 135.0 142.1 149.2 156.3 163.4 170.5
1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7
1.50 1.70 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.90 1.95 2.0
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of waste glass concrete specimens.
Fig. 7. Change in weight for waste glass concrete specimens.
WG0
5
Fig. 9. a Compressive strength of waste glass concrete specimens after exposure to acidic medium.
Fig. 9b. Change in compressive strength for waste glass concrete specimens.
WG24
Fig. 8. Acid attacked waste glass concrete samples.
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sharp edges and are more angular in shape when compared to the sand particles they replace. These sharp edged and angular shaped glass particles reduce the viscosity of concrete mixture. Taha and Nounu (2009) [11] also noticed decrease in compaction factor when waste glass of size <5 mm was utilized as an alternative of natural sand. This was despite the fact that they had used WG which was coarser than sand, however the substitution was done at 50% and 100% when compared to a maximum of 24% used in this study. Park et al. [41] also observed comparable performance after using WG of dissimilar colours up to 70% substitution level. The consequences noticed by Limbachiya [10] and Chen et al. [23] at 50% replacement level substitution level were same. Limbachiya [10] had used WG of size smaller than 5 mm whereas, Chen et al. [23] had used WG of size ranging between 38 mm and 300 mm as fine aggregate.
(a) WG0
5.2. Compressive strength The compressive strength of water cured concrete cubes with and without waste glass were tested at an interval of 28 days, 90 days and 180 days as shown in Fig. 6. It can be said that the strength of concrete samples declined when WG of percentage value higher than 22% is introduced into the concrete mixes. As seen in the graph when WG is substituted between the range 18% – 20% compressive strength increases with respect to reference concrete. By substituting 20% of natural sand by WG in concrete mixtures shows a rise of 12.75%, 12.32% and 11.11% in compressive strength for 28 days, 90 days and 180 days cured specimens respectively. Inclusion of 21% WG in concrete mixture resulted in a fall of 3.47%, 9.6% and 0.8% compressive strength for 28 days, 90 days and 180 days respectively, as compared to 20%
(b) WG18
(d) WG22
(c) WG20
(e) WG24 Fig. 10. XRD analysis of waste glass concrete samples; where, P-Portlandite, CS – Calcium Silicate Hydrate, Q - Quartz, B – Brucite.
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
substitution level. But, as compared with WG0 mix, an increase of 12.95%, 12.31% and 11.11% exists for the W20 specimens. Chen et al. (2006) [23] also reported superior strength of mixes with 20% of WG, which they related to the pozzolanic activity of WG. Kunal and Ramana (2018) [2] had proved that, on inclusion of WG into a PPC based concrete mix, increases its apparent density. This increase in density of impermeable voids contributes to better resistance to compressive stresses up to a substitution level of 20%. However, an observation made by Ismail and AL-Hashmi (2009) [12] for 20% substitution of natural sand by waste glass constituents of size 150 m – 4.75 mm points out that the compressive strength of such a mixture is comparable with the reference mixture. Fig. 6 also shows that with incorporation of 24% of waste glass, strength reduced by 8.43%, 15.46% and 25.93% for 28 days, 90 days and 180 days respectively in comparison with reference sample. This reduction in strength can be due to incorporation of extreme fine WG which creates voids, which was illustrated by Kunal and
Ramana (2018) [2] by the fall in bulk density and void calculation. This would imply that the positive effect of higher apparent density is significant only up to 21% inclusion level of WG. After which increase in void content negates the constructive influence of densified impermeable pore areas. Limbachiya (2009) [42] has also mentioned that a reduction in compressive strength with substitution level higher than 20% might be due to the formation of voids. 5.3. Acid attack 5.3.1. Mass change Variation in mass of concrete cube samples when exposed to acidic atmosphere is shown in Fig. 7. From this figure it can be noticed that incorporation of waste glass in concrete mixtures decreases the mass loss. Till 28-days of acid curing, mass has shown to increase for all concrete mixtures. This can be due to absorbing the acid solution and leading to the formation of products like ettringite. As the exposure increases up to 90-days, mass
Basanite Voids
(a) WG0 Water curing
7
(b) WG0 Water curing
Basanite
(c) WG18 Water curing
(d) WG18 Water curing
(e) WG20 Water curing
(f) WG20 Water curing
Fig. 11. FESEM analysis of waste glass concrete specimens.
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Voids
(h) WG22 Water curing
Thenardite
(g) WG22 Water curing
Basanite
(i) WG24 Water curing
(j) WG24 Water curing
Thenardite Basanite
Fig. 11 (continued)
loss was observed. The damage in this duration is associated with removal of top layer of concrete cubes. A maximum damage of 9.06% was detected for control mixture as compared to 3.73% at 24% substitution. This reduced damage in mass might be due to sacrificial nature of WG which prevents the deterioration of
cement matrix. Hence there is lesser mortar paste being lost on continued exposure. Also, the products formed between the reaction of WG and sulphuric acid might possess better binding properties than ettringite. Wang (2009) [43] also reported lower change in weight loss when WG (4.76 – 0.076 mm) was utilised as an
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
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Fig. 12. TGA / DTA analysis of waste glass concrete samples.
alternative of river sand in concrete mixes. In a similar manner, Ling and Poon (2011) [25] also described similar behaviour of mortar samples when waste glass (60% < 2.36 mm and 40% 2.36 mm – 5 mm) was introduced. From Fig. 8 it has also been observed that scaling occurs more on control samples which results into destruction of surface layers as compared to WG concrete sample. 5.3.2. Resistance to compressive strength The alteration in compressive strength for acid infected samples is illustrated in Fig. 9(a) and change in compressive strength is presented in Fig. 9(b). Increase and decrease of compressive strength depend on the development of end product like ettringite and their removal in to the acidic solution. It has been understood that when samples were exposed for 7 days, WG24 mixture displayed increase (18.18%) in compressive strength as related with WG0 mixture (3.22%). Rise in compressive strength for waste glass included mixes can be associated with increased void content
which permits extra sulphate ions to enter in concrete sample. The developed ettringite firstly enact as a filler, thus ehances the compressive strength of concrete cubes. This can also be due to sacrificial nature waste glass as compared to natural sand it substitutes. Waste glass might have dissolved in the acid solution and the chemical product is lesser harmful than ettringite. When the exposure duration is further stretched up to 90-days, extreme decrease in compressive strength was detected for reference samples as compared to 24% substitution samples. The chief reduction of 53.84% in compressive strength was noticed for control samples after 90 days of exposure as compared to 22.39% at 24% substitution level. As the exposure period increases, the filler behaviour of reaction products tends to dominate as it captures more volume than the products from which it is generated. Thus, this leads to internal stresses resulting into formation of new cracks, as a result of which decreased compressive strength has been noticed for all mixtures. Whereas for mixes with WG, the
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Fig. 12 (continued)
negative of effect of ettringite formation is negated by the reactive nature of waste glass which reduces the loss in compressive strength with increase in WG content. Ling et al. (2011) [24] also conveyed that waste glass (5– 100 mm) represents as an obstacle against acid attack (3% H2SO4) when utilized as fine aggregate up to 100% substitution for mortar samples. Even after an exposure period of three months, mixes with higher substitution stages of WG showed healthier results as compared to reference samples. In a comparable way, Ling and Poon (2011) [25] also observed constructive outcome for concrete mixtures casted with WG (60% < 2.36 mm and 40% 2.36 mm – 5 mm) as an alternative of natural sand when exposed to acid curing for 3 months. 5.4. XRD analysis XRD analysis was conducted on concrete mixes with and without WG after 28-days of hydration and exposure to acidic medium for 28 days and 90 days to identify the mineralogical composition.
