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Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates
Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates Maria Fernanda Laus, Telma Maria Braga Costa, Sebasti˜ao Sousa Almeida PII: DOI: Reference:
S1471-0153(15)30004-0 doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.09.003 EATBEH 976
To appear in:
Eating Behaviors
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
2 December 2013 8 June 2015 17 September 2015
Please cite this article as: Laus, M.F., Costa, T.M.B. & Almeida, S.S., Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates, Eating Behaviors (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.09.003
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
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Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates Abstract
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The aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in the accuracy of body size estimation
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and body dissatisfaction among Brazilian undergraduates and their relationships with perceptions of
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the ideal body silhouettes that would be selected by same-gender and opposite-gender peers. A total of 159 undergraduates (79 males) from a public University in Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil, participated in the study. They completed a Figure Rating Scale and indicated the figure that best
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describes the size of their own body (actual), their desired body, the body they judged would be ideal to same-gender peers, and the body they judged would be ideal to opposite-gender peers. The results
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showed that women were less precise in estimating their actual size and more dissatisfied. The mean Body Mass Index (BMI) that was selected as ―current‖ by women was significantly higher than their desired and ideal BMIs, whereas the mean BMIs that were selected by men were practically the same.
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Men and women selected ideal silhouettes for their own gender that were the same as those that were
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selected as ideal by the opposite gender. The mean BMIs that were actually chosen by men and
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women as desired and ideal were closer to the upper end of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively. Such results contradict what has been assumed to be a normative characteristic of men and women in several countries,raising some doubts regarding the role of beliefs
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about judgments of the opposite gender in the development of body image disturbances.
Keywords:body image, gender differences, attractiveness, undergraduates
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1. Introduction Body image disturbances are risk factors for psychological and health-related problems.Undergraduate women overestimate their silhouettes and report a desire to weigh less, and
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the results for men have been controversial (Grossbard, Neighbors, & Larimer, 2011; McCabe,
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Ricciardelli, Sitaram,& Mikhail, 2006; Neighbors &Sobal, 2007; Paap&Garnder, 2011;Runfola et al.,
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2013; Swami et al., 2010).It is also recognized that women are less precise in estimatingtheir real size (Gardner, Jaap,& Gardner, 2009) and less satisfied with their bodiesthan men (Fiske, Fallon, Blissmer, & Redding, 2014; Neighbors &Sobal, 2007).
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Researchshows that people aremisinformed about gender preferences of ideal body shapes.Men think women like a heavier stature than females report they like, and women think men
MA
like women thinner than men report they like(Fallon &Rozin, 1985; Lamb, Jackson, Cassiday, & Priest, 1993; Raudenbush&Zellner, 1997).Social perceptions of what same- and opposite-gender peers consider as ideal may be extremely relevant to body image.Misinformation might generate unrealistic
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goals that result in dissatisfaction with current silhouettes (Davison, 2012).
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Almost all theories that describe body image have been based on the US population (Forbes et
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al., 2012),which is unfortunate because determining the features and theoriesthat are culturally limited or have applicability to other societies becomes impossible.One country that has not received much attention is Brazil. A study of 3,200 women from 10 different countriesreported that Brazilian women
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have the highest prevalence of stating that beauty increases opportunities in life (66%). More than half of all women in Brazil have considered having cosmetic surgery, and 7% underwent some kind of cosmetic procedure, the highest rate of all countries surveyed(Etcoff, Orbach, Scott, &D’Agostino, 2004). Brazil was also the world’s largest consumer of weight-loss medications per capita.More than 14% of the plastic surgeries performed worldwidewere in Brazil (International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons, 2011), ranking Brazil second worldwide in aesthetic/cosmetic procedures. Although Brazil appearsto beappropriate for the study of body image (Dressler,Oths, Balieiro, Ribeiro, & Dos Santos, 2012), such researchcontinues to be scarce. The present study examined gender differences in the prevalence and magnitude of body image disturbances and their relationships with idealized body sizes in a sample of undergraduates.
