Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League

Human Movement Science xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

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Human Movement Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/humov

Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League Paul S. Bradley a,⇑, Alexandre Dellal b,c,d, Magni Mohr e,f, Julen Castellano g, Anna Wilkie a a

Department of Sport & Exercise Sciences, University of Sunderland, UK Medical Centre Excellence FIFA, Santy Orthopedicae Clinical, Lyon, France c Centre de recherche et d’innovation sur le Sport, Université de Lyon, France d OGC Nice (soccer), France e Sport & Health Sciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, St. Luke’s Campus, University of Exeter, UK f Food & Nutrition, & Sport Science, University of Gothenburg, Sweden g Faculty of Physical Activity & Sport Sciences, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Available online xxxx PsycINFO classification: 3720 Keywords: Gender differences Fatigue Match performance

a b s t r a c t The aim of this study was to examine gender differences in match performance characteristics of elite soccer players. Fifty-four male and fifty-nine female soccer players were tracked during UEFA Champions League matches using a multi-camera system (Amisco, Nice, France). Male players covered more (P < .01) distance than female players in total during a match (Effect Size [ES]: 0.5) and at higher speed thresholds (>15, >18, 18–21, 21–23, 23–25 and >27 km h 1; ES: 0.7–1.4). Decrements in the second versus first half (P < .01) were only evident in female players for the distance covered in total and at selected speed thresholds (12–15, >12 and >15 km h 1; ES: 0.6). Male central midfielders covered more (P < .01) total distance during a match than female central midfielders and at selected speed thresholds (15–23 km h 1; ES: 1.3– 2.2). Male full-backs and wide midfielders covered a greater distance (P < .01) than female players in the same positions at higher speed thresholds (>15, 21–23, 23–25, 25–27 and >27 km h 1; ES: 1.5–3.1). The distance covered during the most intense 5 min period of the match (>15 km h 1) was higher (P < .01) in male compared to female players (ES: 1.0) but no distance deficit in the next versus the average 5 min period was observed for either gender (ES: 0.1–0.2). No gender differences were found for technical

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 191 515 3708; fax: +44 191 515 3401. E-mail address: [email protected] (P.S. Bradley). 0167-9457/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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events such as the number of ball touches, time in possession of the ball or total duels won during both halves and the entire match (ES: 0.1–0.3). However, female players lost the ball more often (P < .05) and displayed lower pass completion rates than male players during both halves and the entire match (ES: 0.5–0.9). The data demonstrate that large gender differences exist for match performance characteristics of players competing at the highest competitive standard of European soccer. Such detailed analyses could be useful for gender-specific training information for optimal preparation. However, more research is warranted to establish gender-specific speed thresholds for elite soccer players. Crown Copyright Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Soccer is characterized by periods of high-intensity running punctuated by low-intensity activity such as walking and jogging (Bangsbo, Mohr, & Krustrup, 2006; Bradley, Di Mascio, Peart, Olsen, & Sheldon, 2010; Bradley et al., 2009; Drust, Reilly, & Cable, 2000). No exact measure of physical performance in elite soccer exists, the distance covered at high-intensity seems to be a useful indicator given its relation with training status (Bradley, Mohr, et al., 2011; Krustrup et al., 2003; Krustrup, Mohr, Ellingsgaard, & Bangsbo, 2005) and is a distinguishing variable between competitive standards of elite male and female players (Andersson, Ekblom, & Krustrup, 2008; Andersson, Randers, Heiner-Moller, Krustrup, & Mohr, 2010; Bangsbo, Norregaard, & Thorso, 1991; Mohr, Krustrup, Andersson, Kirkendal, & Bangsbo, 2008; Mohr, Krustrup, & Bangsbo, 2003). Interest in the match performance characteristics of men’s soccer has grown rapidly over the last decade as it enables sports scientists to identify the current demands placed on players in competition and apply data to training and testing protocols (Bradley, Carling, et al., 2011). Although less progress had been made in female soccer and more research is warranted regarding the quantification of physical and technical attributes of elite female players. The relative physiological loadings obtained during matches are similar across gender, suggesting that the aerobic system is heavily taxed throughout and particularly during intense periods of a game (Bangsbo, 1994; Ekblom, 1986; Krustrup, Zebis, Jensen, & Mohr, 2010; Krustrup et al., 2003, 2005, 2006; Mohr, Krustrup, Nybo, Nielsen, & Bangsbo, 2004). However, female players appear to possess a lower physical capacity than male players across a range of aerobic and anaerobic fitness tests (Bradley, Mohr, et al., 2011; Bradley et al., 2012; Mujika, Santisteban, Impellizzeri, & Castagna, 2009; Rhodes & Mosher, 1992; Tamer, Gunay, Tiryaki, Cicioolu, & Erol, 1997). Thus, it is not surprising that studies have reported that high-intensity running in elite female matches is 30% lower than their male counterparts of a similar competitive standard (Krustrup et al., 2005; Mohr et al., 2008). Some authors suggest that the demands of contemporary elite female soccer are increasing (Bradley et al., 2012; Mohr et al., 2008), but this has yet to be determined due to limited availability to data on female players competing at the very highest competitive standard of soccer such as the UEFA Champions League. To accommodate for this, additional research is needed to determine high-intensity running profiles of elite female players and to verify possible differences between genders at the highest competitive standard of European soccer. However, to date no study has compared male and female player’s highintensity running performances in the UEFA Champions League across various positions within the same research design while standardizing the match analysis system. Limited attempts have been made by researchers to use more advanced semi-automated match analysis systems to assess high standard female players. Researchers have generally made inferences regarding gender differences from the relatively small number of studies conducted on elite female players (Bradley et al., 2012; Krustrup et al., 2005, 2010; Mohr et al., 2008; Todd, Scott, & Chisnall, 2002; Vescovi, 2012a). Studies have either used small sample sizes, low standard players or were performed more than 10 years ago Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