The X – ray diffractograms are shown in Fig. 10. It can be seen that there is no definite pattern obtained in the variation of the peaks corresponding to CSH (PDF No. 00–020-0452) with addition of WG. The peaks associated with mullite and CASH also overlap with the peaks associated with quartz mineral from sand (20.86°, 26.64°) (PDF 01-085-0798). The peaks associated with Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) (PDF 00-044-1481) (34.09°, 18.09° and 47.12°) show gradual reduction in peak intensities with incorporation of WG. The above three minerals were also checked in specimens which were subjected to acid attack. It was noticed that Portlandite intensity reduces progressively on increase to acid exposure time. Simultaneously, there is no creation of new peaks at angle 31° accompanied by increase in intensity of peaks at 14° and 29°. This increase may be due to the formation of basanite (PDF 00-0330310) (29.69°, 14.75°, 31.85°, 25.65° and 49.29°) as a result of action of sulphuric acid on portlandite and CSH. The effect of acid on CSH in glass incorporated samples is relatively lesser as seen by the reduction in intensity of peak at 50° associated to CSH. In control sample this peak vanishes after 28 days of exposure,
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
11
Fig. 12 (continued)
whereas for samples with WG this peak refuse to die down. Samples made with WG also show characteristically higher peaks at 28° when compared to the one with only river sand. These peaks can be assigned to which is formed on dissolution of glass on exposure to acid. Therefore, it can be concluded that glass plays a sacrificial role by undergoing damage and hence neutralizing the acid. This leads to the safeguard of CSH and CH which helps the control samples to retain their strength at the end of the test period. 5.5. FESEM analysis FESEM micrographs were examined for 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% concrete samples after 28-dayss of hydration as shown in Fig. 11. CSH and CASH gel was detected in the micrographs and their existence is also confirmed by conducting X-ray diffraction (Fig. 10) analysis. The dark marks are cavities, leathery fraction which is condensed in presence is CSH and CASH gel. For WG0 samples, a strong bonding can be witnessed in comparison with WG18 and WG20 mixes. Thus, enhances the hardened characteris-
tics of concrete samples as demonstrated in Fig. 6. It can be noticed that incorporation of WG in concrete mixtures does not mark in development of any new composite. This has been validated through X-ray diffraction analysis as presented in Fig. 10. Presence of basanite was observed as a reaction product of Portlandite and sulphuric acid (Olmstead and Hamlin (1900)) [44]. The existence of basanite was noticed via X-ray diffraction analysis at 22° (Fig. 10). As seen from the micrograph presence of thernadite was also noticed in WG incorporated samples when exposed to acidic medium. Hence, formation of thernadite confirms the sacrificial nature of waste glass when concrete samples exposed to H2SO4. This leads to smaller variation in weight (Fig. 8) and compressive strength (Fig. 9) for waste glass included mixtures when compared with WG0 mix. 5.6. TGA analysis Thermo-gravimetric analysis was performed on samples with 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% WG after exposure of 28-days and 90 days and then related with 28-days water cured specimens as
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Fig. 12 (continued)
presented in Fig. 12. Changes were observed for all samples after exposure of 28 days and 90 days to acidic medium as mentioned in Table 5. Percentage weight loss was measured for C-S-H gel, ettringite etc. after 28-days for water cured samples at a substitution level of 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% is estimated as 1.20%, 1.35%, 1.75%, 1.27% and 0.99% respectively. Thus, this specifies that the development of chemically bounded water is more noticeable in WG concrete samples as compared to reference sample. Samples subjected to 28 days of acidic curing showed greater weight loss in the temperature range of 70 °C 170 °C. This weight loss rises with increase in substitution level. This can be because of occurrence of highly reactive waste glass in concrete mixtures which undergoes decomposition when it comes in contact with the acid, after which it forms hydrous compounds of sodium sulphate. By acting as a sacrificial material, it prevents disintegration of CSH and CASH compounds and hence lesser the variation in compressive strength (Fig. 9). Though, no changes have been detected in terms of deterioration of calcium hydroxide at 410–470 °C with inclusion of WG. The variations remain nearly
Table 5 TGA investigated on waste glass concrete samples. MIX No.
WG0 28 Day Water Curing WG0 28 Day Acid Curing WG0 90 Day Acid Curing WG18 28 Day Water Curing WG18 28 Day Acid Curing WG18 90 Day Acid Curing WG20 28 Day Water Curing WG20 28 Day Acid Curing WG20 90 Day Acid Curing WG22 28 Day Water Curing WG22 28 Day Acid Curing WG22 90 Day Acid Curing WG24 28 Day Water Curing WG24 28 Day Acid Curing WG24 90 Day Acid Curing
Weight Loss (%) 70–170 °C
225–320 °C
410–470 °C
1.2 2.34 2.11 1.35 2.79 1.82 1.75 2.69 2.25 1.27 2.89 2.68 0.99 2.87 2.77
0.9 1.25 0.8 0.86 1.14 0.57 0.82 1.41 0.82 0.81 1.03 0.69 0.69 0.94 0.55
0.64 0.84 0.5 0.58 0.68 0.38 0.56 0.75 0.50 0.67 0.58 0.45 0.71 0.56 0.42
uniform for waste glass amalgamated concrete mixtures in this temperature range.
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
(a) WG0
(b) WG18
(c) WG20
(d) WG22
(e) WG24 Fig. 13. FTIR analysis of waste glass concrete samples.
13
14
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Table 6 FTIR wave numbers investigated on waste glass concrete samples. MIX No.
