- Email: [email protected]
GIS: A new component of public services
v 77
GE: A New Component
of Public Services
by Lisa T. Abbott and Carolyn D. Argentati
As academic libraries establish GIS services, public services staff may provide leadership in three major roles: developing collections to incorporate CIS; providing access to spatial information and software tools; and facilitating intellectual access to GIS concepts and applications. These roles represent a natural evolution and extension of existing library services and expertise.
Lisa T: Abbott Resources Librarian
is Social Sciences/Data
and is team leader of the
North Carolina State University
Libraries
C/S Team, NCSU Libraries, Box 7117, Raleigh, North
Carolyn-D. Natural
Carolina
27695
[email protected]>. Argentati
is Head,
Resources Library and is a member
the North
Carolina
State University
C/S Team, NCSU Libraries, Raleigh, North
Carolina
of
Libraries Box 77 74,
27695-7174
_ [email protected].
I
n an ever-changing technological and fiscal environment, many libraries are reexamining their mission and services. The past 10 years have seen the widespread emergence of electronic resources, including online public access catalogs, bibliographic databases on CDROM, numeric databases, full-text resources and, most recently, the ability to explore the wealth of multi-format information that is available on the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW). Each technologically driven change has had major implications for the provision of library reference service and has generated research and discussion in the literature. Common themes among these changes are that they offer enhanced access to information and greater flexibility in its use. The opportunities presented by Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are just as significant. Fundamentally, a GIS provides the capability to explore and interact with digital spatial information. More specifically, a GIS is a computerized system capable of collecting, storing, manipulating, retrieving, and displaying geographically referenced information, that is, data identified according to location. A GIS can integrate and display massive amounts of data, in map format or in the form of graphs, charts, or tabular reports. Overlay analysis can be performed, whereby relationships between two or more data planes or “layers” (e.g., rivers, soils, and vegetation types) are studied and illustrated. Current and potential GIS applications exist in virtually all subject disciplines, as well as in the business and professional arenas. A decision to offer GIS technology in a public service environment such as general reference, government documents, or a map library, and to provide the related services will bring many new challenges and learning opportunities. No one model
of GIS services is appropriate for every library, and the design of these services deserves careful consideration. Factors that each institution will need to evaluate include mission; financial and staff resources; computing and network infrastructure; and the diverse needs of the campus or user community. This article discusses the evolution of GIS services as a component of reference and public services in the context of user needs.
“Traditional maps and statistical publications have been static resources, and there has been no capability for the researcher or librarian to merge, create, or modify these resources spontaneously.” The Way We Were Traditionally, libraries have housed and provided reference service for paperbased information resources which include maps and statistical data along with books and journals. Map resources are frequently housed in a map library, in the documents department (governments are prolific producers of national and international maps and charts), and less frequently in a general reference setting. Statistical data (e.g., demographic, economic, or environmental) which may correspond to a particular geographic location have typically been dispersed throughout the reference, documents, and general collections, depending upon such factors as the publisher, subject, format, or dates of coverage. In the traditional library setting, a researcher inquiring about a particular map would typically engage in a reference interview. A simple request might be for a
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road map of New York City or a topographic map at the 1:24,000 scale. A more complex request might be for a specialized map representing the educational attainment of the 20-24 age group by county for North Carolina. A map of this type combines statistical and geographical information. If such a map exists in the collection, the researcher would receive it. However, the conventional paper map may be outdated, or it may not represent specifically what is desired. The library staff may search the local collection again, consider other collections within close proximity, try to purchase the desired map (if it exists), or identify and provide ordering information to the researcher. The important point to recognize is that the need and request for a map which visually portrays geographically referenced information is a valid and ever more frequent occurrence. Traditional maps and statistical publications have been static resources, and there has been no capability for the researcher or librarian to merge, create, or modify these resources spontaneously.
ENTER GIS With the availability and affordability of increasingly powerful microcomputers and software in recent years, along with an expanding universe of digital spatial data, GIS technology has moved beyond specialized research computing platforms. GIS is now within the technical and financial reach of many libraries, businesses, governmental agencies, and individuals. A variety of GIS and desktop mapping software packages exist, with different levels Each provides the of complexity. researcher with the ability to display information in map form, facilitating analysis and decision making. GIS tools and techniques offer libraries a valuable means of responding to a significant number of reference and research questions, those which are location oriented. In a library equipped with spatial data, GIS software and hardware, the librarian’s response to the request in the above scenario might be to assist the researcher to use the library’s public access GIS computer. Assuming the appropriate geoand statistical datasets are graphic available, the researcher could create a map depicting the educational attainment of the 20-24 age group by county for the state of North Carolina. The size, scale, colors, and other map design features could be selected. The map could be printed on a black and white or color printer, or the image downloaded to a
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magnetic disk to be incorporated into another document. Another service option is to create and store on a public GIS computer predefined maps of commonly requested information, such as major cities and roadways within a state, the state’s population, or county boundaries. These ready-made maps can satisfy some common reference queries or serve as a starting point for users to add and manipulate additional themes.