P.S. Bradley et al. / Human Movement Science xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

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and thus could be considered outdated given the recent advances in the physical preparation of elite female players. For instance, researchers did not investigate whether and to what extent temporary and end-match fatigue occurred for female players in the five most common positional subsets (Andersson et al., 2010; Gabbett, Wiig, & Spencer, 2013; Krustrup et al., 2005; Mohr et al., 2008; Vescovi, 2012a). Previous studies could only analyze match performance characteristics in three positional subsets (defenders, midfielders, attackers) due to an insufficient sample size for statistical computation. This is despite a plethora of data from elite male soccer populations indicating substantial match related differences between players in five positional subsets (Bradley et al., 2009, 2010; Bradley, Carling, et al., 2011; Bradley, Mohr, et al., 2011; Bradley & Noakes, 2013; Buchheit, Mendez-Villanueva, Simpson, & Bourdon, 2010; Carling, 2010; Di Salvo et al., 2007, 2010; Di Salvo, Gregson, Atkinson, Tordoff, & Drust, 2009; Gregson, Drust, Atkinson, & Salvo, 2010; Lago-Peñas, Casais, Dellal, Rey, & Dominguez, 2011). In addition, it is still unknown if the decrements in high-intensity running towards the end of the match or temporarily after intense periods vary between genders. Detailed examination of high-intensity running in 5-min periods of matches would provide valuable information regarding differences in patterns of within-match fatigue for male and female players competing at the highest standard of European competition. Currently there is a lack of research that has examined gender differences in technical indicators in elite soccer. For instance, researchers in this area typically use a reductionist approach whereby physical indicators are explored in isolation. This approach does not account for the complexities of soccer in which physical and technical indicators interact (Bradley, Lago-Peñas, Rey, & Gomez-Diaz, 2013). This is especially important as soccer performance is a consequence of technical skills and passing accuracy is considered an important indicator (Rampinini, Impellizzeri, Castagna, Coutts, & Wisloff, 2009). Such detailed analyses could be used to provide gender-specific training information for optimal preparation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine gender differences in match performance characteristics of players competing in the UEFA Champions League. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Match analysis and players data Fifty-four male and fifty-nine female players were tracked during UEFA Champions League matches using a multiple-camera system (Amisco Pro, Nice, France). Anonymized match data supplied to the authors were captured from male and female players competing for various teams in Europe (UEFA Cumulative Club Coefficient Ranking: Top 15 for both genders). Players were only added into the analysis if they completed the entire match and no substitutes were included. Male and female players were classified according to their positional role: central defenders (n = 15 and 15), full-backs (n = 13 and 13), central midfielders (n = 10 and 17), wide midfielders (n = 10 and 8) and attackers (n = 6 and 6). Male and female matches were played at similar times of the day but this measure was difficult to fully control as kick off times are dictated by additional factors (UEFA, media and finance). All male and female matches were played between the middle and end of season phases and no data were available regarding contextual or climatic variables during matches. Roof level cameras were calibrated and synchronized to enhance the accuracy of the data. Signals and angles from encoders were sequentially converted into digital data and recorded for post-match analysis. Players’ activities across matches were tracked at 25 Hz and physical performances were determined by computerized software (Amisco Viewer, Nice, France). Experienced analysts simultaneously coded each player action involving the ball. The validity and reproducibility of this system has been described elsewhere (Randers et al., 2010; Zubillaga, 2006). 2.2. Match performance characteristics Players activities were coded into the following speed thresholds: 0–12, 12–15, 15–18, 18–21, 21– 23, 23–25, 25–27 km h 1 and amalgamations of these speed thresholds: >12, >15, >18 km h 1. No attempts were made to link speed thresholds into movement categories (e.g. jogging, running and sprinting) given that peak speed characteristics and anaerobic threshold indices of female players Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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are substantially lower than their male counterparts (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Harley et al., 2010; Kalapotharakos, Ziogas, & Tokmakidis, 2011; Krustrup et al., 2005, 2010; Sayers, Farley, Fuller, Jubenville, & Caputo, 2008). Although individualized thresholds based on these parameters would have been the most appropriate approach, these data were not available for the players used in the present study. Thus, the approach adopted was to quantify gender differences in the match performance characteristics of elite soccer players using the distance covered in the same speed threshold for both genders (e.g. male: >12 and >18 km h 1 vs female: >12 and >18 km h 1) using 2–3 km h 1 increments in moderate and high speed thresholds to allow subtle differences in physical performance to be established. Additional research has also highlighted the need to use speed thresholds as opposed to movement categories for quantifying elite female players high-intensity activities (Vescovi, 2012a, 2012b). Total distance represented the summation of distances covered in all thresholds and were obtained at 5-, 45-, and 90-min time periods. Match analysis also included the coding of technical events which encompassed the percentage of successful passes, individual time spent in possession of the ball, number of balls lost, mean number of ball touches for each possession, and the percentage of total duels won (heading and ground duels). 2.3. Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were conducted using software (SPSS, Chicago, USA). Descriptive statistics were calculated and z-scores used to verify normality. Mixed model factorial ANOVA tests were used to evaluate differences in match running performance and technical events between gender and position across various time periods of matches. In the event of a difference occurring, Bonferroni adjusted post hoc tests were used to identify any localized effects. Effect Size (ES) was calculated to determine the meaningfulness of the difference (Cohen, 1988). The ES magnitude was classified as trivial (<0.2), small (>0.2–0.6), moderate (>0.6–1.2), large (>1.2–2.0) and very large (>2.0–4.0) based on Batterham and Hopkins (2006). Statistical significance was set at P < .05. Values are presented as mean and standard error of the mean unless otherwise stated. 3. Results 3.1. Total and between half match running performance Male players covered more (P < .01) total distance during a match than female players (ES: 0.5). Distances covered during the entire match at speed thresholds of 0–12, 12–15 and 15–18 km h 1 did not differ between genders (ES: 0.1–0.3). Male players covered more (P < .01) distance than female players during the match at higher speed thresholds (>15, 18–21, 21–23, 23–25 and >27 km h 1; ES: 0.7–1.4; Tables 1 and 2). Female players covered more distance than male players in the first half at a speed threshold of 0–12 km h 1 but this was similar during the second half (ES: <0.5). No differences occurred between gender in the first half at speed thresholds of 12–15 and 15–18 km h 1, the latter was higher (P < .05) for male players in the second half (ES: 0.5). However, distances covered at higher speed thresholds (>15, 18–21, 21–23, 23–25, 25–27 and >27 km h 1) were greater (P < .01) in male compared to female players in the first and the second half (ES: 0.6–1.4). Between half comparisons indicated that only female players decreased (P < .01) their distance in total and particularly that covered in selected speed thresholds (0–12, 12–15, >12 and >15 km h 1) in the second compared to the first half (ES: 0.4–0.6). 3.2. Discrete periods of match running performance Analyzing match running performances in discrete 5 min periods illustrated substantial differences between genders (Fig. 1A–D). The total distances covered were higher (P < .05) in male compared to female players during selected periods of the first (5 and 25–30 min; ES: 0.4–0.6) and the majority of the second half (55–75 and 90 min; ES: 0.4–0.9) with female players only covering more distance (P < .05) during the latter stages of each half (35, 45 and 85 min; ES: 0.5–0.7). For the lowest speed threshold of 0–12 km h 1, female players covered more distance (P < .01) than male players in sePlease cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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P.S. Bradley et al. / Human Movement Science xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Table 1 Match running performance of male and female players in each half and the entire match for various speed thresholds. Male players covered more distance than female players: ⁄P < .05; ⁄⁄P < .01. Female players covered more distance than male players: DD P < .01. Difference between first and second half:  P < .05;   P < .01. Data are presented as means and standard error of the mean. Position/Variable