WG0 28 Day Water Curing WG0 28 Day Acid Curing WG0 90 Day Acid Curing WG18 28 Day Water Curing WG18 28 Day Acid Curing WG18 90 Day Acid Curing WG20 28 Day Water Curing WG20 28 Day Acid Curing WG20 90 Day Acid Curing WG22 28 Day Water Curing WG22 28 Day Acid Curing WG22 28 Day Acid Curing WG24 28 Day Water Curing WG24 28 Day Acid Curing WG24 28 Day Acid Curing
Molecular Group (cm
Declaration of Competing Interest
1
)
Portlandite
Si-O-Al
SO24
3641 3611 3610 3643 3608 3609 3641 3609 3608 3643 3610 3610 3639 3608 3609
1017 1008 1006 1007 1017 1016 1008 1009 1017 1008 1010 1020 1007 1008 1011
– 1153 1152 – 1153 1157 – 1152 1155 – 1152 1153 – 1152 1152
5.7. Fourier transform infrared radiation analysis Fig. 13 displays FT-IR spectrum at 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% substitution levels. The figure stated above displays that with rise in time for acid curing of concrete samples, breakdown of Portlandite (peak around 3643 cm 1 [45]) intensifies as a consequence of which calcium sulphate was formed. Calcium sulphate marks its presence as a Basanite mineral (CaSO40.5H2O) for acid cured samples which can be identified by the peak around wave number 1150 cm 1 [46]. The occurrence of this compound has been confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis (Fig. 11). It can be detected from Table 6 that there is substantial variation monitored in concrete samples with incorporation of waste glass. Hence, waste glass performs sacrificially due to formation of sodium sulphate (460 cm 1) which was also detected through XRD analysis (27.58°) (Fig. 11). However, control mix samples do not indicate the presence of this compound. Thus, this directs better performance regarding weight loss (Fig. 8) and variation in compressive strength (Fig. 9) with inclusion of waste glass.
6. Conclusions Slight variation has been noticed in weight and compressive strength when WG incorporated concrete cubes were exposed to acid curing. This is associated with early reaction of waste glass with H2SO4 thus results into formation of sodium sulphate which does not allow decomposition of cementitious materials. However, notable changes have been detected for WG0 mix concrete sample due to production of ettringite and gypsum. The formed sodium sulphate, ettringite and gypsum were spotted by conducting X-ray diffraction analysis and occurrence of SO24 group was confirmed through FT-IR analysis. FE-SEM was also carried out to confirm the modified micro-structure after exposed to acidic environment. Thermo-gravimetric analysis also shows that consumption of Ca(OH)2 was same in control concrete as compared to WG contained concrete samples. However, the sacrificial nature of WG protects CSH and CASH from deterioration. Higher the replacement range of WG, lesser the degree of drop in strength when compared to reference samples. However, since there WG increases the porosity of the concrete matrix above 20% substitution level, the initial strength after 28 days of water curing is lesser than the control concrete. This limitation restricts the utilisation of WG to a maximum of 20% only. Hence as a future scope of study the initial porosity of WG incorporated concrete mixes can be brought down to by altering the grading of the dry concrete mix by increasing the usage of WG.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgment Authors are thankful to Materials Research Centre, MNIT Jaipur for their support in conducting FESEM, FTIR, TGA / DTA and XRD analyses. References [1] K. Bisht, P.V. Ramana, Evaluation of mechanical and durability properties of crumb rubber concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 155 (2017) 811–817. [2] K. Bisht, P.V. Ramana, Sustainable production of concrete containing discarded beverage glass as fine aggregate, Constr. Build. Mater. 177 (2018) 116–124, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.119. [3] T.G. Avancini, M.T. Souza, A.P.N. de Oliveira, S. Arcaro, A.K. Alves, Magnetic properties of magnetite-based nano-glass-ceramics obtained from a Fe-rich scale and borosilicate glass wastes, Ceram. Int. (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ceramint.2018.11.111. [4] P.R. Monich, A.R. Romero, D. Höllen, E. Bernardo, Porous glass-ceramics from alkali activation and sinter-crystallization of mixtures of waste glass and residues from plasma processing of municipal solid waste, J. Clean. Prod. 188 (2018) 871–878, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.167. [5] J. Jimenez-Millan, I. Abad, R. Jimenez-Espinosa, A. Yebra-Rodriguez, Assessment of solar panel waste glass in the manufacture of sepiolite based clay bricks, Mater. Lett. 218 (2018) 346–348, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.matlet.2018.02.049. [6] L. Mao, H. Guo, W. Zhang, Addition of waste glass for improving the immobilization of heavy metals during the use of electroplating sludge in the production of clay bricks, Constr. Build. Mater. 163 (2018) 875–879, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.177. [7] N. Toniolo, A. Rincón, J.A. Roether, P. Ercole, E. Bernardo, A.R. Boccaccini, Extensive reuse of soda-lime waste glass in fly ash-based geopolymers, Constr. Build. Mater. 188 (2018) 1077–1084, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2018.08.096. [8] Batayneh Malek, Marie Iqbal, Asi Ibrahim, Use of selected waste materials in concrete mixes, Waste Manage. 27 (2007) 1870–1876. [9] Hongjian Du and Kiang Hwee Tan, Concrete with recycled glass as fine aggregates, ACI Mater. J. 111 (1) (2014) 45–58. [10] Borhan Tumadhir Merawi, Properties of glass concrete reinforced with short basalt fibre, Mater. Des. 42 (2012) 265–271. [11] Ta.ha. Bashar, Nounu Ghassan, Properties of concrete contains mixed colour waste recycled glass as sand and cement replacement, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (2008) 713–720. [12] Z. Ismail Zainab, Al-Hashmi Enas, Recycling of WG as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in concrete, Waste Manage. 29 (2009) 655–659. [13] de Castro Sara, de Brito Jorge, Evaluation of the durability of concrete made with crushed glass aggregates, J. Clean Prod. 41 (2013) 7–14. [14] J. Daczko, D. Johnson, S. Amey, Decreasing concrete sewer pipe degradation using admixtures, Mater. Perform. 36 (1) (1997) 51–56. [15] V. Zivica, A. Bazja, Acid attack of cement-based materials—a review. Part 1 principle of acid attack, Constr. Build. Mater. 15 (2001) 331–340. [16] J. Monteny, E. Vincke, A. Beeldens, N. De Belie, L. Taerwe, D. Van Gemert, W. Verstraete, Chemical, microbiological, and in situ test methods for biogenic sulfuric acid corrosion of concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2000) 623e634, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00219-2. [17] J. Monteny, N. De Belie, E. Vincke, W. Verstraete, L. Taerwe, Chemical and microbiological tests to simulate sulfuric acid corrosion of polymer-modified concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (2001) 1359–1365, https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0008-8846(01)00565-8. [18] S. Lee, R. Hooton, H. Jung, D. Park, C. Choi, Effect of limestone filler on the deterioration of mortars and pastes exposed to sulfate solutions at ambient temperature, Cem. Concr. Res. 38 (2008) 68–76. [19] D. Planel, Les effets couplés de la précipitation d’espèces secondaires sur le comportement mécanique et la dégradation chimique des bétons. PhD thesis, Univ. Marne-la-Vallée, France; (2002) [in French]. [20] M. Santhanam, M.D. Cohen, J. Olek, Mechanism of sulfate attack: a fresh look. Part 1: summary of experimental results, Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (2002) 325–332. [21] T. Schmidt, B. Lothenbach, M. Romer, J. Neuenschwander, K. Scrivener, Physical and microstructural aspects of sulfate attack on ordinary and limestone blended Portland cements, Cem. Concr. Res. 39 (2009) 1111–1121. [22] J. Skalny, J. Marchand, Odler I. Sulfate attack on concrete, Spon Press, 2002. [23] C.H. Chen, R. Huang, J.K. Wu, C.C. Yang, Waste E-glass particles used in cementitious mixtures, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 449–456. [24] T.C. Ling, C.S. Poon, S.C. Kou, Feasibility of using recycled glass in architectural cement mortars, Cem. Concr. Compos. 33 (2011) 848–854. [25] T.C. Ling, C.S. Poon, Properties of architectural mortar prepared with recycled glass with different particle sizes, Mater. Des. 32 (2011) 2675–2684.