“CIS tools and techniques
offer libraries a valuable means of responding to a significant number of reference and research questions, those which are location oriented.” Levels of GIS Use
A discussion of GIS, public services, and appropriate library roles requires an understanding of the range of software available, the relationship of spatial information to the software, and likely patterns of use. To establish a common vocabulary, the North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries has defined, in its GIS service policy, the following three levels of GIS and mapping software use: Level 1: Initial-A user-friendly mapping software system that allows easy exploration and display of spatial information. The system typically contains value-added geographic data (x,y coordinates) and value-added statistical data (attributes). The system provides the ability to satisfy the need of “instant map gratification.” These packages also serve to introduce users to the basic mapping functions and tools which are incorporated into a full GIS. Software examples: MapExpert@ and Maps ‘n’ Facts@. Level 2: Intermediate-A system that provides more sophisticated functionality including manipulating, queryand displaying ing, customizing, value-added geographic and attribute (produced by data, e.g., ArcData ESRI), or public-domain geographic data, e.g., 1992 TIGER/Line Files, and public domain attribute data, e.g., Census Summary Tape Files (STF) 3A-including population, housing, and income. Some training or librarian assistance is usually necessary.
Software examples: MapInfo@.
ArcView@
and
. Level 3: Research-A full GIS which includes the ability to capture (digitize/scan), input, store, manipulate, analyze, and display value-added, public-domain, or unique geographic and attribute data. Extensive training is necessary. Software example: ARC/ INFO@.’
User Needs Uses of Level 1 and Level 2 GIS products vary from browsing and exploration of a digital atlas to more sophisticated, subject-oriented querying and multi-layer mapping. A product such as Maps ‘n’ Facts@ allows the user to view and print maps of various countries of the world.2 The MapExpert@ software package, containing a selection of value-added geographic data, can be used to create a map of a specific neighborhood where the location for a planned Youth Center facility site can be illustrated, for example.3 Intermediate uses with a product such as ArcView@ focus on more complex queries and analyses.4 Examples include population and demographic studies at the county or municipal level, agricultural crop and soil mapping, or comparisons between environmentally threatened areas worldwide. In order to understand the needs of research-level GIS users, it is helpful to build relationships and engage in ongoing communication with the users. Generally, these researchers approach the library with fewer needs for software instruction than other users and greater needs for access to specific geographically referenced data. For example, at some universities, researchers work with state and local agencies on a wide range of GISbased projects. These projects might help decision makers to assess sources of environmental pollution and risk of contaminants in the water supply, develop transportation routes or land development plans for cities experiencing rapid population growth, or track the incidence and spread of human and animal diseases. A closer look at one of these projects illustrates the nature of research-level GIS user needs, and their focus on geographically referenced data. The study originated when an economic development commission was considering a proposal to replace tobacco with other agricultural products which could be grown in a particular region of North Carolina. Specifically, it was proposed to raise and harvest the ingredients for salsa such as tomatoes,
peppers, onions, garlic, and herbs, and to establish a facility to process the salsa and ship it to market. A series of questions needed to be answered through GIS mapping and analysis: Where is a concentration of fields with soils appropriate for the desired crops? What locations other conditions these crops?
have climatic and most favorable to
Who owns the land in the area, and how has it been used? Where is the best location for a salsa packing plant, and could an existing building be used? What are the characteristics of the road and rail networks in the area? What is the capability of the utilities infrastructure to provide services such as water, power, telephone and telecommunications? What are the demographic and educational characteristics of the labor force, as well as the local pay scale and tax base? The data assembled to address these questions included soil base maps; locations of open water areas; weather and climate data; digital orthophoto quads (DOQs); digital line graphs (DLGs) including coverages for hydrology, highways, and railroads; digital elevation models (DEMs); land ownership and land use data; census data on the characteristics of the labor force; and information on existing buildings and facilities.
“Each library that becomes involved with CIS must evaluate the needs and levels of use of its client community and devise a service mix which best addresses those needs with the available resources.” Locating, acquiring, inputting, and verifying all of these data must be completed before the mapping and analysis phases of such a study can proceed, and the data gathering, manipulation, and maintenance aspects of using a full GIS are the chief components of the cost and effort involved.5 As one research team member observes, “Being able to obtain a majority of the data from one source such as the
library would save us a tremendous amount of time and allow us to focus more on the research questions and the quality of the GIS analysis.” Hence, one significant way in which an academic library can address the needs of researchers is to collect spatial data centrally and provide an efficient means of access to it.
generated by the corporate sector, governmental agencies, other organizations, and individuals. Selecting spatial data for GIS use is a new aspect of the collection development function, while the management of and efficient access to it is one of the key challenges that librarians face as GIS service providers.