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1.1. Predictions Because of the limited investigations of body image in Brazil, our predictions were based on findings from other Western societies. We expected that (i) women would present more inaccurate
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estimationsof their actual size and be more dissatisfied than men, (ii) there would be significant
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differences in the silhouettes selected as actual, desired, and ideal among women but not men, (iii)
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men would select as ideal to the same-gender peers a heavier silhouette than the one that women judgedwould be ideal to men, whereas women wouldselect as ideal the same-gender peers a much thinner silhouette than the one that men judged would be ideal to women, and (iv) women would
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select an extremely thin silhouette as desired and ideal, and men would select a figure that is
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consistent with normal weight.
2. Methods 2.1.Participants and recruitment
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A sample of 159undergraduates (79 males)from diverse courses at auniversity in Ribeirao
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Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil, participated in the study. The inclusion criteria were subjects older than 18
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years of age who were enrolled in courses offered by the university.The exclusion criteria were apparent physical deficiency and pregnancy. The researchersrecruited students at the central library on the campus,andthe study was conducted in a private room in the same building. Participation was
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voluntary, and no rewards were given.The mean agewas 20.93years (SD = 2.91 years) and 21.51years (SD = 3.94 years) for men and women, respectively.The mean Body Mass Index (BMI)was 2
2
2
2
23.63kg/m (SD = 3.42 kg/m ) and 22.70 kg/m (SD = 3.42 kg/m )for men and women, respectively, and 65% of the men and 69% of the women were classified as normal weight (World Health Organization, 2015).
2.2.Figure Rating Scale A Figure Rating Scale (FRS)with 15 figures of each gender was used (Kakeshita, 2008). Each 2
figure corresponds to a mean BMI that ranges from 12.5 to 47.5 kg/m , with constant increments of 2.5 2
kg/m . The Appendix shows the mean BMI of each figure and the minimum and maximum values. The participants were asked to indicate the following: ―Which figure describes better the size of your body?‖ (Actual); ―Which figure describes better the silhouette that you would like to have?‖ (Desired);
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―Which figure do you judge would be ideal to people of your own gender?‖ (Ideal); and ―Which figure do you judge would be ideal to people of the opposite gender?‖ (Other ideal).In our sample,
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Cronbach’swas .65 for men and .78 for women.
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2.3. Procedure
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The local Institutional Review Board approved the study, and informed consent was obtained from all of the participants. The procedure was identical for all of the participants and had a median
their weight and height by a trained researcher.
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2.4. Analysis
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duration of 20 minutes. The students completed the Figure Rating Scale,followed by measurements of
Estimation was assessedby comparing the participants’ real figure to the "Actual" figure.Dissatisfaction was assessed by comparing the ―Desired‖ and ―Actual‖ figures. The degree of
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estimation inaccuracy was calculated as “Actual” BMI – Real BMI.Dissatisfactionwas calculated as
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“Desired” BMI – “Actual” BMI. The results arepresented as mean (standard deviation [SD]).A mean
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that is closer to zero indicates greater accuracy in perception and lower dissatisfaction. Negative results indicate underestimation and a desire for a smaller silhouette.Positive results indicate
3. Results
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overestimation and a desire for a larger silhouette.
We hypothesized that women would present more inaccurate estimationsof their actual size and would be more dissatisfied than men.The testindicated that overestimation was significantly 2
prevalent among women, and males underestimated their size more than females (Table 1). The majority of women reported a desire to be thinner andmen were equally divided between those who desired to weigh less and those who desired to weigh more. Aone-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)of differences in the degree of inaccuracy and body dissatisfaction indicated that women overestimated their body size more than men (F1,156 = 26.11, p< .001) and were more dissatisfied(F1,156 = 24.91, p< .001), confirming our first hypothesis (Table 1).
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Table 1. Characterization of body image variables by gender (n = 159).
%
n
Underestimation
14
17.7
Accurate
18
22.8
Overestimation
47
59.5
Weigh more
30
38.0
Satisfied
22
Weigh less
27
Body size estimation a
12.5
66
82.5
17
21.3
a
14
17.5
a
49
61.3
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MA 27.8 34.2
.00 (5.40)
a
2
df
p
11.30
2
.004
11.74
2
.003
b
b
a
b
a
4.11 (3.97)
a
-2.25 (4.18)
1.18(4.11)
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Dissatisfaction, mean (SD)
10
a
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Estimation, mean (SD)
5.0
a
Difference
b
4
a
Body size satisfaction
%
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n
Variables
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Women
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Men
b
b
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*Different superscript letters denote a subset of gender categories whose columns significantly differ from each other (p< .05).