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486 [26] IS 1489, Portland Pozzolana Cement-Specification Part 1 Fly Ash Based, Bureau of Indian Standards (New Delhi, India), 1991. [27] ASTM C340-67, 1967. Specification for Portland-Pozzolan Cement. Astm. [28] IS 383, Coarse and Fine Aggregate for Concrete - Specification, Bureau of Indian Standards (New Delhi, India), 2016. [29] IS-4031 (Part V):1988, Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cementdetermination of initial and final setting times, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi. (1988). [30] IS 516, Method of Tests for Strength of Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards (New Delhi, India), 1959. [31] ASTM C 642, Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards (Pennsylvania, USA), 2006. doi:10.1520/C0642-13.5. [32] IS:2386 (Part lll), Method of Test for aggregate for concrete., Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi. (1963) (Reaffirmed 2002). [33] IS 2386 (Part I), Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete Part I Particle Size and Shape, Bureau of Indian Standards (New Delhi, India), 1963. [34] IS 2386 (Part IV), Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete Part 4 Mechanical Properties, Bureau of Indian Standards (New Delhi, India), 1963. [35] ASTM C311, 2003. Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use. Glass 04, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1520/C0311 [36] IS:2386-7, Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete , Part VII : Alkali Aggregate Reactivity, (1963) 8–11.
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[37] ASTM C138 / C138M – 08. Standard Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete. 10.1520/C0138_C0138M-08 [38] IS:1199, 1959. Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. [39] ASTM C39 / C39M – 18. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. 10.1520/C0039_C0039M-18 [40] ASTM C267, Standard Test Methods for Chemical Resistance of Mortars, Astm i (1997) 2–7. [41] S.B. Park, B.C. Lee, J.H. Kim, Studies on mechanical properties of concrete containing waste glass aggregate, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2004) 2181–2189. [42] M.C. Limbachiya, Bulk engineering and durability properties of washed glass sand concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 1078–1083. [43] H.Y. Wang, A study of the effects of LCD glass sand on the properties of concrete, Waste Manag. 29 (2009) 335–341. [44] W. Olmstead, H. Hamlin, Converting portions of the Los Angeles outfall sewer into a septic tank (1990), https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27710-2. [45] V. Bulatovic´, M. Melešev, M. Radeka, V. Radonjanin, I. Lukic´, Evaluation of sulfate resistance of concrete with recycled and natural aggregates, Constr. Build. Mater. 152 (2017) 614–631, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2017.06.161. [46] H.K. Choudhary, A.V. Anupama, R. Kumar, M.E. Panzi, S. Matteppanavar, B.N. Sherikar, B. Sahoo, Observation of phase transformations in cement during hydration, Constr. Build. Mater. 101 (2015) 122–129, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.conbuildmat.2015.10.027.
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Gainful utilization of waste glass for production of sulphuric acid resistance concrete Kunal Bisht a,⇑, K.I. Syed Ahmed Kabeer b, P.V. Ramana c a
Department of Civil Engineering, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Crescent School of Architecture, B. S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India c Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India b
h i g h l i g h t s Waste glass up to 21% replacement was evaluated as a potential substitute of river sand for production of acid resistant concrete. The formed minerals and molecular groups were analysed throughXRD, FTIR, FESEM and TGA / DTA analyses after acidic exposure.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 6 June 2019 Received in revised form 15 October 2019 Accepted 4 November 2019
Keywords: Waste glass Sulphuric acid Microstructure
a b s t r a c t Waste glass aggregates produced from mixed coloured beverage bottles was utilized in concrete. The present work inspects the performance of concrete with waste glass at different replacement stages (18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23% and 24%) when subjected to acidic (sulphuric acid) atmosphere. Performance of concrete was evaluated by determining transformation in mass, compressive strength and micro-structure. Beverage bottles being made of soda lime was found to be sacrificial in nature when the concrete samples were exposed to acidic environment and thus protected the strength giving products of cement hydration from damage. This was proved by the findings shown in the results of compressive strength examination when the samples were subjected to the exposure conditions. Micro-structural study which was executed to confirm the outcomes of hardened properties by conducting X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermo-gravimetric analysis and field emission scanning electron microscopy tests showed the hydration products were relatively less damaged in the presence of waste glass. The positive result of using waste glass was effective only up to a substitution level of 21%. Increased porosity due to higher incorporation of waste glass, greater than 21% led to the fall in performance of initial mechanical properties. However, the acid resistance of the concrete mixes with a maximum amount of waste glass (24%) is higher by 54% in terms of compressive strength at the end of 90 days exposure period. It is concluded that the best optimized performance in terms of compressive strength and acid resistance can be obtained at 21% substitution level. Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Production of excess amount of waste has forced countries all around the globe to use fertile grounds as disposal units [1]. Disposal of glass waste also adds to this uncontrolled dumping issue which is troubling ecological balance around the globe. Glass being non-biodegradable in nature causes severe damage to the environment. To overcome this issue of improper glass waste handling, different methods have been considered for disposal of different varieties of waste glass (WG) [2]. Out of the many types of glass ⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Bisht). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117486 0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
products, Avancini et al. (2018) [3] showed that borosilicate based WG can be used for the preparation of glass – ceramics which are magnetic in nature. These can be used in fields of biomedical engineering and magnetic resonance imaging to name a few. Monich et al. (2018) [4] used WG of both boro – alumino – silicate and soda lime origin for the production of glass foam with the aim of reducing the cost involved in producing the same. Disposal of solar panels also produces WG, which Jimenez - Millan et al. (2018) [5] evaluated as a degreaser for the manufacture of ceramic bricks. According to the authors, addition of WG had helped in reducing the high plasticity of the clay mineral sepiolite without which this mineral would be difficult to work with. WG can also be used in the manufacturing of clay blocks where the surplus residue was