LIBRARY ROLES Each library that becomes involved with GIS must evaluate the needs and levels of use of its client community and devise a service mix which best addresses those needs with the available resources. Broadly stated, there are three major roles for the library in which public services staff may provide leadership: Developing collections of GIS-related materials and spatial information; Providing access to spatial tion and software tools; and
“Selecting spatial data for CIS use is a new aspect of the collection development function, while the management of and efficient access to it is one of the key challenges that librarians face as CIS service providers.”
informa-
Facilitating intellectual access to GIS concepts and applications. All three of these roles are valid and applicable for libraries. They focus on relatively new technologies and new methods of processing and delivering information, yet fundamentally they represent a natural evolution and extension of existing library services and expertise. Collection Development Academic libraries support the educational mission of their parent institutions, in large part by acquiring, organizing, and making accessible information resources and tools which address curricular and research needs. As an initial step toward increasing GIS literacy, public services librarians can identify and recommend for purchase GIS-related monographs, journals, software, and media, especially when those materials are relevant to existing course content or educational objectives. Communication with collection managers is important in order to build their awareness of the need for GIS materials in the collection, and to incorporate GIS and spatial data into collection policies as appropriate. Libraries can also identify, and when possible, acquire, store, and provide access to value-added and public domain spatial data for GIS use. Many of the desktop mapping software packages contain a selection of frequently used data, and additional value-added datasets in various formats can be purchased. It is frequently estimated that as much as 80 to 85 percent of digital data can be referenced geographically, and these data are rapidly being
Depository librarians are well aware of this riotous proliferation of spatial data. Since the early 199Os, federal depository libraries have been receiving a variety of digital spatial data that can be used in many GIS packages. These data include the Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing system (TIGER)/Line Files and 1990 decennial census data from the Bureau of the Census; the Digital Line Graph files from the U.S. Geological Survey; and economic and agricultural data from other governmentai agencies. These public domain data can serve as a foundation for the development of a spatial data collection. Additionally, because some documents librarians are familiar with these data and researchers’ use of it, they bring valuable perspectives to the planning and implementation of GIS services and particularly to the process of developing the data collection. Access to Spatial Information and Tools The second library role entails providing software, hardware, and the means of access to spatial information. Libraries providing GIS services must identify, purchase, and keep up-to-date the GIS and mapping software which they choose to support. The exploration and use of digital spatial information require these software tools. The library’s role of making GIS software available for displaying and analyzing the spatial data collection is as valid and necessary as that of furnishing computers with CD-ROM players to search bibliographic and full-text resources or providing publicly accessible WWW cli-
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ent software.
As described earlier, there is a wide array of GIS and mapping software available in today’s marketplace. A glance through GIS World Sourcebook or a visit to the Internet discussion list MAPS-L provides a sampling of the products available. (See Figure 1 for selected sources of industry and professional information related to GIS.) With a growing collection of geographic data and a commitment to providing GIS and mapping software tools in the library comes the need to provide the appropriate equipment for their use. By installing one or more public access GIS workstations, the library can facilitate GIS literacy, while enabling productive use of the data collection. Equipment such as high-end personal computers and printers will need to be purchased. Software documentation will usually indicate hardware recommendations. Be configuration aware, however, that the stated minimum configuration is not necessarily the ideal for a public GIS computer. Researchers will be manipulating, displaying, and redisplaying large spatial data files which, for most efficient use, require fast processing and video display capabilities. Waiting one to two minutes for an image to redraw will soon become intolerable. Potential solutions to accommodate these large data files include a high-capacity hard disk drive, a high-speed CD-ROM player, and data compression software. There is also a wide range of color and black and white printers available which vary in price, speed, and output capability. Along with these factors, GIS software documentation provides information to consider in selecting a printer.
“The library’s role of making CIS software available for displaying and analyzing the spatial data collection is as valid and necessary as that of furnishing computers with CDROM players to search bibliographic and full-text resources...” When users require specific geographic and thematic data that are not available in the library’s collection, they may consult a librarian for assistance in identifying and gaining access to them. An important factor to take into account is data format: the
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Figure 1 Selected Sources of GIS Industry and Professional Information Internet Discussion Lists: l
GEOWEB (subscription address: [email protected]) Focuses on efforts to build a comprehensive set of GIS data sources on the Internet and World Wide Web.
l
l
GIS-L (subscription address: [email protected]) Discussion includes all aspects of GIS, such as data, hardware, software, issues. MAPS-L (subscription address: [email protected]) Covers mapping software, geographic data availability, reference graphic information issues.
and technical
queries,
and carto-
Print Sources: Geo Info Systems, monthly except December and August, 1 yr. subscription $59.00, P.O. Box 7678, Riverton, NJ 08077. A trade journal which includes feature articles on data issues and various GIS applications; frequent columns on management strategies, data, and technology trends; and general information on standards, products, and literature. GIS World, monthly, 1 yr. subscription $72.00, 155 E. Boardwalk Drive, Suite 250, Fort Collins, CO 80525. A trade journal containing feature articles on data issues and various GIS applications; frequent columns on GIS in federal activities, remote sensing, software reviews, and GIS and the law; and general information on GIS business activities, job vacancies, and federal contracts. GIS World Sourcebook, annual. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World, 1994Previous Title: International GIS Sourcebook. A comprehensive reference source covering virtually all aspects of GIS.
