Geographical aspects of environmental pollution in India

Geoforum,

Vol.7,

pp.51-57,

1976.

Pergamon Press. Printed in Great Britain

Geographical

P. P. KARAN

Summary:

Aspects of Environmental

and W. A. BLADEN,

Generally,

problems

development.

problems found in the less developed

l’accroissement

Umweltverschmutzung

Staaten resultieren

que les problemes

demographique

pays en tours de developpement,

comme le montre

growth

industrial

in India arises from

economic

brought

1974; WHITCOMEE, decision-makers environmental

1972).

such as poor sanitation,

1972,

16 June 1972; p.4).

America,

Unlike

Hindustan

developed

water pollution,

problems

India has perceived

prerequisite

to improvement

degradation

caused by poverty

However,

Department Lexington,

P. KARAN

of Geography,

Population

has been viewed

development

Kentucky

40566.

to

the aim of

The purpose of this paper is to pollution

of environmental

degradation

Growth and Environmental

The problems the growth

as

of environmental

of population

to the population;

development

Quality

degradation

has

population

A. BLADEN,

of Kentucky,

USA.

is expected

representing

during the 15-year 1974,

is not simply

one of meeting

of India, to increase

an addition

to

period of the same order

of the United

Commission, population, 51

in 1971,

in

people are added

by 1985 the population

which was 547 million

caused by

are staggering in magnitude

India. Each year more than 12 million

and Foreign

and Prof. Wilford University

is obviously

North

by about 200 million,

Prof. Pradyumna

the significant

in contributing

world.

as the entire population *

The Indian policy-

(National

of environmental

economic

dans les

air and water

some aspects of environmental

in the developing

1972). the accelerating

in

water-

such as air and

(Indian

of life, which

in India as an illustration

18 June

nations of Europe,

and Japan where development

as a cause of environmental

Review,

Times,

of environment

development.

discuss briefly

At present, the national

supply and housing as the most important Herald,

economic

Commission,

in India perceive the poverty-related problems

into focus widespread

the better quality

of agriculture

(Planning

sont des causes de pollution

in many parts of the country.

role of the quality

urbaniza-

during the last 25 years

development

Landern.

und stadtisch-

Verschmutzungsprobleme

makers are now beginning to appreciate

poor

as well as from

and modernization

which have gained momentum of planned

Uberbevolkerung

de I’lnde.

pollution

tion,

growth

ne se posent que dans les pays avances. Cependant,

urbeine et industrielle

I’exemple

clearly

living conditions

g&e es nur in hochentwickelten

indes aus Armut,

de pollution

et I’expansion

Introduction

socioeconomic

population

to discuss the types of pollution

Welt.

Resume: On pense habituellement

pollution

is serious only in highly

result from poverty,

An dieser Stelle dient lndien als Beispiel fur die verschiedenen

der weniger entwickelten

Environmental

pollution

countries

world.

in weniger entwickelten

Entwicklung.

of less developed

In this paper India is taken as an illustration

Die meisten Menschen denken,

Die Umweltprobleme

la pauvrete,

Lexington*

The environmental

as well as urban-industrial

industrieller

in India

most people are under the impression that environmental

developed countries.

Zusammenfassung:

Pollution

p. 1; PETERSON,

States (Planning 1973).

The problem

the needs of the additional

but there is a tremendous

backlog

in regard

to the existing-438 and 109 million environment poorly

7/Number 1 I1 976

Geoforum/Volume

52

million in towns

pollution

ventilated

wells (KAUSHIK widespread,

from

housing,

In the Indian

unsanitary

polluted

rural

drinking

waters from

problems.

of over-crowded

problems

in almost all Indian of sewage facilities

by the fact that out of 2431 national

water supply

population

greater than 5000

176 were sewered. amounts

places under

and sanitation

to 25 million

population The growth

India’s with a

pollution.

placed

to water

and

Water Pollution is no systematic

dimension

of water

population.

pollution

Institute

at Nagpur

and Central

at Calcutta

highlight

of water

Inland

studies

Engineering

Fisheries

Research

problem.

quality’