Male players

Female players

First

Second

Total

First

Second

Total

Central defenders Distance 0–12 km h 1 (m) Distance 12–15 km h 1 (m) Distance 15–18 km h 1 (m) Distance 18–21 km h 1 (m) Distance 21–23 km h 1 (m) Distance 23–25 km h 1 (m) Distance 25–27 km h 1 (m) Distance >27 km h 1 (m)

3781 ± 43 603 ± 21 335 ± 18 219 ± 20 89 ± 10 58 ± 6 31 ± 7 31 ± 10

3804 ± 49 621 ± 21 360 ± 21 204 ± 14 68 ± 9 42 ± 6 30 ± 5 25 ± 6

7585 ± 86 1224 ± 34 695 ± 35 423 ± 25 157 ± 13 100 ± 10 61 ± 10 56 ± 11

3822 ± 19 752 ± 31 363 ± 25 189 ± 13 48 ± 7 31 ± 6 12 ± 5 13 ± 5

3700 ± 54  632 ± 34   367 ± 32 197 ± 18 66 ± 12 32 ± 8 9±3 4±2

7522 ± 62 1384 ± 56 730 ± 48 386 ± 27 115 ± 13 63 ± 8 21 ± 6 17 ± 6

Full backs Distance 0–12 km h 1 (m) Distance 12–15 km h 1 (m) Distance 15–18 km h 1 (m) Distance 18–21 km h 1 (m) Distance 21–23 km h 1 (m) Distance 23–25 km h 1 (m) Distance 25–27 km h 1 (m) Distance >27 km h 1 (m)

3710 ± 50 670 ± 29 426 ± 19 298 ± 16 140 ± 12⁄ 91 ± 8⁄⁄ 61 ± 11 86 ± 15⁄⁄

3685 ± 68 667 ± 29 449 ± 23 320 ± 24 144 ± 20⁄⁄ 100 ± 13⁄⁄ 55 ± 12⁄⁄ 73 ± 15⁄⁄

7395 ± 105 1337 ± 44 874 ± 30 618 ± 37 284 ± 30⁄⁄ 191 ± 16⁄⁄ 116 ± 18⁄⁄ 159 ± 24⁄⁄