GIS software being used must accommodate the format of the data, or conversion may be necessary. A wealth of spatial data resources is now available on the Internet and WWW, including many datasets from federal and state agencies, as well as documentation on data standards and GIS database design. Some state and university libraries have begun to create “virtual map libraries” in which they collect, describe, and provide network access to digital spatial and statistical information, as described by McGlamery and Lamont.6 The ARL Electronic Atlas is another recent initiative in which a group of libraries is developing a collection of lntemetaccessible maps and imagery.7 Methods and interfaces for providing access to spatial data are evolving rapidly, and policies for data sharing and use vary. Public services staff providing access to geographically referenced information will need to become aware of metadata. Metadata (data about data) is a means of describing and cataloging the numerous geographic datasets which are being generated. The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has recently approved Standards for Digital the “Content Geospatial Metadata,” which define common terminology and establish a consistent set of data elements (e.g., data
sources, overall quality, formats, and file structures) which are to be included in metadata records. President Clinton issued an executive order for federal agencies to begin using this standard in 1995.* By building relationships or partnerships with state and local agencies, other libraries, and GIS research facilities, librarians can gain awareness of significant GIS data collections and learn how to assist or refer researchers when direct local access to needed data is not feasible. Monitoring Internet discussion lists such as GEOWEB and GIS-L is another way to stay abreast of trends in GIS data access and use (see Figure 1). Intellectual Access The two library roles discussed thus far encompass selecting, acquiring, and providing access to GIS information resources and spatial data, as well as the software and hardware with which it can be explored and utilized. The third role, which complements these activities, is facilitating intellectual access to GIS concepts and applications. Service models applicable to this role include providing on-demand assistance as the researcher presents a question; developing and providing classroom training sessions; and offering consultation on an appointment
Figure 2 Outline of the NCSU Libraries’ GIS Service Policy Management l
l
Structure:
Interdepartmental GIS Team. Members from Reference, Government Documents, and Systems departments; the Natural Resources Library; and from NCSU’s Academic Computing Center. Team leader reports directly to Associate Director for Public Services. Leader communicates frequently with the heads of various departments, including Reference, Systems, and Documents.
Service Objectives: Provide access to GIS and desktop mapping software that satisfies diverse campus needs so that users can explore a range of spatial information, Levels l-2.
Develop and provide instruction, classroom and individualized, in the use of selected software in Levels l-2. Identify and, when possible, acquire, store, and provide access to value-added and publicdomain digital spatial data for use in Levels l-3. Identify and recommend for purchase monographs, journals, and other media in the field of GIS. Service Structure: l
l
l
l
l
l
Three public GIS computers and color printers: two in the main library (one in general reference and one in government documents) and one in the Natural Resources Library. Software may be used by NCSU affiliates and non-NCSU affiliates. Reservations, in twohour blocks per day, may be required. If necessary, preference will be given to NCSU affiliates. Requests for on-demand
map production
will not be taken.
GIS Team may provide classroom instruction in the use of Levels l-2 software. affiliates may attend on a space available basis. On-demand
Non-NCSU
assistance is provided for Level 1 products by public services staff.
Consultation with a GIS Team member is available for NCSU affiliates for questions regarding software, Level 2, and data, Levels 2-3. Non-affiliates may be referred to other sources for consultation.
basis (especially for intermediate and research-level assistance). Providing assistance or instruction in the use of a menu-driven mapping software package (Level 1) is fundamentally similar to teaching someone to search a bibliographic CD-ROM database and print out the results. The same types of questions are asked: What is the scope of the information provided? How is a search performed? What are the display options? What are the printing or downloading options? Researchers using intermediate (Level 2) products will have similar and more detailed questions, such as How do I create a map illustrating two or more variables? How can I overlay my own natural resources data onto the TIGER/Line base maps? Classroom instruction can be an efficient and effective means of introducing GIS concepts, basic software commands, and functions to new users so that they may begin exploring GIS applications on their own. Depending on staff resources, librarians may also work with faculty to develop discipline-specific class sessions
which introduce students to GIS applications within their field. Projects which provide students the opportunity to apply GIS techniques may be designed. In recent years, library literature has devoted considerable attention to new models of service delivery such as research consultation services. As the reference function begins to address the intermediate and research levels of GIS use, the librarian is increasingly likely to be called upon as a consultant and educator rather than as a dispenser of prompt, factual answers. As described by Whitlatch, in this consulting model, the professional functions as a partner skilled in coaching and advising---clients provide not only the initial information to be worked on by the professional, but are directly involved in producing their own service products. Through this type of service process, users acquire relevant knowledge to solve their own information needs.’