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We also hypothesized that men would select as their actual silhouette a figure that is similar to the one that they selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖, and women would select as their actualsilhouette a figure that is larger than the one that they selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖.Aone-way ANOVA confirmed this hypothesis (Table 2).Women selected an ―Actual‖ BMI that was significantly larger than the ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖ BMIs(F3,316 = 13.59, p< .001). The BMIsthat were selected by men as ―Actual,‖ ―Desired,‖ and ―Ideal‖ were practically the same(F3,312 = 1.96, p> .05). A one-way ANOVA was used to test our third hypothesis. The BMI that men judged would be ideal to men was significantly larger than the BMI that women judged would be ideal to men (F1,157 = 4.75, p< .05). The BMI that women judged would be ideal to women was significantly smaller than the BMI that men judged would be ideal to women (F1,157 = 11.80, p< .001; Table 2). Interestingly, although the BMIs that men and women judged would be ideal to the opposite gender were statistically different, they all corresponded to FRS figure 6, which contradicts our third hypothesis.
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Table 2. 2
Mean (SD) BMI (in kg/m ) and equivalent silhouette that men and women selected as “Actual,”
Men SD
Equivalent Silhouette
M
Real BMI
23.63
3.42
5
Actual BMI
24.81
5.99
6
Desired BMI
24.81
3.25
6
Ideal to men
25.06
a
2.91
6
Ideal to women
25.92
a
2.57
6
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2
Women
SD
Equivalent Silhouette
22.70
3.42
5
26.81
5.86
7
24.50
3.41
6
24.06
b
2.88
6
24.37
b
3.07
6
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M
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Variable
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“Desired,” and “Ideal” by same-gender and opposite-gender peers.
FRS range: 12.5-47.5 kg/m (BMI) and 1-15 (equivalent silhouette) for all questions. Means with
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sequential Bonferroni correction).
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different superscripts in each column are significantly different (p< .05, one-way ANOVA with
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Finally, we hypothesized that the silhouette that women would select as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖would be extremely thin, and men would select a figure that is consistent with normal weight. The BMIsthat were chosen by men and women as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖were closer to the upper end
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of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively (Table 2). These BMIs correspond to FRS 2
figure 6 (23.75-26.24 kg/m ), contradicting ourfourth hypothesis.
4. Discussion We found that Brazilian women experience body image disturbances to a greater extent than men, confirming our first hypothesis and corroborating previous studies (Neighbors &Sobal, 2007; Gardner et al., 2009; Fiske et al., 2014). The ―Actual‖ BMI that was selected by women was significantly larger than their ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖ BMIs.The ―Actual,‖ ―Desired,‖ and ―Ideal‖ BMIsthat were selected by men were practically the same. One explanation for these differences can be found in the judgments of desired and ideal silhouettes.Consistent with our second hypothesis, the BMI that men selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖ was the same as the one they selected as ―Actual.‖The BMI that women selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖was thinner than the one selected as ―Actual.‖
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Interestingly, none of the participant’s selections corresponded to their real BMI. The inaccuracyfor men led them to closer from what they desired and judged as ideal. The women’s real BMI was thinner than the silhouette they selected as ―Actual.‖Although the figures that they selected as
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―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖were larger than their real BMI, both were thinner than the silhouette they
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selected as ―Actual.‖These resultssuggest that body dissatisfaction may derive from an extreme
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overestimation of real size.
Contrary to what hasbeen reported in other samples (Fallon &Rozin, 1985; Lamb et. al., 1993; Raudenbush&Zellner, 1997), men and women judged as ideal to the same-gender peers the same
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silhouette that was selected as ideal by the opposite gender.The mean BMIs were significantly differentbut had minimal practical significance,contradicting our third hypothesis. Body image
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disturbances may not always be linked to misperceptions of the opinions of the opposite gender. The ideal silhouettesfor men and women were closer to the upper end of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively, refuting our fourth hypothesis. Across several countries,slender 2
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women with a BMI of approximately 20 kg/m areperceived as more attractive (Lynn, 2009), but the
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BMI that was judged as ideal forwomen was larger in our study.One possibility is that the
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transformation of the ideal feminine body in Brazil from traditionally robust to a thinner silhouette is not complete(Finger, 2003), and the body that is considered ideal by other societies has not yet been internalized by Brazil’s population(Forbes et al., 2012). Another possibilityis that Brazilian women’s
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ideal body is becoming different from what is conveyed in other Western societies. Although fashion models continue to be valued as standards of an ideal feminine body, actresses, singers, and dancers are acquiring importancefor ideal body standards. These celebrities are creating a new pattern of body standards, in which muscular thighs,large buttocks,narrow hips, a defined abdomen, and prominent breasts are goals to be achieved(Goldenberg, 2010).