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successfully employed by Mao et al. (2018) [6] to immobilize heavy metals in electroplating sludge. The variety in types of materials that can be produced using WG does not end here. WG cullet recovered from urban waste was tried as a replacement of water glass in the manufacturing of fly ash grounded geopolymer concrete. The results as presented by Toniolo et al. (2018) [7] suggested that such a replacement will further reduce the CO2 emission associated with production of an already eco-friendly construction material. WG can also be utilized in production of abrasives. Being rich in silica, WG can be consumed as fine aggregate for concrete production [3]. The above waste utilization techniques might lessen a significant amount of WG which would in turn reduce the associated health problems. This research aims in improving the extent of utilization of WG in concrete and hence some studies with waste glass as substitute of river sand are discussed below. Batayneh et al. [2], Du H and Tan KH [3] and Borhan [4] noticed increase in performance of concrete mixes due to pozzolanic activity of WG. On contrary to this Taha and Nounu [5] Ismail and Al Hashmi [6] and de Castro and de Brito [7] also noticed drop in hardened properties of concrete mixtures at different replacement levels river sand which is basically related with nature of WG used in these studies. For concrete structures to last for their entire service life, durability parameters play a key role. Resistance to deterioration of concrete when exposed to acidic atmosphere (sulphuric acid) is also an alarming concern. When exposed to such a medium, concretes longevity reduces which starts with surficial damage. This damage indicates the growth of reaction products which strip out the concrete surfaces, leading to change in mass, size and shape of the concrete [14]. Considerable progress has been done in the past to study the change in chemistry this composite would exhibit when subjected to an acidic medium [15]. The studies conclude that H2SO4 reacts with Ca(OH)2 which is present in concrete to form gypsum [16– 17]. Gypsum further bonds with calcium aluminate hydrate present in concrete and develops ettringite [18–21]. Ettringite has greater volume than the products from which it is generated and leads to the concrete’s deterioration [22]. There are studies that can be traced where effect of incorporation of glass in concrete on acid attack mechanism has been evaluated. On such study presented by Chen et al. (2006) [23], Ling et al. (2011) [24] and Ling and Poon (2011) [25] proved that when concrete prepared with waste electronic glass, recycled glass and waste glass bottles as an alternate for river sand showed reduced vulnerability to damage. The researchers demonstrated that usage of glass waste in concrete enhances its physical and mechanical properties thus displays positive consequence towards mass loss and strength variation in comparison with reference concrete (see Table 1).
Numerous researchers have evaluated the work on hardened characteristics of concrete samples with waste glass (WG). The prime motive of this study is to examine the variation produced in performance of concrete samples when WG and Portland pozzolana cement were blended together and subjected to acid curing. Secondly an attempt has also been made to study the microstructural variations happening in the cement matrix due to presence of WG when subjected to attack from an acidic medium. The techniques employed to judge this are listed in the subsequent sections. 2. Research origination Many researchers have noticed rise in hardened physical and mechanical properties by using waste glass in concrete mixtures as a replacement of river sand in range of 18% – 24% [2,8–13,25]. However, Bisht and Ramana [2] verified 21% substitution level as an optimum percentage. In the present study similar substitution levels were considered to achieve optimum substitution level when composites made with and without WG are exposed to acid attack (sulphuric acid). So as to exemplify the deterioration on these formed amalgams, different tests were performed which includes study of variation in mass and strength. Along with this, morphological characteristics of formed samples are examined by conducting X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). 3. Experimental outline 3.1. Materials In the current work fly-ash based Portland pozzolana cement with specific gravity of 3.11 was employed. This cement type satisfied the stipulations set by IS: 1489 (1991) [26] and ASTM C340-67 [27]. Elemental composition of cement captured using Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDAX) is reported in Table 2 and Fig. 1. River sand having specific gravity 2.66 is used which belonged to the grading curve classified as Zone 2 according to IS: 383–2016 [28]. The particle size grading of sand is presented in Fig. 2. Coarse aggregates (10 mm & 20 mm) having specific gravity of 2.59 were employed. The crushed mixed coloured beverage bottles WG as shown in Fig. 3 was allowed to pass through 600 mm sieve and retained on 150 mm sieve after which they were used to replace fine aggregate in various percentages. Fig. 4 shows the FE-SEM images of WG which illustrates uniform texture. The physical and mechanical features of raw-materials are listed in Table 3. Super-plasticizer (poly-carboxylic ether polymer based) was employed to attain proper workability.
Table 1 Summary of studies conducted for evaluating the effect of inclusion of waste glass in concrete. Author
Percentage Substitution & Source
Chemical Composition of Glass
Cementitious Material
Effect
Chen et al. (2006) [23]
10, 20, 30 and 40% Electronic Glass (38m 300 mm)
SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO
Portland Cement
Positive
Ling et al. (2011) [24]
Up to 100% Recycled Glass 23% Coarser (5–100 mm) Up to 100% Glass Bottles Large Glass (5–10 mm) Medium Glass (2.36 – 5 mm) Small Glass (<2.36 mm)
White Portland Cement + Metakaolin
Positive effect at higher substitution level
White Portland Cement + Metakaolin + Fly-ash
Positive
Ling and Poon (2011) [25]
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486 Table 2 Chemical composition of cement. Compound
Percentage
Free Lime Magnesium Oxide Alumina Calcium Oxide Ferric Oxide Silica Sodium Oxide Potassium Oxide
0.80% 1.11% 8.47% 44.75% 3.83% 32.01% 0.23% 0.42%
3.2. Mixture quantities The replacement of river sand with waste glass in concrete mixtures was done at different percentages as 0%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23% and 24% as mentioned in Table 4 having uniform water cement ratio (0.40). The nomenclature used for above mentioned substitution levels is WG0, WG18, WG19, WG20, WG21, WG22, WG23 and WG24 respectively. Replacement of river sand by waste glass was done on volume basis. Percentage of chemical admixture was adjusted appropriately to sustain compaction factor at 0.9. Mixing, casting and curing of materials were done as per ASTM C138 (2008) [37].
Fig. 3. Waste glass.
4. Experimental plan 4.1. Fresh property Fresh property of concrete mixture was inspected by conducting compaction factor test in accordance with IS 1199 (1959)
Fig. 4. FESEM of waste glass.
Fig. 1. Waste glass EDAX.
[38]. The test equipment contains 2 hopper vessels with hinges attached at the bottom of these vessels with a cylinder placed at the base. Freshly prepared concrete was allowed to pass through these pre-oiled vessels by opening the hinge. Then the placed concrete was allowed to fall in cylindrical container. Upper layer of the cylindrical container was levelled and then weight was noted. The measured weight was then deducted by the weight of unfilled cylindrical container. After that filled cylindrical container was compacted using a vibrator and then weight was noted. The determined weight was then subtracted by the weight of unfilled cylindrical container. The compaction factor was determined as per the provisions given in the code mentioned above.