3791 ± 43 780 ± 48 467 ± 45 249 ± 26 83 ± 14 40 ± 10 23 ± 6 3±2

3743 ± 68 732 ± 50 436 ± 45 244 ± 29 66 ± 12 33 ± 7 10 ± 4 5±2

7534 ± 92 1513 ± 81 903 ± 81 494 ± 51 149 ± 21 73 ± 14 33 ± 8 7±3

Central midfielders Distance 0–12 km h 1 (m) Distance 12–15 km h 1 (m) Distance 15–18 km h 1 (m) Distance 18–21 km h (m) Distance 21–23 km h 1 (m) Distance 23–25 km h 1 (m) Distance 25–27 km h 1 (m) Distance > 27 km h 1 (m)

3846 ± 57 1054 ± 61 665 ± 52⁄ 367 ± 28⁄ 139 ± 17⁄ 63 ± 14 30 ± 8 44 ± 10

3813 ± 61 966 ± 58 630 ± 41⁄⁄ 364 ± 33⁄ 131 ± 10 69 ± 14 38 ± 8 32 ± 7

7659 ± 114 2021 ± 109 1295 ± 85⁄⁄ 730 ± 57⁄⁄ 270 ± 19⁄⁄ 132 ± 20 68 ± 14 76 ± 15

3921 ± 25 900 ± 43 506 ± 24 266 ± 16 82 ± 8 33 ± 6 10 ± 3 6±2

3834 ± 41  780 ± 45   438 ± 34  246 ± 22 73 ± 9 37 ± 9 21 ± 6 5±3

7758 ± 55 1680 ± 81 944 ± 52 512 ± 35 155 ± 12 69 ± 9 31 ± 7 11 ± 3

Wide midfielders Distance 0–12 km h 1 (m) Distance 12–15 km h 1 (m) Distance 15–18 km h 1 (m) Distance 18–21 km h 1 (m) Distance 21–23 km h 1 (m) Distance 23–25 km h 1 (m) Distance 25–27 km h 1 (m) Distance >27 km h (m)

3715 ± 42 752 ± 43 503 ± 52 317 ± 29 147 ± 14 91 ± 13⁄ 72 ± 16 101 ± 20⁄⁄

3762 ± 51 710 ± 64 498 ± 51 338 ± 25 147 ± 14 94 ± 11 73 ± 12 77 ± 27⁄

7476 ± 71 1462 ± 100 1001 ± 93 655 ± 42 293 ± 20⁄⁄ 185 ± 17⁄⁄ 144 ± 21⁄⁄ 178 ± 40⁄⁄

3830 ± 51 779 ± 65 525 ± 57 280 ± 24 100 ± 19 38 ± 9 31 ± 10 12 ± 7

3797 ± 92 647 ± 42 420 ± 36   282 ± 21 91 ± 11 47 ± 11 31 ± 7 19 ± 8

7627 ± 131 1425 ± 93 945 ± 90 563 ± 36 190 ± 26 86 ± 14 62 ± 16 31 ± 11

Attackers Distance 0–12 km h 1 (m) Distance 12–15 km h 1 (m) Distance 15–18 km h 1 (m) Distance 18–21 km h 1 (m) Distance 21–23 km h 1 (m) Distance 23–25 km h 1 (m) Distance 25–27 km h 1 (m) Distance >27 km h 1 (m)

3702 ± 80 819 ± 56 581 ± 48 325 ± 36 122 ± 11 57 ± 6 48 ± 18 19 ± 10

3755 ± 88 765 ± 73 545 ± 51 340 ± 25 109 ± 31 73 ± 18 28 ± 10 33 ± 10

7457 ± 121 1585 ± 113 1126 ± 93 664 ± 55 230 ± 34 130 ± 21 76 ± 27 51 ± 19

3737 ± 53 679 ± 43 441 ± 31 301 ± 22 105 ± 13 67 ± 10 47 ± 17 46 ± 10

3746 ± 64 697 ± 41 415 ± 27 244 ± 29 107 ± 19 71 ± 22 41 ± 11 23 ± 14

7483 ± 93 1376 ± 73 856 ± 55 545 ± 38 211 ± 30 138 ± 31 88 ± 25 69 ± 14

All players Distance 0–12 km h 1 (m) Distance 12–15 km h 1 (m) Distance 15–18 km h 1 (m) Distance 18–21 km h 1 (m) Distance 21–23 km h 1 (m) Distance 23–25 km h 1 (m) Distance 25–27 km h 1 (m) Distance >27 km h 1 (m)

3755 ± 23 754 ± 28 476 ± 22 295 ± 13⁄⁄ 125 ± 6⁄⁄ 73 ± 5⁄⁄ 47 ± 5⁄⁄ 58 ± 7⁄⁄

3764 ± 27 728 ± 25 478 ± 20⁄ 301 ± 13⁄⁄ 117 ± 8⁄⁄ 74 ± 6⁄⁄ 45 ± 5⁄⁄ 48 ± 7⁄⁄

7519 ± 45 1483 ± 50 954 ± 40 597 ± 24⁄⁄ 242 ± 12⁄⁄ 147 ± 9⁄⁄ 93 ± 9⁄⁄ 107 ± 13⁄⁄

3836 ± 17DD 797 ± 22 457 ± 17 248 ± 10 78 ± 5 38 ± 4 20 ± 3 12 ± 2

3767 ± 27   705 ± 21   415 ± 17 238 ± 11 75 ± 5 40 ± 5 19 ± 3 8±2

7603 ± 38 1502 ± 38 872 ± 31 486 ± 19 154 ± 9 78 ± 6 39 ± 5 20 ± 4

Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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700

Male Female

** * **

600

Δ

Δ

**

**

* ** * *

Δ Δ

**

500

(b) Distance <12 km h-1 (m)