5. Conclusion In summary, although all of the measures that were evaluated in the present study focused on weight/thinness and not body shape,women were more inaccurate and dissatisfied than men. Significant differences were found in the silhouettes that women selected as ―Actual,‖―Desired,‖ and ―Ideal‖, but no such differences were found among men. Men and women selected ideal silhouettes for their own gender that were the same as those that were selected as ideal by the opposite gender,
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and these judgments were consistent with figuresat the upper end of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively. These results contradict what has been considered a normative characteristic of men and women in several countries and raise some doubts regarding the role of
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beliefs about judgments of the opposite gender in the development of body image disturbances.
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References
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Fallon, A. E., &Rozin, P. (1985). Gender differences in perceptions of desirable body shape. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 102-105.http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.94.1.102 Finger, C. (2003). Brazilian beauty. Lancet, 362, 1560.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)147897
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Gardner, R. M., Jaap, L. M., & Gardner, L. (2009). Development and validation of a new figural drawing scale for body-image assessment: the BIAS-BD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 113—
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Goldenberg, M. (2010). The body as capital: Understanding Brazilian culture. Vibrant, 7, 220–238.
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aesthetic/cosmetic procedures performed in 2011. Hanover, NH: ISAPS.
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Kakeshita, I. S. (2008).Adaptação e validação de escalas de silhuetasparacrianças e
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adultosbrasileiros.[Adaptation and validation of a Figure Rating Scales for Brazilian children and adults].(Doctoral dissertation, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil). (Retrieved from:
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Swami, V., Frederick, D. A., Aavik, T., Alcalay, L., Allik, J., Anderson, D., ... &Shashidharan, S. (2010). The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: Results of the International Body Project I. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(3), 309-325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167209359702
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates HIGHLIGHTS We investigated gender differences in body image among Brazilian undergraduates;
We assessed body size estimation and dissatisfaction and perceptions of ideal body;
Women were less precise in estimating their real size and were more dissatisfied;
Men and women had accurate perceptions about ideal body to each gender;
Mean BMI chosen by men and women as desired and ideal were not extremely thin.
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Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
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S1471-0153(15)30004-0 doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.09.003 EATBEH 976
To appear in:
Eating Behaviors
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
2 December 2013 8 June 2015 17 September 2015
Please cite this article as: Laus, M.F., Costa, T.M.B. & Almeida, S.S., Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates, Eating Behaviors (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.09.003
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
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Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
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2
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
3
Gender differences in body image and preferences for an ideal silhouette among Brazilian undergraduates Abstract
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The aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in the accuracy of body size estimation
IP
and body dissatisfaction among Brazilian undergraduates and their relationships with perceptions of
SC R
the ideal body silhouettes that would be selected by same-gender and opposite-gender peers. A total of 159 undergraduates (79 males) from a public University in Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil, participated in the study. They completed a Figure Rating Scale and indicated the figure that best
NU
describes the size of their own body (actual), their desired body, the body they judged would be ideal to same-gender peers, and the body they judged would be ideal to opposite-gender peers. The results
MA
showed that women were less precise in estimating their actual size and more dissatisfied. The mean Body Mass Index (BMI) that was selected as ―current‖ by women was significantly higher than their desired and ideal BMIs, whereas the mean BMIs that were selected by men were practically the same.
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Men and women selected ideal silhouettes for their own gender that were the same as those that were
TE
selected as ideal by the opposite gender. The mean BMIs that were actually chosen by men and
CE P
women as desired and ideal were closer to the upper end of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively. Such results contradict what has been assumed to be a normative characteristic of men and women in several countries,raising some doubts regarding the role of beliefs
AC
about judgments of the opposite gender in the development of body image disturbances.