Unsatisfactory

However,

the seriousness of the

that 70% of Indian

methods

pollution.

inland waters are of

(Science Today,

sewage and industrial

Industrial

in Inida.

a

and spatial

Public Health

Institute

‘doubtful

to provide

of the magnitude

carried on by India’s Central

It is estimated

is not the only

study available

picture

water pollution

served, this

or only 7% of the total national

source of environmental

out

persons in 1961, a mere

however,

technology,

demands

in India.

comprehensive

or only 33% of the urban

of population,

of agricultural

resources have all contributed

air pollution

There

towns and

is brought

program

In terms of population

the large and intensive

cities and

essential services such as water supply,

cities. The inadequacy

modernization

and generally

are

The rapid

sewage and solid waste disposal have caused serious environmental

development,

on natural

waste disposal,

eta/., 1963) and burning of cowdung

causing serious health

increase in the population inadequate

persons living in rural areas

and cities.

1970a,

p. 42).

for disposal and treatment

wastes are among the major

Waste materials

of causes

are commonly

Fig. 1 l

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Cites

with recorded air pollutton

India. Environmental

Pollution.

Geofor~m/Voiume 7INumber 1 /I 976

53

discharged without treatment into inland or coastal

1964). At Kanpur, and Barauni the Ganga water is heavily

waters. For example, raw sewage is dumped into the

polluted with industrial wastes from tanneries, textile

Ganga at Varanasi, where water is used for drinking

mills and oil refineries (SAXENA, G.M., 1971; JAGANNATHA SAXENA,

purposes by thousands of pilgrims each day (MATHUR,

RAO. 1971, p. 5;

1970, p. 18). In Greater Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,

discharges from pulp, paper and jute mills near Calcutta

K.L., eta/. 1966). Untreated (SETH

part of the untreated sewage goes directly to river or the

is responsible for pollution of the Hooghly waters

sea (GHOSH, 1969). information collected from officials of 20 major Indian cities on status of sewage disposal

and

revealed that 9 cities (Kanpur, Bangalore, Poona, Nagpur,

wastes discharged into the Son river by factories near

BHASKARAN,

1950). In recent years, the fish catch

has been lower in the Hooghly and the Ganga. Chemical

Lucknow, Agra, Varanasi, Madurai, and Allahabad) had

Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, have been responsible for high

no sewage treatment plant; 6 cities (Amritsar, Hyderabad,

fish casualities. Paper mill effluents in the Son river have rendered the water unsuitable for about 60 km from the

Indore, Jaipur, Sholapur and Patna) had secondary point of discharge near Shahdol. Likewise, Gomti river treatment plants; only 2 cities (Ahmedabad and Delhi) is contaminated over a 35 km stretch downstream from had modern sewage treatment plant. The untreated sewage going into the river or sea at Calcutta, Bombay and Lucknow from paper and pulp mill wastes and raw Madras creates serious odor problems in some sections of the cities. In addition, the overburdened sewers of these three metropolitan centers lead into the water-mains laid under them, polluting the drinking water supply 1973;Seminar,1963).In India

(SIVARAMAKRISHNAN,

there are no legal standards of maximum allowable pollution and no data exist on the capacities of receiving streams to absorb pollutional loads without adverse environmental impact.

sewage. The Damodar is perhaps the most polluted river in India (Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute, 1969; GOPALKRISHNAN et al. 1966). It receives wastes from various industries on its banks-from steel mills, coke-oven plants, coal-based chemical industries, and fertilizer factory wastes such as alkalis, ammonia, cyanide, and phenols. About 159,100 m3 of waste water having a BOD (biochemical oxygen demand, a measure

Water pollution resulting from industrial waste disposal into streams or other bodies of water is localized in industrial centerssuch as Bomaby, Calcutta, Delhi, Kanpur and Damodar Valley of Chotanagpur plateau. Destruction of fish from lack of dissolved oxygen or from the toxic

of the amount of oxygen required for the biological degradation of a specific quantity of organic solids in a specific amount of water over a given period) of over 43,000 kg is discharged daily into the Damodar river from industries.