This dynamic is particularly applicable to GIS services. Users are in a position to learn about and gain experience using spa-
tial information tools that have many applications to a wide variety of disciplines and research questions. At the same time, building the necessary skills and providing such consultation services is a professional growth and development opportunity for librarians. This role demands that librarians develop and convey a deeper understanding of GIS than simply as a high-tech map-drawing tool. The maps produced are selective representations of databases, and they promote understanding by providing a visual and often colorful display of the information. Yet, the underlying GIS database is a powerful tool for additional dimensions of analysis and the assessment of alternative actions. Use of a GIS in research can illustrate, reveal, or model complex natural, social, and technological systems, and facilitate the formulation of questions for further investigation.
“This role demands that librarians develop and convey a deeper understanding of CIS than simply as a high-tech mapdrawing tool.” Service
Policy and GIS Issues As a library strives to formulate its GIS service configuration, a host of questions arise. Do the GIS services fit most naturally into the map library, the government documents department, or the reference department, or would a decentralized model with numerous service points be more appropriate? Will the primary staff involvement come from a specific department, or would an interdepartmental team approach fit? Which staff are the most qualified or interested in developing expertise in this new technology? Are funds available to send staff to GIS software training or “GIS literacy” conferences? As an alternative approach, are there grant or other funding opportunities to create, develop, and staff a lab devoted to GIS support? Which GIS or mapping software packages will the library choose to make available? Will all public services staff be educated in the GIS technology so that they are able to field questions on the use of certain products? Will maps be created on demand, and if so, will a fee be charged? Will these services be available to both university and non-university affiliates? To what extent does the depository library’s mission to provide free public
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access to federal government information encompass GIS services? When such questions are sufficiently resolved, the library may choose to articulate the answers in the form of a GIS service policy, similar to policies which govern existing services such as online database searching. The policy serves to define the scope of GIS services and establish appropriate expectations in terms of the assistance to be provided by library staff. It also serves as a communication device and source of guidelines for both the user community and the library staff at large (see Figure 2). In addition to matters of local policy and practice, there are broader, more complex, and unresolved issues lurking in the realm of GIS. Who owns (and may sell) the “value-added” map which is generated from “raw” public domain data? Can the metadata standards be enforced, and where will all of the spatial data, metadata, and indexes to the metadata reside? If certain geographic or statistical data are faulty, where does liability rest when those incorrect data are used? What will be the impact of GIS upon individual privacy? Libraries are beginning to join the GIS community, governmental agencies, pri-
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vate
enterprise, and interested organizations in exploring these challenging questions of GIS law and policy.
provide GIS data and services?,” but “Which levels of service, and how much data, can we provide?’
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
GIS services in academic libraries represent an evolution of traditional information services. This evolution parallels major upward trends in the creation of digital spatial data and their distribution on CD-ROM and via the Internet.
1. Geographic Information Systems Service Policy (Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Libraries, 1994), p. 1. 2. Maps ‘n’ Facts@, Broderbund Software, 500 Redwood Blvd., Novato, CA 94948-6121. 3. MapExpert@, DeLorme Mapping, Lower Main Street, PO. Box 298, Freeport, ME 04032. Systems Environmental 4. ArcView@, Research Institute, Inc., 380 New York Street, Redlands, CA 92373. 5. Russell G. Congalton and Kass Green, “The ABCs of GIS,” Journal of Forestry 90 (November 1992): 14-15. 6. Patrick McGlamery & Melissa Lamont, “Geographic Information Systems in Libraries,” Database 17 (December 1994): 35-44. “GIS Applications in 7. Brent Allison, Research Libraries,” ARL: A Bimonthly Newsletter of Research Library Issues and Actions 177 (November 1994): l-2. 8. McGlamery & Lamont, “Geographic Information Systems in Libraries,” p. 39. 9. Jo Bell Whitlatch, “Getting Close to the Journal of Academic LibrarCustomer,” ianship 18 (November 1992): 282.
“GIS services in academic libraries represent an evolution of traditional information services.” The presence of GIS in libraries also reflects the explosive growth of interest in and applications of GIS throughout society at large, especially in government, research, education, and business, over the past decade. As information formats and patterns of use change, library services must evolve with them, with staff building upon existing professional strengths. The question is no longer, “Should libraries
GE: A New Component
of Public Services
by Lisa T. Abbott and Carolyn D. Argentati
As academic libraries establish GIS services, public services staff may provide leadership in three major roles: developing collections to incorporate CIS; providing access to spatial information and software tools; and facilitating intellectual access to GIS concepts and applications. These roles represent a natural evolution and extension of existing library services and expertise.
Lisa T: Abbott Resources Librarian
is Social Sciences/Data
and is team leader of the
North Carolina State University
Libraries
C/S Team, NCSU Libraries, Box 7117, Raleigh, North
Carolyn-D. Natural
Carolina
27695
[email protected]>. Argentati
is Head,
Resources Library and is a member
the North
Carolina
State University
C/S Team, NCSU Libraries, Raleigh, North
Carolina
of
Libraries Box 77 74,
27695-7174
_ [email protected].