4.2. Compressive strength
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of sand.
Compressive strength of the concrete mixes was evaluated on three numbers of 100 mm concrete cubes at an interval of 28 days, 90 days and 180 days water curing according to ASTM C39 / C39M [39] and IS 516 (1959) [30]. The cube specimens were tested for their strength under a fixed loading of 140 kg/cm2/min till specimen fractures.
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Table 3 Properties of raw materials. Analysis
Property
Results
PPC
Setting TimeIS 4031 (Part V) (1988) [29] Compressive Strength IS 516 (1959) [30]
Initial time – 115 min Final time – 248 min
Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Waste Glass Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Waste Glass Cement Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Waste Glass Coarse Aggregate
Waste Glass
Waste Glass
3 Day – 24.5 MPa 7 Day – 34.5 MPa 28 Day – 45.2 MPa 0.50% 0.50% 0.30% 2.59 2.66 2.33 3.11 10, 20 mm < 4.75 mm 0.150 – 0.600 mm 24.03%
Water Absorption ASTM C 642 (2008) [31] Specific GravityIS 2386 (Part lll) (1963) [32] Size IS 383 (2016) [33] Crushing ValueIS 2386 (Part lV) (1963) [34] Pozzolanic ActivityASTM C311 (2003) [35] Alkali Silica ReactionIS 2386–7 (1963) [36]
82%
Not deleterious
subsequent exposure to acid. Samples of dimension 10 mm were sliced with a concrete grinder. Processed specimens were achieved by wet polishing on Buhler disks. The grinded specimens were further smoothened by using diamond paste and after that dried at 100 °C for one days. 4.6. Tga Thermal examination was performed on crushed samples at a heating degree of 10 °C/min from 27 °C up to 950 °C. Experiment was carried out in nitrogen atmosphere with a flow rate of 50 ml/min. 4.7. Ftir Infrared radiation was performed on crushed samples and inspected in the region between 450 cm 1 and 4500 cm. 1 Here one unit of crushed sample was blended with 300 units of Potassium bromide powder. Mixing was done carefully to cast pellets which were evaluated to spot the occurrence of molecular groups. 5. Results and discussions 5.1. Workability
4.3. Resistance to acid attack To judge the concrete specimen’s resistance to acid attack, ASTM C 267 – 97 [40] was used. The concrete performance was evaluated after 7 days, 28 days and 90 days of exposure to the acidic environment. The concrete samples of 100 mm size were oven dried and weighed, after which they were placed in a 3% diluted sulphuric acid until their testing period. Three samples were tested at every testing interval; and the solution was changed in three weeks. The performance of the specimens against acid attack was gauged with the respect to variation in weight and compressive strength as per ASTM C39 / C39M – 18 [39] and IS: 516-1959 [30] respectively. The outcomes of these observed values under acidic exposure were then compared with values obtained after 28-days of water cured samples.
In this research, quantity of chemical admixture to be included while mixing was precisely examined to retain their compaction factor value as 0.9 as illustrated in Fig. 5. From this figure we can see that the requirement of super – plasticizer increases with rise in WG percentage. When related to reference concrete, the mix with 24% of WG (WG24) has 33% more super – plasticizer content. This might be because, WG particles are finer than sand, have
4.4. Xrd After completion of hardened property test, the samples were crushed and passed by 90 mm IS sieve. The sieved powder of all mixes was examined by XRD technique at a scanning range of 10° 80° under CuKa radiation of wavelength 1.54 Å. 4.5. Fe-sem FE-SEM was employed to identify any microstructural changes if occurred in concrete samples by addition of WG and their
Fig. 5. Percentage of admixture in waste glass concrete mixes.
Table 4 Concrete mix proportions by weight for a constant w/c ratio (0.4). Mix Designation
Percentage of WG %
Cement
Fine Aggregate Kg/m3
Waste Glass
Coarse Aggregate
Admixture (%) by Weight of Cement %
WG0 WG18 WG19 WG20 WG21 WG22 WG23 WG24
0 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
384 384 384 384 384 384 384 384
811.2 665.2 657.1 648.9 640.8 632.7 624.6 616.5
0 127.9 135.0 142.1 149.2 156.3 163.4 170.5
1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7 1122.7
1.50 1.70 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.90 1.95 2.0
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Fig. 6. Compressive strength of waste glass concrete specimens.
Fig. 7. Change in weight for waste glass concrete specimens.
WG0
5
Fig. 9. a Compressive strength of waste glass concrete specimens after exposure to acidic medium.
Fig. 9b. Change in compressive strength for waste glass concrete specimens.
WG24
Fig. 8. Acid attacked waste glass concrete samples.
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sharp edges and are more angular in shape when compared to the sand particles they replace. These sharp edged and angular shaped glass particles reduce the viscosity of concrete mixture. Taha and Nounu (2009) [11] also noticed decrease in compaction factor when waste glass of size <5 mm was utilized as an alternative of natural sand. This was despite the fact that they had used WG which was coarser than sand, however the substitution was done at 50% and 100% when compared to a maximum of 24% used in this study. Park et al. [41] also observed comparable performance after using WG of dissimilar colours up to 70% substitution level. The consequences noticed by Limbachiya [10] and Chen et al. [23] at 50% replacement level substitution level were same. Limbachiya [10] had used WG of size smaller than 5 mm whereas, Chen et al. [23] had used WG of size ranging between 38 mm and 300 mm as fine aggregate.
(a) WG0
5.2. Compressive strength The compressive strength of water cured concrete cubes with and without waste glass were tested at an interval of 28 days, 90 days and 180 days as shown in Fig. 6. It can be said that the strength of concrete samples declined when WG of percentage value higher than 22% is introduced into the concrete mixes. As seen in the graph when WG is substituted between the range 18% – 20% compressive strength increases with respect to reference concrete. By substituting 20% of natural sand by WG in concrete mixtures shows a rise of 12.75%, 12.32% and 11.11% in compressive strength for 28 days, 90 days and 180 days cured specimens respectively. Inclusion of 21% WG in concrete mixture resulted in a fall of 3.47%, 9.6% and 0.8% compressive strength for 28 days, 90 days and 180 days respectively, as compared to 20%
(b) WG18
(d) WG22
(c) WG20
(e) WG24 Fig. 10. XRD analysis of waste glass concrete samples; where, P-Portlandite, CS – Calcium Silicate Hydrate, Q - Quartz, B – Brucite.