Keywords:body image, gender differences, attractiveness, undergraduates
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
4
1. Introduction Body image disturbances are risk factors for psychological and health-related problems.Undergraduate women overestimate their silhouettes and report a desire to weigh less, and
T
the results for men have been controversial (Grossbard, Neighbors, & Larimer, 2011; McCabe,
IP
Ricciardelli, Sitaram,& Mikhail, 2006; Neighbors &Sobal, 2007; Paap&Garnder, 2011;Runfola et al.,
SC R
2013; Swami et al., 2010).It is also recognized that women are less precise in estimatingtheir real size (Gardner, Jaap,& Gardner, 2009) and less satisfied with their bodiesthan men (Fiske, Fallon, Blissmer, & Redding, 2014; Neighbors &Sobal, 2007).
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Researchshows that people aremisinformed about gender preferences of ideal body shapes.Men think women like a heavier stature than females report they like, and women think men
MA
like women thinner than men report they like(Fallon &Rozin, 1985; Lamb, Jackson, Cassiday, & Priest, 1993; Raudenbush&Zellner, 1997).Social perceptions of what same- and opposite-gender peers consider as ideal may be extremely relevant to body image.Misinformation might generate unrealistic
D
goals that result in dissatisfaction with current silhouettes (Davison, 2012).
TE
Almost all theories that describe body image have been based on the US population (Forbes et
CE P
al., 2012),which is unfortunate because determining the features and theoriesthat are culturally limited or have applicability to other societies becomes impossible.One country that has not received much attention is Brazil. A study of 3,200 women from 10 different countriesreported that Brazilian women
AC
have the highest prevalence of stating that beauty increases opportunities in life (66%). More than half of all women in Brazil have considered having cosmetic surgery, and 7% underwent some kind of cosmetic procedure, the highest rate of all countries surveyed(Etcoff, Orbach, Scott, &D’Agostino, 2004). Brazil was also the world’s largest consumer of weight-loss medications per capita.More than 14% of the plastic surgeries performed worldwidewere in Brazil (International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons, 2011), ranking Brazil second worldwide in aesthetic/cosmetic procedures. Although Brazil appearsto beappropriate for the study of body image (Dressler,Oths, Balieiro, Ribeiro, & Dos Santos, 2012), such researchcontinues to be scarce. The present study examined gender differences in the prevalence and magnitude of body image disturbances and their relationships with idealized body sizes in a sample of undergraduates.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates
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1.1. Predictions Because of the limited investigations of body image in Brazil, our predictions were based on findings from other Western societies. We expected that (i) women would present more inaccurate
T
estimationsof their actual size and be more dissatisfied than men, (ii) there would be significant
IP
differences in the silhouettes selected as actual, desired, and ideal among women but not men, (iii)
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men would select as ideal to the same-gender peers a heavier silhouette than the one that women judgedwould be ideal to men, whereas women wouldselect as ideal the same-gender peers a much thinner silhouette than the one that men judged would be ideal to women, and (iv) women would
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select an extremely thin silhouette as desired and ideal, and men would select a figure that is
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consistent with normal weight.
2. Methods 2.1.Participants and recruitment
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A sample of 159undergraduates (79 males)from diverse courses at auniversity in Ribeirao
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Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil, participated in the study. The inclusion criteria were subjects older than 18
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years of age who were enrolled in courses offered by the university.The exclusion criteria were apparent physical deficiency and pregnancy. The researchersrecruited students at the central library on the campus,andthe study was conducted in a private room in the same building. Participation was
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voluntary, and no rewards were given.The mean agewas 20.93years (SD = 2.91 years) and 21.51years (SD = 3.94 years) for men and women, respectively.The mean Body Mass Index (BMI)was 2
2
2
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23.63kg/m (SD = 3.42 kg/m ) and 22.70 kg/m (SD = 3.42 kg/m )for men and women, respectively, and 65% of the men and 69% of the women were classified as normal weight (World Health Organization, 2015).
2.2.Figure Rating Scale A Figure Rating Scale (FRS)with 15 figures of each gender was used (Kakeshita, 2008). Each 2
figure corresponds to a mean BMI that ranges from 12.5 to 47.5 kg/m , with constant increments of 2.5 2
kg/m . The Appendix shows the mean BMI of each figure and the minimum and maximum values. The participants were asked to indicate the following: ―Which figure describes better the size of your body?‖ (Actual); ―Which figure describes better the silhouette that you would like to have?‖ (Desired);
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―Which figure do you judge would be ideal to people of your own gender?‖ (Ideal); and ―Which figure do you judge would be ideal to people of the opposite gender?‖ (Other ideal).In our sample,
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Cronbach’swas .65 for men and .78 for women.