I
n an ever-changing technological and fiscal environment, many libraries are reexamining their mission and services. The past 10 years have seen the widespread emergence of electronic resources, including online public access catalogs, bibliographic databases on CDROM, numeric databases, full-text resources and, most recently, the ability to explore the wealth of multi-format information that is available on the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW). Each technologically driven change has had major implications for the provision of library reference service and has generated research and discussion in the literature. Common themes among these changes are that they offer enhanced access to information and greater flexibility in its use. The opportunities presented by Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are just as significant. Fundamentally, a GIS provides the capability to explore and interact with digital spatial information. More specifically, a GIS is a computerized system capable of collecting, storing, manipulating, retrieving, and displaying geographically referenced information, that is, data identified according to location. A GIS can integrate and display massive amounts of data, in map format or in the form of graphs, charts, or tabular reports. Overlay analysis can be performed, whereby relationships between two or more data planes or “layers” (e.g., rivers, soils, and vegetation types) are studied and illustrated. Current and potential GIS applications exist in virtually all subject disciplines, as well as in the business and professional arenas. A decision to offer GIS technology in a public service environment such as general reference, government documents, or a map library, and to provide the related services will bring many new challenges and learning opportunities. No one model
of GIS services is appropriate for every library, and the design of these services deserves careful consideration. Factors that each institution will need to evaluate include mission; financial and staff resources; computing and network infrastructure; and the diverse needs of the campus or user community. This article discusses the evolution of GIS services as a component of reference and public services in the context of user needs.
“Traditional maps and statistical publications have been static resources, and there has been no capability for the researcher or librarian to merge, create, or modify these resources spontaneously.” The Way We Were Traditionally, libraries have housed and provided reference service for paperbased information resources which include maps and statistical data along with books and journals. Map resources are frequently housed in a map library, in the documents department (governments are prolific producers of national and international maps and charts), and less frequently in a general reference setting. Statistical data (e.g., demographic, economic, or environmental) which may correspond to a particular geographic location have typically been dispersed throughout the reference, documents, and general collections, depending upon such factors as the publisher, subject, format, or dates of coverage. In the traditional library setting, a researcher inquiring about a particular map would typically engage in a reference interview. A simple request might be for a
July 1995
251
road map of New York City or a topographic map at the 1:24,000 scale. A more complex request might be for a specialized map representing the educational attainment of the 20-24 age group by county for North Carolina. A map of this type combines statistical and geographical information. If such a map exists in the collection, the researcher would receive it. However, the conventional paper map may be outdated, or it may not represent specifically what is desired. The library staff may search the local collection again, consider other collections within close proximity, try to purchase the desired map (if it exists), or identify and provide ordering information to the researcher. The important point to recognize is that the need and request for a map which visually portrays geographically referenced information is a valid and ever more frequent occurrence. Traditional maps and statistical publications have been static resources, and there has been no capability for the researcher or librarian to merge, create, or modify these resources spontaneously.
ENTER GIS With the availability and affordability of increasingly powerful microcomputers and software in recent years, along with an expanding universe of digital spatial data, GIS technology has moved beyond specialized research computing platforms. GIS is now within the technical and financial reach of many libraries, businesses, governmental agencies, and individuals. A variety of GIS and desktop mapping software packages exist, with different levels Each provides the of complexity. researcher with the ability to display information in map form, facilitating analysis and decision making. GIS tools and techniques offer libraries a valuable means of responding to a significant number of reference and research questions, those which are location oriented. In a library equipped with spatial data, GIS software and hardware, the librarian’s response to the request in the above scenario might be to assist the researcher to use the library’s public access GIS computer. Assuming the appropriate geoand statistical datasets are graphic available, the researcher could create a map depicting the educational attainment of the 20-24 age group by county for the state of North Carolina. The size, scale, colors, and other map design features could be selected. The map could be printed on a black and white or color printer, or the image downloaded to a
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Librarianship
magnetic disk to be incorporated into another document. Another service option is to create and store on a public GIS computer predefined maps of commonly requested information, such as major cities and roadways within a state, the state’s population, or county boundaries. These ready-made maps can satisfy some common reference queries or serve as a starting point for users to add and manipulate additional themes.
“CIS tools and techniques
offer libraries a valuable means of responding to a significant number of reference and research questions, those which are location oriented.” Levels of GIS Use
A discussion of GIS, public services, and appropriate library roles requires an understanding of the range of software available, the relationship of spatial information to the software, and likely patterns of use. To establish a common vocabulary, the North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries has defined, in its GIS service policy, the following three levels of GIS and mapping software use: Level 1: Initial-A user-friendly mapping software system that allows easy exploration and display of spatial information. The system typically contains value-added geographic data (x,y coordinates) and value-added statistical data (attributes). The system provides the ability to satisfy the need of “instant map gratification.” These packages also serve to introduce users to the basic mapping functions and tools which are incorporated into a full GIS. Software examples: MapExpert@ and Maps ‘n’ Facts@. Level 2: Intermediate-A system that provides more sophisticated functionality including manipulating, queryand displaying ing, customizing, value-added geographic and attribute (produced by data, e.g., ArcData ESRI), or public-domain geographic data, e.g., 1992 TIGER/Line Files, and public domain attribute data, e.g., Census Summary Tape Files (STF) 3A-including population, housing, and income. Some training or librarian assistance is usually necessary.