effect of industrial wastes has been reported in rivers like the Damodar, Son, Mahanadi, Jamuna, Ganges, Cauvery,

Untreated wastes from chemical and rayon industries

Krishna, Mahi near Baroda, and Kalu near Bombay. A

between Bombay city and Kalyan flow into the creeks

large fish kill was reported in Jamuna River at Delhi due

or into sewers or streams which find their way into the

to the untreated waste of an insecticide factory located

Kalu river. As a result of the efforts by the State Water

at Najafgarh, north of the city (GEORGE et al.1965; JHINGRAN and RAY, 1969). In March 1970, the plant

Pollution Investigation Centre in Bombay, the industries are being persuaded to limit their effluents to improve

which filters water from the Jamuna for over half a

the water quality in the Kalu and Ulhas estuaries.

million residents of South Delhi was shut down for three days because it was clogged with dead fish resulting from

Industrial effluents flowing into the Cauvery river, the

industrial waste (HindustanTimes, 1970, p. 3). During this water crisis municipal tankers distributed water to residents of South Delhi. However, hepatitis due to use of ‘polluted’ water was revealed in a survey conducted by the All-lndias Institute of Medical Sciences in Greater Kailash (a south Delhi Suburb) which received drinking water from the plant. A survey of the Jamuna river water between Delhi and Agra revealed that the quality of water deteriorates progressively as the water flows from one city to the next-from Delhi through Okhla and Mathura to Agra (Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute,

major source of drinking water in Tamil Nadu, contain tannery, distillery, and acidic sugar mill wastes with high alkalinity content and dissolved solids. The fish catch dwindled in the Bhadra river near Bhadravati, Mysore, because of wastes from paper and steel mills. The Godavari in Andhra Pradesh, the Chaliyar in Kerala, the Tapti and Chambal in Madhya Pradesh are among the other major Indian rivers contaminated by industrial wastes at various points.

Air Pollution Although data on the extent of air pollution is meagre

Geoforum/Volume

54

in India, pockets

of severe air pollution

exist all over the country. revealed an alarming

Bombay,

Public Health

Engineering

LAL,

1972,

p.6).

Ahmadabad,

Delhi, Kanpur,

the extent

Research

stations

Engineering Calcutta,

Sulphur

plants Since

of India in 9

Hyderabad,

pollutants-sulphur matter-measured

(Table

1). Table

developed

nations,

atmosphere.

by the

dioxide

1 reveals several facts on

in India.

Calcutta

of industries

is comparatively

and

First, suspended

particulate to the

being 2-5 times more in the Indian

Second,

concentration

1 /I 976

in 9 Indian

in Indian cities is much higher compared

levels are fairly

Some idea of

in India is provided

with

the most polluted high in Calcutta

evenings. Samples of carbon major streets of Calcutta

its high population,

and large number

of automobiles

city. Sulphur

dioxide

during afternoons

monoxide

show that

and

in the air of the

l-h concentrations

are

_

Table 1 l

Madras,

particulate

Cities in 1970

matter

have been set up by the Institute

suspended

aspects of air pollution

1970a;

power

Jaipur and Nagpur.

of air pollution

values for two common

(Central

Institute,

Emissions from factories,

Public Health

cities-Bombay,

Delhi and Kanpur

are chief sources of air pollutants.

1969 regular monitoring Central

to

in four Indian

degree of air pollution

cities-Calcutta,

and automobiles

are known

A study carried out in 1968

7/Number

city

1971 Populatim

Mean Value of Sulphur Dioxide ug/mj

SuspendedParticulate matter

uq/rnj

dioxide and suspended

particulate

matter

1,952,668

in nine

10.66

306.6

Indian cities, 1970 47.11

Calcutta

7,005,362

32.88

340.7

Delhi

3,629,842

41.43

801.1

yderabad

1,798,910

5.06

146.2

Jaipur

613,144

4.15

446.1

Kanpur

1,273,016

11.97

543.5

Ma&as

2,470,288

8.38

100.9

866,144

7.71

261.6

Nagpur

source:

Central public Health EtqineeringResearch Institute,Nagpur; and Census of India, 1971.