Total Distance (m)

800

125

Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ Δ

Δ Δ

*

400 350

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Time (min)

**

Male Female

**

** **

** ** **

100

**

**

**

**

75

(d) Distance 18-21 km h-1 (m)

Distance >15 km h-1 (m)

150

Δ Δ

450

Time (min) 200 175

Male Female

300

400

(c)

500

50 40

**

*

*

** * *

30

Male Female

** **

20 10

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

50

Time (min)

Time (min)

Fig. 1. Match running performance of male and female players across discrete 5 min periods during matches: (a) total distance covered, (b) <12 km h 1, (c) >15 km h 1 and (d) 18–21 km h 1. Male players covered more distance than female players: ⁄P < .05; ⁄⁄P < .01. Female players covered more distance than male players: DP < .05; DDP < .01. Figure does not include stoppage time distances. Data are presented as means and standard error of the mean.

P.S. Bradley et al. / Human Movement Science xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

(a)

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Distance >15 km h-1 (m)

250

Male Female

**

200 150

**

*

100 50 0 Peak 5-min

Next 5-min

Average 5-min

Fig. 2. Most intense period of match-play in male and female players. Male players covered more distance than female players: ⁄ P < .05; ⁄⁄P < .01. Average period was calculated as the average distance of all 5-min periods minus the peak period. Data are presented as means and standard error of the mean.

lected periods of the first (35–45 min; ES: 0.7–1.0) and second half (50 and 85 min; ES: 0.5–1.2). For higher speed thresholds (>15, 18–21 and 21–23 km h 1), male players covered more (P < .05) distance in periods of the first (5, 15, 30 min; ES: 0.4–0.9) and second half (50–60, 70 and 90 min; ES: 0.4–1.3). Female players displayed reductions (P < .01) in total distance covered in most of the 5 min periods of the second half compared to the equivalent first half periods (5 vs 50, 10 vs 55, 20 vs 65, 30 vs 75, 35 vs 80 and 45 vs 90 min; ES: 0.5–1.7) but this was only evident in selected periods for male players (5 vs 50, 30 vs 75 and 35 vs 80 min; ES: 0.6–1.3). For the lowest speed threshold (0–12 km h 1), female players covered less distance (P < .01) in the middle of the second half compared to the equivalent first half period (20 vs 65 and 30 vs 75; ES: 0.8–0.9), while male players reduced their distances in the first 5 min and the middle of the match (5 vs 50 and 30 vs 75 min; ES: 0.9). For the speed threshold of >15 km h 1, the distances covered by female players reduced (P < .01) in the second compared Table 2 Match running performance of male and female players in each half and the entire match for amalgamations of various moderate and high speed thresholds. Male players covered more distance than female players: ⁄P < .05; ⁄⁄P < .01. Difference between first and second half:  P < .05;   P < .01. Data are presented as means and standard error of the mean. Position/Variable

Central defenders Distance >12 km h Distance >18 km h Full backs Distance >12 km h Distance >18 km h Central midfielders Distance >12 km h Distance >18 km h Wide midfielders Distance >12 km h Distance >18 km h Attackers Distance >12 km h Distance >18 km h All players Distance >12 km h Distance >18 km h

Male players

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

Female players

First

Second

Total

First

Second

Total

(m) (m)

1366 ± 48 428 ± 30

1351 ± 49 369 ± 20

2716 ± 87 797 ± 42

1408 ± 62 294 ± 21

1307 ± 82 308 ± 31

2715 ± 128 602 ± 41

(m) (m)

1772 ± 54 676 ± 45⁄⁄

1807 ± 86 692 ± 60⁄⁄

3579 ± 132 1368 ± 101⁄⁄

1645 ± 131 398 ± 48

1526 ± 130 357 ± 46

3171 ± 231 756 ± 86

(m) (m)

2362 ± 141⁄⁄ 643 ± 44⁄⁄

2230 ± 110⁄⁄ 633 ± 35⁄⁄

4592 ± 236⁄⁄ 1276 ± 70⁄⁄

1802 ± 72 397 ± 25

1600 ± 99   382 ± 31

3402 ± 159 778 ± 46

(m) (m)

1981 ± 131 727 ± 58⁄⁄

1936 ± 142 729 ± 51⁄⁄

3918 ± 248 1456 ± 99⁄⁄

1765 ± 140 461 ± 56

1537 ± 95  470 ± 38

3301 ± 221 931 ± 78

(m) (m)

1970 ± 105 570 ± 46

1891 ± 102 581 ± 34

3861 ± 191 1151 ± 64

1686 ± 74 566 ± 39

1597 ± 78 485 ± 53

3283 ± 108 1051 ± 78

(m) (m)

1829 ± 62⁄ 599 ± 25⁄⁄

1792 ± 59⁄⁄ 586 ± 27⁄⁄

3621 ± 117⁄⁄ 1184 ± 49⁄⁄

1651 ± 47 397 ± 19

1500 ± 49   380 ± 19

3151 ± 87 777 ± 33

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Table 3 Technical performance of elite male and female players for each half and the entire match. Male players greater than female players: ⁄P < .05; ⁄⁄P < .01. Female players greater than male players: DP < .05; DDP < .01. Difference between first and second half:  P < .05;   P < .01. Data are presented as means and standard error of the mean. Technical events

Total duels won (%) Touches per possession (No.) Time possession (s) Total balls lost (No.) Successful passes (%)