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
substitution level. But, as compared with WG0 mix, an increase of 12.95%, 12.31% and 11.11% exists for the W20 specimens. Chen et al. (2006) [23] also reported superior strength of mixes with 20% of WG, which they related to the pozzolanic activity of WG. Kunal and Ramana (2018) [2] had proved that, on inclusion of WG into a PPC based concrete mix, increases its apparent density. This increase in density of impermeable voids contributes to better resistance to compressive stresses up to a substitution level of 20%. However, an observation made by Ismail and AL-Hashmi (2009) [12] for 20% substitution of natural sand by waste glass constituents of size 150 m – 4.75 mm points out that the compressive strength of such a mixture is comparable with the reference mixture. Fig. 6 also shows that with incorporation of 24% of waste glass, strength reduced by 8.43%, 15.46% and 25.93% for 28 days, 90 days and 180 days respectively in comparison with reference sample. This reduction in strength can be due to incorporation of extreme fine WG which creates voids, which was illustrated by Kunal and
Ramana (2018) [2] by the fall in bulk density and void calculation. This would imply that the positive effect of higher apparent density is significant only up to 21% inclusion level of WG. After which increase in void content negates the constructive influence of densified impermeable pore areas. Limbachiya (2009) [42] has also mentioned that a reduction in compressive strength with substitution level higher than 20% might be due to the formation of voids. 5.3. Acid attack 5.3.1. Mass change Variation in mass of concrete cube samples when exposed to acidic atmosphere is shown in Fig. 7. From this figure it can be noticed that incorporation of waste glass in concrete mixtures decreases the mass loss. Till 28-days of acid curing, mass has shown to increase for all concrete mixtures. This can be due to absorbing the acid solution and leading to the formation of products like ettringite. As the exposure increases up to 90-days, mass
Basanite Voids
(a) WG0 Water curing
7
(b) WG0 Water curing
Basanite
(c) WG18 Water curing
(d) WG18 Water curing
(e) WG20 Water curing
(f) WG20 Water curing
Fig. 11. FESEM analysis of waste glass concrete specimens.
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Voids
(h) WG22 Water curing
Thenardite
(g) WG22 Water curing
Basanite
(i) WG24 Water curing
(j) WG24 Water curing
Thenardite Basanite
Fig. 11 (continued)
loss was observed. The damage in this duration is associated with removal of top layer of concrete cubes. A maximum damage of 9.06% was detected for control mixture as compared to 3.73% at 24% substitution. This reduced damage in mass might be due to sacrificial nature of WG which prevents the deterioration of
cement matrix. Hence there is lesser mortar paste being lost on continued exposure. Also, the products formed between the reaction of WG and sulphuric acid might possess better binding properties than ettringite. Wang (2009) [43] also reported lower change in weight loss when WG (4.76 – 0.076 mm) was utilised as an
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
9
Fig. 12. TGA / DTA analysis of waste glass concrete samples.
alternative of river sand in concrete mixes. In a similar manner, Ling and Poon (2011) [25] also described similar behaviour of mortar samples when waste glass (60% < 2.36 mm and 40% 2.36 mm – 5 mm) was introduced. From Fig. 8 it has also been observed that scaling occurs more on control samples which results into destruction of surface layers as compared to WG concrete sample. 5.3.2. Resistance to compressive strength The alteration in compressive strength for acid infected samples is illustrated in Fig. 9(a) and change in compressive strength is presented in Fig. 9(b). Increase and decrease of compressive strength depend on the development of end product like ettringite and their removal in to the acidic solution. It has been understood that when samples were exposed for 7 days, WG24 mixture displayed increase (18.18%) in compressive strength as related with WG0 mixture (3.22%). Rise in compressive strength for waste glass included mixes can be associated with increased void content
which permits extra sulphate ions to enter in concrete sample. The developed ettringite firstly enact as a filler, thus ehances the compressive strength of concrete cubes. This can also be due to sacrificial nature waste glass as compared to natural sand it substitutes. Waste glass might have dissolved in the acid solution and the chemical product is lesser harmful than ettringite. When the exposure duration is further stretched up to 90-days, extreme decrease in compressive strength was detected for reference samples as compared to 24% substitution samples. The chief reduction of 53.84% in compressive strength was noticed for control samples after 90 days of exposure as compared to 22.39% at 24% substitution level. As the exposure period increases, the filler behaviour of reaction products tends to dominate as it captures more volume than the products from which it is generated. Thus, this leads to internal stresses resulting into formation of new cracks, as a result of which decreased compressive strength has been noticed for all mixtures. Whereas for mixes with WG, the
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Fig. 12 (continued)
negative of effect of ettringite formation is negated by the reactive nature of waste glass which reduces the loss in compressive strength with increase in WG content. Ling et al. (2011) [24] also conveyed that waste glass (5– 100 mm) represents as an obstacle against acid attack (3% H2SO4) when utilized as fine aggregate up to 100% substitution for mortar samples. Even after an exposure period of three months, mixes with higher substitution stages of WG showed healthier results as compared to reference samples. In a comparable way, Ling and Poon (2011) [25] also observed constructive outcome for concrete mixtures casted with WG (60% < 2.36 mm and 40% 2.36 mm – 5 mm) as an alternative of natural sand when exposed to acid curing for 3 months. 5.4. XRD analysis XRD analysis was conducted on concrete mixes with and without WG after 28-days of hydration and exposure to acidic medium for 28 days and 90 days to identify the mineralogical composition.