Fig. 2 l

~~

Variations 1958-l

of Turbidity

during

969

0 00

L--I-1-_--L__

1958

1----__..-.._L___i_

1960

1962

-1

1964

1966

__i___

1968

GeoforumlVolume

7INumber

1 /1976

55

as high as 35 ppm (parts per million) which is comparable However,

during traffic

hours

with other major cities of the world.

monoxide

poor performance.

For example,

carbon monoxide the United

from vehicles on account

in auto-exhaust

show 6-8% carbon

monoxide

of

while the legal limit for in the automobiles

States is 2%, the new cars manufactured

Engineering

It is generally

assumed that American

Research

cities have a greater pollution

Institute,

threat

in in India

in industrial

and Delhi.

(Fig. 2). Dust and condensation atmosphere

Turbidity

measurements

outgoing

1970b).

of all components

the incoming

the number

automobiles

between

center.

radiation,

indicate

winter

in which the vehicles operate traffic

and the density

are also of importance.

For example,

of Los Angeles and Bombay Angeles has 3,450,OOO 88,138

(1966).

Bombay’s

within

shows that although

of motor

to Bombay’s

is 321 per km2 as compared

a factor

vehicles in Bombay

to

is comparable

meteorological

as the frequent February

conditions

temperature

ranging from

concentration

during January

dioxide

and carbon

levels. In recent years Bombay

in Delhi

lndraprastha

During this season the vertical

distribution

over Bombay

gaseous materials industrial

emitted

the already

polluted

heavily

During normal

December

growing

intense”

1974).

visibility

resulting

in heavy

has been “most frequent

in recent years (Colaba

For example,

below 3,000

industries

as against only 9 cases of

m reported

in 1956,

of smog is attributed

in eastern Bombay

to reducing

visibility

(BAXTER,

Bombay.

In Chembur

and Trombay,

Bombay,

the fertilizer

factory

units of the

plant in Delhi, which uses low grade entailed

boilers with oil guns for ignition. from the power formed problems

repeated

firing

of

Coal ash and oil residue

the soot which caused severe air

in Delhi in 1973 summer. particularly

that the soot released by the chimneys According

to another

Association

that vegetation

noxious odors and other discomforts

residents of

to 811 tons. In summer

other respiratory Indian capital. bronchitis

Meteorological

Department

at a network

increased

Delhi has the highest incidence

in the of chronic

which may be related to air pollution.

is dying of bronchial

Nuclear Pollution

(Science

by the Indian

pollution

from

nuclear radiation

in areas of atomic

fission of atoms of a heavy element

of stations reveal since 1958.

are observed among the stations

the figure

to the Asthma

have

Environmental

a large and steady increase of turbidity

months

of India, cases of cough, asthma and

diseases have lately

assumed significance turbidity

per square mile in

Bronchitis

areas of eastern

of atmospheric

it 60 tons of sulphur dioxide. survey, dustfall

to be much higher. According

traffic

showed

of the power station

is reported

In addition

and

1.8 tons of

arsenic into the air. A survey carried out in 1971

from

to many

Paharganj,

of soot. In addition

to effluents

rush-hour

Measurement

Daryaganj,

Place, inhale a large amount

Delhi amounted

and the oil refineries

to the extent

Connaught

p.1).

Toa’ay, 1970b).

variations

1973,

and other sources. In of generating

1974,

out and local residents have begun to complain ailments,

power

in the day carries with

the correspond-

1974).

and accentuating

delays, smog has caused eye irritation

pollutants

of soot into

power plants

to soot, the power plant also injects daily

and

Meteorological

ing figure for 1970 was 574 (Free Press Journal, The higher incidence

times Delhi thermal

breakdowns

Residents of Delhi,

plants on the eastern side of the city are ‘trapped’

considerably

on the Jamuna

air of Delhi (SHAMIM,

by automobiles

the frequent

pollution

located

huge amounts

is such that dust, smoke and

in the lowest layer of the atmosphere

emitted

and

a major

tons of ash into the air in 24 h, adding to

the air pollution 1973,

plants has become

power station,

coal with high ash content,

temperature

from the rapidly

smog. The smog in Bombay Office,

monoxide

power

for injecting

lndraprastha

has experienced

almost daily periods of heavy smog between March.

and

80 to 90% of the days, raise the

of sulphur

to dangerous

over urban areas such

inversion,

in

when the atmos-

in Indian urban areas. For example,

river, is responsible

p.1).

of 2 to Los Angeles.

from

source of air pollution

belch out 25-30 Adverse

and February

is heaviest.