Male players

Female players

First

Second

Total

First

Second

Total

57.8 ± 3.7 2.0 ± 0.1 33.8 ± 2.4 7.5 ± 0.4 78.1 ± 1.6⁄

51.5 ± 3.8 2.2 ± 0.1  35.8 ± 2.7 5.1 ± 0.4   80.1 ± 1.3⁄⁄

55.8 ± 3.1 2.1 ± 0.1 69.6 ± 4.1 12.6 ± 0.6 79.4 ± 1.3⁄⁄

51.0 ± 2.8 2.0 ± 0.1 34.6 ± 1.8 9.2 ± 0.6D 72.0 ± 1.8

51.9 ± 2.7 2.1 ± 0.1 31.9 ± 2.3 8.2 ± 0.5DD 70.4 ± 1.9

51.3 ± 2.0 2.1 ± 0.1 66.5 ± 3.4 17.4 ± 0.8DD 71.5 ± 1.5

to equivalent first half period in the latter stages of the half (35 vs 80 and 45 vs 90 min; ES: 0.8–1.0) but male players decreased in the first and latter stages of the half (5 vs 50 and 35 vs 80; ES: 0.6–0.7). 3.3. Most intense periods of the match The distance covered during the most intense 5 min period of the match at a speed threshold of >15 km h 1 was higher (P < .01) in male compared to female players (Fig. 2; ES: 1.0). Differences were also evident between gender (P < .05) for the next and average 5 min period during the match (ES: 0.4–1.0). Although, male and female players did not illustrate a distance deficit in the next versus the average 5 min period (ES: 0.1–0.2). 3.4. Technical events No differences were found between genders for technical variables such as the number of ball touches, time in possession of ball or total duels won during both halves and the entire match (ES: 0.1–0.3; Table 3). However, female players lost the ball more often and displayed lower pass completion rates than male players (P < .05) during both halves and the entire match (ES: 0.5–0.9; Table 3). 3.5. Positional differences Male central midfielders covered more (P < .01) total distance during a match than female counterparts at selected speed thresholds (>15, 15–18, 18–21 and 21–23 km h 1; ES: 1.3–2.2). Distances covered during the entire match at the lowest speed threshold (0–12 km h 1) did not differ between genders for any position (ES: 0.1–0.5). Male full-backs and wide midfielders covered a greater distance (P < .01) than female counterparts at higher speed thresholds (>15, >18, 21–23, 23–25, 25–27 and > 27 km h 1; ES: 1.5–3.1; Tables 1 and 2). Match running performances did not differ between genders in central defenders and attackers. Male central midfielders covered more (P < .05) total distance in the first half than female counterparts (ES: 1.2) but this did not differ during the second half. While differences occurred (P < .05) between male and female central midfielders in the first half at higher speed thresholds (>15, >18, 15–18, 18–21 and 21–23 km h 1), the first three of these speeds were also higher (P < .05) in the second half (ES: 1.2–2.4). Male full-backs covered more (P < .05) distance at speed thresholds of >15, >18, 21–23, 23–25 and >27 km h 1 in both the first and second half (ES: 1.6–2.8). The same trend (P < .05) was evident between gender for wide midfielders at speed thresholds of >18, 23–25 and >27 km h 1 in the first half and 25–27 and >27 km h 1 in the second half (ES: 1.1–2.2). No differences were observed between halves for any playing position in the male population but differences (P < .05) between halves were found for female players in a variety of positions including full-backs, central and wide midfielders for the distances covered at a speed threshold of >15 km h 1. The total distance covered during the Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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entire match was also lower (P < .05) in the second compared to the first half in female central defenders and both midfield positions.