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2.3. Procedure
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The local Institutional Review Board approved the study, and informed consent was obtained from all of the participants. The procedure was identical for all of the participants and had a median
their weight and height by a trained researcher.
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2.4. Analysis
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duration of 20 minutes. The students completed the Figure Rating Scale,followed by measurements of
Estimation was assessedby comparing the participants’ real figure to the "Actual" figure.Dissatisfaction was assessed by comparing the ―Desired‖ and ―Actual‖ figures. The degree of
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estimation inaccuracy was calculated as “Actual” BMI – Real BMI.Dissatisfactionwas calculated as
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“Desired” BMI – “Actual” BMI. The results arepresented as mean (standard deviation [SD]).A mean
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that is closer to zero indicates greater accuracy in perception and lower dissatisfaction. Negative results indicate underestimation and a desire for a smaller silhouette.Positive results indicate
3. Results
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overestimation and a desire for a larger silhouette.
We hypothesized that women would present more inaccurate estimationsof their actual size and would be more dissatisfied than men.The testindicated that overestimation was significantly 2
prevalent among women, and males underestimated their size more than females (Table 1). The majority of women reported a desire to be thinner andmen were equally divided between those who desired to weigh less and those who desired to weigh more. Aone-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)of differences in the degree of inaccuracy and body dissatisfaction indicated that women overestimated their body size more than men (F1,156 = 26.11, p< .001) and were more dissatisfied(F1,156 = 24.91, p< .001), confirming our first hypothesis (Table 1).
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Table 1. Characterization of body image variables by gender (n = 159).
%
n
Underestimation
14
17.7
Accurate
18
22.8
Overestimation
47
59.5
Weigh more
30
38.0
Satisfied
22
Weigh less
27
Body size estimation a
12.5
66
82.5
17
21.3
a
14
17.5
a
49
61.3
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.00 (5.40)
a
2
df
p
11.30
2
.004
11.74
2
.003
b
b
a
b
a
4.11 (3.97)
a
-2.25 (4.18)
1.18(4.11)
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Dissatisfaction, mean (SD)
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a
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Estimation, mean (SD)
5.0
a
Difference
b
4
a
Body size satisfaction
%
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n
Variables
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Women
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Men
b
b
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*Different superscript letters denote a subset of gender categories whose columns significantly differ from each other (p< .05).
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We also hypothesized that men would select as their actual silhouette a figure that is similar to the one that they selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖, and women would select as their actualsilhouette a figure that is larger than the one that they selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖.Aone-way ANOVA confirmed this hypothesis (Table 2).Women selected an ―Actual‖ BMI that was significantly larger than the ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖ BMIs(F3,316 = 13.59, p< .001). The BMIsthat were selected by men as ―Actual,‖ ―Desired,‖ and ―Ideal‖ were practically the same(F3,312 = 1.96, p> .05). A one-way ANOVA was used to test our third hypothesis. The BMI that men judged would be ideal to men was significantly larger than the BMI that women judged would be ideal to men (F1,157 = 4.75, p< .05). The BMI that women judged would be ideal to women was significantly smaller than the BMI that men judged would be ideal to women (F1,157 = 11.80, p< .001; Table 2). Interestingly, although the BMIs that men and women judged would be ideal to the opposite gender were statistically different, they all corresponded to FRS figure 6, which contradicts our third hypothesis.
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Table 2. 2
Mean (SD) BMI (in kg/m ) and equivalent silhouette that men and women selected as “Actual,”
Men SD
Equivalent Silhouette
M
Real BMI
23.63
3.42
5
Actual BMI
24.81
5.99
6
Desired BMI
24.81
3.25
6
Ideal to men
25.06
a
2.91
6
Ideal to women
25.92
a
2.57
6
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2
Women
SD
Equivalent Silhouette
22.70
3.42
5
26.81
5.86
7
24.50
3.41
6
24.06
b
2.88
6
24.37
b
3.07
6
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M
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Variable
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“Desired,” and “Ideal” by same-gender and opposite-gender peers.