The X – ray diffractograms are shown in Fig. 10. It can be seen that there is no definite pattern obtained in the variation of the peaks corresponding to CSH (PDF No. 00–020-0452) with addition of WG. The peaks associated with mullite and CASH also overlap with the peaks associated with quartz mineral from sand (20.86°, 26.64°) (PDF 01-085-0798). The peaks associated with Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) (PDF 00-044-1481) (34.09°, 18.09° and 47.12°) show gradual reduction in peak intensities with incorporation of WG. The above three minerals were also checked in specimens which were subjected to acid attack. It was noticed that Portlandite intensity reduces progressively on increase to acid exposure time. Simultaneously, there is no creation of new peaks at angle 31° accompanied by increase in intensity of peaks at 14° and 29°. This increase may be due to the formation of basanite (PDF 00-0330310) (29.69°, 14.75°, 31.85°, 25.65° and 49.29°) as a result of action of sulphuric acid on portlandite and CSH. The effect of acid on CSH in glass incorporated samples is relatively lesser as seen by the reduction in intensity of peak at 50° associated to CSH. In control sample this peak vanishes after 28 days of exposure,
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
11
Fig. 12 (continued)
whereas for samples with WG this peak refuse to die down. Samples made with WG also show characteristically higher peaks at 28° when compared to the one with only river sand. These peaks can be assigned to which is formed on dissolution of glass on exposure to acid. Therefore, it can be concluded that glass plays a sacrificial role by undergoing damage and hence neutralizing the acid. This leads to the safeguard of CSH and CH which helps the control samples to retain their strength at the end of the test period. 5.5. FESEM analysis FESEM micrographs were examined for 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% concrete samples after 28-dayss of hydration as shown in Fig. 11. CSH and CASH gel was detected in the micrographs and their existence is also confirmed by conducting X-ray diffraction (Fig. 10) analysis. The dark marks are cavities, leathery fraction which is condensed in presence is CSH and CASH gel. For WG0 samples, a strong bonding can be witnessed in comparison with WG18 and WG20 mixes. Thus, enhances the hardened characteris-
tics of concrete samples as demonstrated in Fig. 6. It can be noticed that incorporation of WG in concrete mixtures does not mark in development of any new composite. This has been validated through X-ray diffraction analysis as presented in Fig. 10. Presence of basanite was observed as a reaction product of Portlandite and sulphuric acid (Olmstead and Hamlin (1900)) [44]. The existence of basanite was noticed via X-ray diffraction analysis at 22° (Fig. 10). As seen from the micrograph presence of thernadite was also noticed in WG incorporated samples when exposed to acidic medium. Hence, formation of thernadite confirms the sacrificial nature of waste glass when concrete samples exposed to H2SO4. This leads to smaller variation in weight (Fig. 8) and compressive strength (Fig. 9) for waste glass included mixtures when compared with WG0 mix. 5.6. TGA analysis Thermo-gravimetric analysis was performed on samples with 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% WG after exposure of 28-days and 90 days and then related with 28-days water cured specimens as
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Fig. 12 (continued)
presented in Fig. 12. Changes were observed for all samples after exposure of 28 days and 90 days to acidic medium as mentioned in Table 5. Percentage weight loss was measured for C-S-H gel, ettringite etc. after 28-days for water cured samples at a substitution level of 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% is estimated as 1.20%, 1.35%, 1.75%, 1.27% and 0.99% respectively. Thus, this specifies that the development of chemically bounded water is more noticeable in WG concrete samples as compared to reference sample. Samples subjected to 28 days of acidic curing showed greater weight loss in the temperature range of 70 °C 170 °C. This weight loss rises with increase in substitution level. This can be because of occurrence of highly reactive waste glass in concrete mixtures which undergoes decomposition when it comes in contact with the acid, after which it forms hydrous compounds of sodium sulphate. By acting as a sacrificial material, it prevents disintegration of CSH and CASH compounds and hence lesser the variation in compressive strength (Fig. 9). Though, no changes have been detected in terms of deterioration of calcium hydroxide at 410–470 °C with inclusion of WG. The variations remain nearly
Table 5 TGA investigated on waste glass concrete samples. MIX No.
WG0 28 Day Water Curing WG0 28 Day Acid Curing WG0 90 Day Acid Curing WG18 28 Day Water Curing WG18 28 Day Acid Curing WG18 90 Day Acid Curing WG20 28 Day Water Curing WG20 28 Day Acid Curing WG20 90 Day Acid Curing WG22 28 Day Water Curing WG22 28 Day Acid Curing WG22 90 Day Acid Curing WG24 28 Day Water Curing WG24 28 Day Acid Curing WG24 90 Day Acid Curing
Weight Loss (%) 70–170 °C
225–320 °C
410–470 °C
1.2 2.34 2.11 1.35 2.79 1.82 1.75 2.69 2.25 1.27 2.89 2.68 0.99 2.87 2.77
0.9 1.25 0.8 0.86 1.14 0.57 0.82 1.41 0.82 0.81 1.03 0.69 0.69 0.94 0.55
0.64 0.84 0.5 0.58 0.68 0.38 0.56 0.75 0.50 0.67 0.58 0.45 0.71 0.56 0.42
uniform for waste glass amalgamated concrete mixtures in this temperature range.
K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
(a) WG0
(b) WG18
(c) WG20
(d) WG22
(e) WG24 Fig. 13. FTIR analysis of waste glass concrete samples.
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K. Bisht et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117486
Table 6 FTIR wave numbers investigated on waste glass concrete samples. MIX No.
WG0 28 Day Water Curing WG0 28 Day Acid Curing WG0 90 Day Acid Curing WG18 28 Day Water Curing WG18 28 Day Acid Curing WG18 90 Day Acid Curing WG20 28 Day Water Curing WG20 28 Day Acid Curing WG20 90 Day Acid Curing WG22 28 Day Water Curing WG22 28 Day Acid Curing WG22 28 Day Acid Curing WG24 28 Day Water Curing WG24 28 Day Acid Curing WG24 28 Day Acid Curing
Molecular Group (cm
Declaration of Competing Interest
1
)
Portlandite
Si-O-Al
SO24
3641 3611 3610 3643 3608 3609 3641 3609 3608 3643 3610 3610 3639 3608 3609
1017 1008 1006 1007 1017 1016 1008 1009 1017 1008 1010 1020 1007 1008 1011
– 1153 1152 – 1153 1157 – 1152 1155 – 1152 1153 – 1152 1152
5.7. Fourier transform infrared radiation analysis Fig. 13 displays FT-IR spectrum at 0%, 18%, 20%, 22% and 24% substitution levels. The figure stated above displays that with rise in time for acid curing of concrete samples, breakdown of Portlandite (peak around 3643 cm 1 [45]) intensifies as a consequence of which calcium sulphate was formed. Calcium sulphate marks its presence as a Basanite mineral (CaSO40.5H2O) for acid cured samples which can be identified by the peak around wave number 1150 cm 1 [46]. The occurrence of this compound has been confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis (Fig. 11). It can be detected from Table 6 that there is substantial variation monitored in concrete samples with incorporation of waste glass. Hence, waste glass performs sacrificially due to formation of sodium sulphate (460 cm 1) which was also detected through XRD analysis (27.58°) (Fig. 11). However, control mix samples do not indicate the presence of this compound. Thus, this directs better performance regarding weight loss (Fig. 8) and variation in compressive strength (Fig. 9) with inclusion of waste glass.
6. Conclusions Slight variation has been noticed in weight and compressive strength when WG incorporated concrete cubes were exposed to acid curing. This is associated with early reaction of waste glass with H2SO4 thus results into formation of sodium sulphate which does not allow decomposition of cementitious materials. However, notable changes have been detected for WG0 mix concrete sample due to production of ettringite and gypsum. The formed sodium sulphate, ettringite and gypsum were spotted by conducting X-ray diffraction analysis and occurrence of SO24 group was confirmed through FT-IR analysis. FE-SEM was also carried out to confirm the modified micro-structure after exposed to acidic environment. Thermo-gravimetric analysis also shows that consumption of Ca(OH)2 was same in control concrete as compared to WG contained concrete samples. However, the sacrificial nature of WG protects CSH and CASH from deterioration. Higher the replacement range of WG, lesser the degree of drop in strength when compared to reference samples. However, since there WG increases the porosity of the concrete matrix above 20% substitution level, the initial strength after 28 days of water curing is lesser than the control concrete. This limitation restricts the utilisation of WG to a maximum of 20% only. Hence as a future scope of study the initial porosity of WG incorporated concrete mixes can be brought down to by altering the grading of the dry concrete mix by increasing the usage of WG.
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