4. Discussion The data demonstrate large gender differences for match performance characteristics of players competing at the highest competitive standard of European soccer. Male players covered more distance in total and at higher speed thresholds, as well as during the most intense period of a match. Gender differences at higher speed thresholds were more pronounced in the second half in female compared to male players. Additionally, female players lost the ball more often and had lower pass completion rates than male players. Finally, male full-backs, central and wide midfielders covered more distance in higher speed thresholds compared to their female counterparts, no gender differences were observed between attackers and central defenders. Male players competing in UEFA Champions League matches were found to cover more distance in total and at a higher speed threshold (>15 km h 1) than their female counterparts, which is in agreement with previous studies quantifying similar variables independently for male and female players in domestic and international competitions using an array of match analysis systems (Andersson et al., 2010; Bradley et al., 2009, 2010; Bradley, Carling, et al., 2011; Bradley et al., 2012, 2013; Krustrup et al., 2003, 2005; Mohr et al., 2003, 2008, 2010; Rampinini et al., 2009). The present study makes more appropriate comparisons as no research has examined gender differences in a sample of players competing at the highest standard of European competition using the same match analysis system. Although the reader must also be aware that given the rarity of the data (female and male players competing in UEFA Champions League using an automated tracking system) only small sample sizes were available and this could have impacted the trends within the present study. This is particularly relevant given that a large sample is usually needed due to the substantial match-to-match variability observed in high-intensity activities (Gregson et al., 2010). Gender differences were more pronounced at the higher speed thresholds than for the total distance covered in a match, due to female players covering a higher proportion of their distance at speeds <12 km h 1, supporting the importance of high-intensity running in elite soccer (Ingebrigtsen et al., 2012; Mohr et al., 2003, 2008). The high-intensity running speed threshold is usually set at >15 km h 1 for elite male soccer players (Bangsbo, 1994; Bangsbo et al., 1991). The rationale for this choice is based on an estimate of exercise intensity (soccer running) close to the speed for maximal _ 2max ) (Bangsbo, 1994; Greig, McNaughton, & Lovell, 2006). Thus, an exercise intenoxygen uptake (VO sity that highly loads the aerobic energy system but also requires a significant anaerobic contribution. _ 2max at 19 km h 1 during treadmill running (Bangsbo, Typically, elite male players reach their VO 1994). However, soccer running includes the execution of discrete match-related skills, which are markedly more energetic than running continuously on a treadmill (Bangsbo, 1994; Reilly, 1997). Thus, high-intensity soccer running was originally defined as a speed >15 km h 1 (Bangsbo et al., 1991). The present study compares the distance covered at equal cut-off speed limits, with the male players covering more distance at speeds >15 km h 1, but with minimal differences at <12 km h 1. Since high-intensity running for elite female soccer populations may be set lower than for the males, _ 2max running speed has been shown to be 3 km h 1 lower than for males (Bangsbo, since their VO 1994; Krustrup et al., 2005) and due to an inferior anaerobic capacity (Bangsbo, Iaia, & Krustrup, 2008; Bradley, Mohr, et al., 2011; Bradley et al., 2012). Thus, the fact that no gender differences were found for the distance covered <12 km h 1, which may be closer to a threshold for high-intensity soccer running for female players, suggests that the relative intensity may be more comparable for elite male and female matches than initially thought. This is supported by a similar cardiovascular loading in elite male and female matches (Bangsbo, 1994; Krustrup et al., 2005), but others indicate that female players elicit lower blood lactate concentrations compared to males (Ekblom, 1986; Krustrup et al., 2010). One potential limitation of the present study is the use of pre-defined high-intensity running thresholds for elite female players that are generally applied to elite male players. Given that Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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peak speed characteristics and anaerobic threshold indices of female players are substantially lower than their male counterparts (Abt & Lovell, 2009; Krustrup et al., 2005, 2010; Sayers et al., 2008), speed thresholds should ideally be individualized based on these parameters and more research is warranted to elucidate the gender differences between elite male and female players using such an approach. The present study used speed thresholds with 2–3 km h 1 increments and thus when standardized thresholds are developed for elite female players, then this data could be re-examined to provide a more complete comparison of gender differences in match performance characteristics. Sprinting profiles of elite female players indicate more distance is covered at a speed threshold of 21–23 km h 1 than higher thresholds (Vescovi, 2012a), with similar peak speeds also observed during 20–35 m sprint tests (Vescovi, 2012b). Given that sprint thresholds for elite male players are usually set at 25 km h 1 (Bradley et al., 2009), sprint thresholds for elite female players should be set lower than this and ideally be adjusted on an individual basis based on physical performance measures but further work is warranted in this area to establish the most appropriate measure(s). When comparing physical capacity across gender using soccer-specific tests such as the Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance Level 2 (Yo-Yo IE2) and Recovery Level 1 Tests (Yo-Yo IR1), elite senior female players performances are 30% lower than their male counterparts (Bradley, Mohr, et al., 2011; Bradley et al., 2012; Krustrup et al., 2003, 2005). However, the differential in Yo-Yo IE2 and IR1 test performances between gender is much wider than that reported for world record times in a variety of endurance events (Cheuvront, Carter, Deruisseau, & Moffatt, 2005; Sparling, O’Donnell, & Snow, 1998) and supports the current assertion that elite female players seem to possess a lower physical capacity than male players across a range of fitness attributes (Krustrup et al., 2005, 2010; Mujika et al., 2009; Rhodes & Mosher, 1992; Stolen, Chamari, Castagna, & Wisloff, 2005; Tamer et al., 1997). Thus, given the relationship between physical capacity and match running performance, it is not surprising that distances covered at higher speed thresholds in elite female matches are lower than their male counterparts of a similar competitive level (Andersson et al., 2010; Krustrup et al., 2005; Mohr et al., 2008) but given the problematic nature of determining relative speed thresholds for male and female players this is difficult to accurately establish in this study. Another interesting finding in the present study was the large decrements observed in the second versus the first half for the distance covered in total and at selected speed thresholds (12–15 and >15 km h 1) for female but not male players. Thus, the degree of match-induced fatigue during the second half appears to be higher in female compared to male players. Additionally, no differences occurred between genders in the first half at speed thresholds of 15–18 km h 1, but the distances covered in this speed threshold was higher for male players in the second half, possibly indicating matchinduced fatigue in the second half in female players. Thus, this could have a physical origin given the elite male players have higher physical capacities than female players but could also be influenced by contextual and situational factors that were not quantified in the present study (Castellano, BlancoVillaseñor, & Álvarez, 2011). This is particularly relevant given that Gabbett et al. (2013) recently found no decrement in repeated bouts of high-intensity running for elite female players between the first and second half, so the influence of contextual factors cannot be discounted in the present study (e.g. outcome of match decided early in the second half due to a large score differential and thus the tempo of the match declines). Finally, we also found that the distance covered during the most intense 5 min period of a match (>15 km h 1) was markedly higher in male compared to female players, but no distance deficit in the next versus the average 5 min period was observed for either gender, indicating a similar relative response during the peak periods of the match. Temporary declines in match running performance after the most intense period have been observed in other studies (Andersson et al., 2010; Bradley, Carling, et al., 2011; Bradley et al., 2009, 2010; Di Mascio & Bradley, 2012; Mohr et al., 2003, 2010, 2012). However, in the present study both male and female players failed to demonstrate transient fatigue immediately after the most intense period of the match. It must be noted that the peak periods covered by elite male players in this study were 10–15% lower than that reported by others (Bradley et al., 2009; Mohr et al., 2003) and thus this could indicate that players partaking in the UEFA Champions League do not tax their physical capacity to the same extent during peak periods compared with other domestic Leagues. This could be due to superior technical capabilities in the highest level of European soccer or style of play (more possession based vs direct) as suggested by others (Bradley et al., in press). Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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To date the present study is the only research to include a detailed breakdown of technical events during elite female matches. Although technical events have been quantified in several studies on elite male players (Andersson et al., 2008; Bradley et al., 2013; Mohr, Nybo, Grantham, & Racinais, 2012). We observed no differences between genders for events such as the number of touches, time in possession of the ball or total duels won during both halves and the entire match. In contrast, female players lost the ball more frequently and had a lower pass completion rate than male players during both halves as well as the entire match. Thus, elite female players at the highest competitive standard of European soccer do not appear to have the same technical characteristics as their male counterparts, which may impact on the work rate and fatigue patterns in the match. Research demonstrates that players cover more total distance and high-intensity running when playing against higher compared to lower quality opponents (Castellano et al., 2011; Di Salvo et al., 2009; Rampinini, Coutts, Castagna, Sassi, & Impellizzeri, 2007) and in lower versus higher standard Leagues within the same country (Bradley et al., in press; Di Salvo, Pigozzi, Gonzalez-Haro, Laughlin, & De Witt, 2013). Thus, the technical proficiency of teams may affect the relative intensity of the matches and the degree of fatigue development, which is supported by research (Bendiksen et al., 2012; Rampinini et al., 2007; Stuart, Hopkins, Cook, & Cairns, 2005). However, only limited contextual information was available for the current data set and this must be considered a limitation. Recent research has quantified physical and technical indicators during matches played in temperate versus hot conditions (Mohr et al., 2012). Match running performance was markedly lower in hot conditions, but the number of passes and successful passes increased but it is important to acknowledge that no climatic data were obtained in the present study. Thus, a close relationship between the execution of technical events and match running performance could exist. Based on the present findings, it could be suggested that elite female players due to inferior technical abilities are forced to work less efficiency during a match than male counterparts, which may result in a greater accumulated fatigue particularly in the second half. There is a plethora of research from elite male soccer populations indicating substantial match related differences between players when analyzed according to five positional subsets (Bradley et al., 2009, 2010; Bradley, Carling, et al., 2011; Buchheit et al., 2010; Carling, 2010; Di Salvo et al., 2007, 2009, 2010; Gregson et al., 2010; Lago-Peñas et al., 2011). Although researchers have not investigated match performance characteristics for female players in the five most common positional subsets (Andersson et al., 2008; Krustrup et al., 2005; Mohr et al., 2008). These studies could only analyze match performance characteristics in three positional subsets (defenders, midfielders, attackers). In this study, male central midfielders covered more distance in total and at selected speed thresholds ranging from 15 to 23 km h 1. Male full-backs and wide midfielders also covered a greater distance than their female counterparts at speed thresholds of 15–27 km h 1, whilst no gender differences were observed between central defenders and attackers. Studies on male and female players have demonstrated that central and wide midfielders as well as full-backs cover more distance than central defenders and to some degree attackers (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Bradley et al., 2013; Mohr et al., 2003, 2008; Rampinini et al., 2009). Therefore, the differences between genders are caused by markedly higher absolute work rates in the most demanding positions in the team. In addition, male players in less demanding positions such as central defenders and attackers may not use their entire physical capacity during a match. However, caution is needed when evaluating the trends for male and female attackers, as the sample size was only just sufficient to allow statistical computation and future research is needed using a larger sample of players in this position.