Software examples: MapInfo@.
ArcView@
and
. Level 3: Research-A full GIS which includes the ability to capture (digitize/scan), input, store, manipulate, analyze, and display value-added, public-domain, or unique geographic and attribute data. Extensive training is necessary. Software example: ARC/ INFO@.’
User Needs Uses of Level 1 and Level 2 GIS products vary from browsing and exploration of a digital atlas to more sophisticated, subject-oriented querying and multi-layer mapping. A product such as Maps ‘n’ Facts@ allows the user to view and print maps of various countries of the world.2 The MapExpert@ software package, containing a selection of value-added geographic data, can be used to create a map of a specific neighborhood where the location for a planned Youth Center facility site can be illustrated, for example.3 Intermediate uses with a product such as ArcView@ focus on more complex queries and analyses.4 Examples include population and demographic studies at the county or municipal level, agricultural crop and soil mapping, or comparisons between environmentally threatened areas worldwide. In order to understand the needs of research-level GIS users, it is helpful to build relationships and engage in ongoing communication with the users. Generally, these researchers approach the library with fewer needs for software instruction than other users and greater needs for access to specific geographically referenced data. For example, at some universities, researchers work with state and local agencies on a wide range of GISbased projects. These projects might help decision makers to assess sources of environmental pollution and risk of contaminants in the water supply, develop transportation routes or land development plans for cities experiencing rapid population growth, or track the incidence and spread of human and animal diseases. A closer look at one of these projects illustrates the nature of research-level GIS user needs, and their focus on geographically referenced data. The study originated when an economic development commission was considering a proposal to replace tobacco with other agricultural products which could be grown in a particular region of North Carolina. Specifically, it was proposed to raise and harvest the ingredients for salsa such as tomatoes,
peppers, onions, garlic, and herbs, and to establish a facility to process the salsa and ship it to market. A series of questions needed to be answered through GIS mapping and analysis: Where is a concentration of fields with soils appropriate for the desired crops? What locations other conditions these crops?
have climatic and most favorable to
Who owns the land in the area, and how has it been used? Where is the best location for a salsa packing plant, and could an existing building be used? What are the characteristics of the road and rail networks in the area? What is the capability of the utilities infrastructure to provide services such as water, power, telephone and telecommunications? What are the demographic and educational characteristics of the labor force, as well as the local pay scale and tax base? The data assembled to address these questions included soil base maps; locations of open water areas; weather and climate data; digital orthophoto quads (DOQs); digital line graphs (DLGs) including coverages for hydrology, highways, and railroads; digital elevation models (DEMs); land ownership and land use data; census data on the characteristics of the labor force; and information on existing buildings and facilities.
“Each library that becomes involved with CIS must evaluate the needs and levels of use of its client community and devise a service mix which best addresses those needs with the available resources.” Locating, acquiring, inputting, and verifying all of these data must be completed before the mapping and analysis phases of such a study can proceed, and the data gathering, manipulation, and maintenance aspects of using a full GIS are the chief components of the cost and effort involved.5 As one research team member observes, “Being able to obtain a majority of the data from one source such as the
library would save us a tremendous amount of time and allow us to focus more on the research questions and the quality of the GIS analysis.” Hence, one significant way in which an academic library can address the needs of researchers is to collect spatial data centrally and provide an efficient means of access to it.
generated by the corporate sector, governmental agencies, other organizations, and individuals. Selecting spatial data for GIS use is a new aspect of the collection development function, while the management of and efficient access to it is one of the key challenges that librarians face as GIS service providers.
LIBRARY ROLES Each library that becomes involved with GIS must evaluate the needs and levels of use of its client community and devise a service mix which best addresses those needs with the available resources. Broadly stated, there are three major roles for the library in which public services staff may provide leadership: Developing collections of GIS-related materials and spatial information; Providing access to spatial tion and software tools; and
“Selecting spatial data for CIS use is a new aspect of the collection development function, while the management of and efficient access to it is one of the key challenges that librarians face as CIS service providers.”