Smoke emanating

Los

180 km2. This indicates that the pollution

potential

pheric pollution

at large

are greatest

a comparison

vehicles as compared

its density

of vehicular

months of January

solar

sky radiation

number

the area

and the

a steady decrease in

of hours of sunshine and the direct

and increase in the diffuse

as the

balance,

radiation

Indian cities. Less sunshine and radiation

in pollution,

and 1969 of the

Further,

of radiation

short-wave

because the Western cities have more vehicles. While the of vehicles is a factor

1958

nuclei content

into an industrial

long-wave

radiation

centers such

of atmosphere

at Poona have increased considerably

particularly

and European from

Bombay,

city has developed

in exhaust gas (Central

Public Health

as Calcutta,

at New Delhi and Poona doubled

it should be noted that this is due to greater

emission of carbon

with very high values of turbidity

Large

in the network

which is produced ore deposits, radio-active

at Trombay

from

like uranium

The

233,

India’s rich thorium

besides releasing energy in reactors, elements

has

installations.

and nuclear radiation.

produces

At Trombay

GeoforurniVolume

56

atomic

installation,

Bombay,

located

dosage of radiation (S~RIVALKAR,

nuclear power

A distinct

station

been in operation

Conclusion

creek in eastern

studies reveal that the annual

released are within

1970).

level has been recorded

1971).

on the Thana

micrometeorological

the prescribed

at Tarapur

since 1969

limit

rise in the radioactivity

in the area adjacent

to India’s first

near Bombay

(GHAT,

1970;

of reactor

released radioiodine

detected

near Tarapur

located

on the Chambal

which are considered

as acceptable.

India’s underground radio-active

fall-out

Environmental Jaduguda

nuclear was fully

in Bihar where

at Hyderabad UP recently.

where

contained

a major

additional

the site of in Rajasthan

underground.

atomic

and milled

installation

and

was set

India are being investigated

in western

poverty

safety as

poor

living

is regarded

Indian

urban areas noise levels in commercial

residential

and hospital

areas are generally

higher than in Western Principal

cities (SHAPIRO,

sources of noise in Indian

vehicular grinding

traffic,

industries

mills located

of radios,

and aircraft.

at marriages

markets,

are available, Chowk,

are used for advertising;

medical

assistance,

more food,

the noise in Daryaganj

next to an eight-lane City tenements

p.168).

In the industrial

level is 1 f 5-l 20 decibels. been reported Delhi.

decibels (News

from

freeway

Chandni areas of

India, 1974,

(87 decibels)

would

action

Cases of impaired

housing,

in India and

commitment

to the

environmental

objectives.

the

implica-

The integration

in development

on a fairly

of industries,

planning

broad front

land use policy,

of

in India

incfuding

and urban develop-

ment.

1974, have

people living in the noisy areas of

R. (1974): New Bombay- The Twin City. Geography,

I.S. (1970):

Planning and Management

Control

Seminar

at Tarapur

Pollution

Water Quality

Nuclear

and Human

of Environmental

Power Station

Environment

Site. Proc.

76-108.

Trombay:

Research Center. Cbaracterisation

Research Institute 11964): Raw of River Jamuna. Nagpur.

Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute (19691: Report

on Damodar

Valley Survey of Industrial

Water Pollution, 2 Volumes, Nagpur. Central Public Health Engineering Research Short-term Health,

air quality

Wastes and

Institute

(1970a):

surveys in 4 major cities in India. Envir.

12, 355-383.