FRS range: 12.5-47.5 kg/m (BMI) and 1-15 (equivalent silhouette) for all questions. Means with
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sequential Bonferroni correction).
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different superscripts in each column are significantly different (p< .05, one-way ANOVA with
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Finally, we hypothesized that the silhouette that women would select as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖would be extremely thin, and men would select a figure that is consistent with normal weight. The BMIsthat were chosen by men and women as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖were closer to the upper end
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of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively (Table 2). These BMIs correspond to FRS 2
figure 6 (23.75-26.24 kg/m ), contradicting ourfourth hypothesis.
4. Discussion We found that Brazilian women experience body image disturbances to a greater extent than men, confirming our first hypothesis and corroborating previous studies (Neighbors &Sobal, 2007; Gardner et al., 2009; Fiske et al., 2014). The ―Actual‖ BMI that was selected by women was significantly larger than their ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖ BMIs.The ―Actual,‖ ―Desired,‖ and ―Ideal‖ BMIsthat were selected by men were practically the same. One explanation for these differences can be found in the judgments of desired and ideal silhouettes.Consistent with our second hypothesis, the BMI that men selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖ was the same as the one they selected as ―Actual.‖The BMI that women selected as ―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖was thinner than the one selected as ―Actual.‖
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Interestingly, none of the participant’s selections corresponded to their real BMI. The inaccuracyfor men led them to closer from what they desired and judged as ideal. The women’s real BMI was thinner than the silhouette they selected as ―Actual.‖Although the figures that they selected as
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―Desired‖ and ―Ideal‖were larger than their real BMI, both were thinner than the silhouette they
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selected as ―Actual.‖These resultssuggest that body dissatisfaction may derive from an extreme
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overestimation of real size.
Contrary to what hasbeen reported in other samples (Fallon &Rozin, 1985; Lamb et. al., 1993; Raudenbush&Zellner, 1997), men and women judged as ideal to the same-gender peers the same
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silhouette that was selected as ideal by the opposite gender.The mean BMIs were significantly differentbut had minimal practical significance,contradicting our third hypothesis. Body image
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disturbances may not always be linked to misperceptions of the opinions of the opposite gender. The ideal silhouettesfor men and women were closer to the upper end of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively, refuting our fourth hypothesis. Across several countries,slender 2
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women with a BMI of approximately 20 kg/m areperceived as more attractive (Lynn, 2009), but the
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BMI that was judged as ideal forwomen was larger in our study.One possibility is that the
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transformation of the ideal feminine body in Brazil from traditionally robust to a thinner silhouette is not complete(Finger, 2003), and the body that is considered ideal by other societies has not yet been internalized by Brazil’s population(Forbes et al., 2012). Another possibilityis that Brazilian women’s
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ideal body is becoming different from what is conveyed in other Western societies. Although fashion models continue to be valued as standards of an ideal feminine body, actresses, singers, and dancers are acquiring importancefor ideal body standards. These celebrities are creating a new pattern of body standards, in which muscular thighs,large buttocks,narrow hips, a defined abdomen, and prominent breasts are goals to be achieved(Goldenberg, 2010).
5. Conclusion In summary, although all of the measures that were evaluated in the present study focused on weight/thinness and not body shape,women were more inaccurate and dissatisfied than men. Significant differences were found in the silhouettes that women selected as ―Actual,‖―Desired,‖ and ―Ideal‖, but no such differences were found among men. Men and women selected ideal silhouettes for their own gender that were the same as those that were selected as ideal by the opposite gender,
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and these judgments were consistent with figuresat the upper end of normal weight and lower end of overweight, respectively. These results contradict what has been considered a normative characteristic of men and women in several countries and raise some doubts regarding the role of
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beliefs about judgments of the opposite gender in the development of body image disturbances.
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Gender differences in body image and ideal silhouette in Brazilian undergraduates HIGHLIGHTS We investigated gender differences in body image among Brazilian undergraduates;
We assessed body size estimation and dissatisfaction and perceptions of ideal body;
Women were less precise in estimating their real size and were more dissatisfied;
Men and women had accurate perceptions about ideal body to each gender;
Mean BMI chosen by men and women as desired and ideal were not extremely thin.
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