5. Conclusions The data demonstrate for the first time that large gender differences exist for match performance characteristics of elite players competing at the highest competitive standard of European soccer with males covering more distance at higher speed thresholds. Female players appear to fatigue more throughout the second half in comparison to male counterparts, and more ball losses and lower pass completion rates were observed in female versus males. Finally, the gender differences were more pronounced in the most demanding playing positions. Such detailed analyses can be used to provide Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024

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gender-specific training information for optimal preparation. However, more research is warranted to establish gender-specific speed thresholds to allow more appropriate comparison to be made. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the postgraduate students at the University of Sunderland (Paul Power, Layton Leadbitter and Mark Moir) for help with sorting the first of two batches of match performance data. Thank you to Staff at Amisco for sending across the various data sets to Alexandre Dellal for the study to proceed. References Abt, G., & Lovell, R. (2009). The use of individualized speed and intensity thresholds for determining the distance run at highintensity in professional soccer. Journal of Sports Science, 27, 893–898. Andersson, H., Ekblom, B., & Krustrup, P. (2008). Elite football on artificial turf versus natural grass: Movement pattern, technical standard and player opinion. Journal of Sport Sciences, 26, 113–122. Andersson, H. A., Randers, M. 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Please cite this article in press as: Bradley, P. S., et al. Gender differences in match performance characteristics of soccer players competing in the UEFA Champions League. Human Movement Science (2013), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.humov.2013.07.024