Technical

Delhi -the noise hearing

BAXTER,

Central Public Health

and

and REVELLE,

belt in and around

to mitigate

it is also underscoring

and incorporate

concern

require

only by

of life and

improvement

has reinforced

In Central Public Health Engineering

for which figures

(even at night),

(REVELLE

Leaders in less

development

task of development;

Bhabha Atomic

These figures exceed noise levels in Los Angeles

New York

sewage

better clothing,

for environmental countries

Pollution

to call

Road, and Sub-zimandi

apartments

problem.

inadequate

and employment,

environmental

BHAT,

portable

to bicycles are used by lottery-sellers

Regal Park, Minto

environmental

areas

with

59, 51-54.e

loud playing

is the major source of noise pollution.

the city are as high as 100-110 p.10).

areas are

used for all-night

In Delhi,

associated

References

presses and

used at functions,

out the date of the next draw.

as in most less developed

environment

1971).

areas, passing trains,

Loudspeakers

loudspeakers

units attached

several decibels

7973; WAHI,

such as printing

and

of the environment.

air ports,

metropolitan

in residential

loud speakers and amplifiers music

stations,

has

capacity

involves economic

produce

need to recognize

sections, streets, railway

It is

sanitation,

tions in the development

In major

is needed.

For India, the betteringofquality

poverty,

for

on spatial

nations think that these can be corrected

development.

location

information

impure water, and poor housing.

overriding

Noise Pollution

of air and

policies

deterioration

as the chief

include

policy,

areas where industrialization

the carrying

These problems

developing

one of the major considerations.

industrial

nations,

In a setting of mass poverty

The concern

and southern

with environmental

overtaxed

environment

Pradesh. The sites for

stations

clearly

of pollution

environmental

of environmental

developed

power stations at Kalmakkam

in Uttar

nuclear power

dimensions

in India and other a well-defined

state and local govern-

and control

India and other developing

facilities,

have been set up at is mined

federal,

In order to formulate

such as India,

safeguards have been included

in the design of the new atomic near Madras and Narora

effluents

At Pokhran,

uranium

Environmental

liquid

test nearjaisalmer

survey laboratories

Atomic

river at Rana Pratap

Sagar, discharges very low level radioactive

between

has been also necessary to identify

up to 3 km from the shore. The Rajasthan

Power Station,

as

quality

requires legislation,

ments for prevention water.

eta/.,

but the level is regarded

of sea water

of environmental

and coordination

which has

DORAN

Preservation

developingnat~ons

The fish caught near the site have shown the presence

safe. The contamination

7’INumber 1 II 976

Engineering

Research

Institute

(1970bi:

Digest. No. 6. Nagpur.

Colaba Meteorological

Office

(19741:

Smog Bulletin.

4 March

Bombay. DORAN,

W. T.. W.W. BURR

and W. R. BIBB (1971):

energy and the environment; Free PressJournai GEORGE,

11974):

M. G., H.K.

Nuclear

J. Occup. Med. 13, 479-483.

Dawn of Dense Smog. 4 March Bombay.

KAUSHIK

Bio-assay of D D T Factory

and S.K. SRIVASTAVA

Waste by Fishes. Proc. Symp.

(1965): Water

Geoforum/Votume

Pollution GHOSH,

71Number

Control.

1 /I 976

67-68.

6. N. (1969):

GOPALKRISHNAN,

Hindustan

in an REVELLE, SAXENA,

on the breeding of major Carps in the

Institute.

of the Central

Inland

p. 9. Calcutta.

Times (1970):

Vital

Water also Polluted.

Times (1972):

G. M. (1971):

10 January, SAXENA,

The Contamination

of Poverty.

(1974):

Sourcebook

18 June.

on

and Mifflin,Boston.

Water pollution.

Hindustan

Standard.

Calcutta.

K. L., R. N. CHAKRABARTY,

A. Cl. KHAN,

and H. CHANDRA,

(1966):

studies of the river Ganges near Kanput; 270-285.

12 March New Delhi. Hindustan

Houghton

CHATTOPADHYA

Hindon

of India Delhi.

C. and P. REVELLE

Environment.

13, 166-l 71.

and Panchet Reservoirs; Bulletin

Fisheries

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