informa-
Facilitating intellectual access to GIS concepts and applications. All three of these roles are valid and applicable for libraries. They focus on relatively new technologies and new methods of processing and delivering information, yet fundamentally they represent a natural evolution and extension of existing library services and expertise. Collection Development Academic libraries support the educational mission of their parent institutions, in large part by acquiring, organizing, and making accessible information resources and tools which address curricular and research needs. As an initial step toward increasing GIS literacy, public services librarians can identify and recommend for purchase GIS-related monographs, journals, software, and media, especially when those materials are relevant to existing course content or educational objectives. Communication with collection managers is important in order to build their awareness of the need for GIS materials in the collection, and to incorporate GIS and spatial data into collection policies as appropriate. Libraries can also identify, and when possible, acquire, store, and provide access to value-added and public domain spatial data for GIS use. Many of the desktop mapping software packages contain a selection of frequently used data, and additional value-added datasets in various formats can be purchased. It is frequently estimated that as much as 80 to 85 percent of digital data can be referenced geographically, and these data are rapidly being
Depository librarians are well aware of this riotous proliferation of spatial data. Since the early 199Os, federal depository libraries have been receiving a variety of digital spatial data that can be used in many GIS packages. These data include the Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing system (TIGER)/Line Files and 1990 decennial census data from the Bureau of the Census; the Digital Line Graph files from the U.S. Geological Survey; and economic and agricultural data from other governmentai agencies. These public domain data can serve as a foundation for the development of a spatial data collection. Additionally, because some documents librarians are familiar with these data and researchers’ use of it, they bring valuable perspectives to the planning and implementation of GIS services and particularly to the process of developing the data collection. Access to Spatial Information and Tools The second library role entails providing software, hardware, and the means of access to spatial information. Libraries providing GIS services must identify, purchase, and keep up-to-date the GIS and mapping software which they choose to support. The exploration and use of digital spatial information require these software tools. The library’s role of making GIS software available for displaying and analyzing the spatial data collection is as valid and necessary as that of furnishing computers with CD-ROM players to search bibliographic and full-text resources or providing publicly accessible WWW cli-
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ent software.
As described earlier, there is a wide array of GIS and mapping software available in today’s marketplace. A glance through GIS World Sourcebook or a visit to the Internet discussion list MAPS-L provides a sampling of the products available. (See Figure 1 for selected sources of industry and professional information related to GIS.) With a growing collection of geographic data and a commitment to providing GIS and mapping software tools in the library comes the need to provide the appropriate equipment for their use. By installing one or more public access GIS workstations, the library can facilitate GIS literacy, while enabling productive use of the data collection. Equipment such as high-end personal computers and printers will need to be purchased. Software documentation will usually indicate hardware recommendations. Be configuration aware, however, that the stated minimum configuration is not necessarily the ideal for a public GIS computer. Researchers will be manipulating, displaying, and redisplaying large spatial data files which, for most efficient use, require fast processing and video display capabilities. Waiting one to two minutes for an image to redraw will soon become intolerable. Potential solutions to accommodate these large data files include a high-capacity hard disk drive, a high-speed CD-ROM player, and data compression software. There is also a wide range of color and black and white printers available which vary in price, speed, and output capability. Along with these factors, GIS software documentation provides information to consider in selecting a printer.
“The library’s role of making CIS software available for displaying and analyzing the spatial data collection is as valid and necessary as that of furnishing computers with CDROM players to search bibliographic and full-text resources...” When users require specific geographic and thematic data that are not available in the library’s collection, they may consult a librarian for assistance in identifying and gaining access to them. An important factor to take into account is data format: the
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Figure 1 Selected Sources of GIS Industry and Professional Information Internet Discussion Lists: l
GEOWEB (subscription address: [email protected]) Focuses on efforts to build a comprehensive set of GIS data sources on the Internet and World Wide Web.
l
l
GIS-L (subscription address: [email protected]) Discussion includes all aspects of GIS, such as data, hardware, software, issues. MAPS-L (subscription address: [email protected]) Covers mapping software, geographic data availability, reference graphic information issues.
and technical
queries,
and carto-
Print Sources: Geo Info Systems, monthly except December and August, 1 yr. subscription $59.00, P.O. Box 7678, Riverton, NJ 08077. A trade journal which includes feature articles on data issues and various GIS applications; frequent columns on management strategies, data, and technology trends; and general information on standards, products, and literature. GIS World, monthly, 1 yr. subscription $72.00, 155 E. Boardwalk Drive, Suite 250, Fort Collins, CO 80525. A trade journal containing feature articles on data issues and various GIS applications; frequent columns on GIS in federal activities, remote sensing, software reviews, and GIS and the law; and general information on GIS business activities, job vacancies, and federal contracts. GIS World Sourcebook, annual. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World, 1994Previous Title: International GIS Sourcebook. A comprehensive reference source covering virtually all aspects of GIS.
GIS software being used must accommodate the format of the data, or conversion may be necessary. A wealth of spatial data resources is now available on the Internet and WWW, including many datasets from federal and state agencies, as well as documentation on data standards and GIS database design. Some state and university libraries have begun to create “virtual map libraries” in which they collect, describe, and provide network access to digital spatial and statistical information, as described by McGlamery and Lamont.6 The ARL Electronic Atlas is another recent initiative in which a group of libraries is developing a collection of lntemetaccessible maps and imagery.7 Methods and interfaces for providing access to spatial data are evolving rapidly, and policies for data sharing and use vary. Public services staff providing access to geographically referenced information will need to become aware of metadata. Metadata (data about data) is a means of describing and cataloging the numerous geographic datasets which are being generated. The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has recently approved Standards for Digital the “Content Geospatial Metadata,” which define common terminology and establish a consistent set of data elements (e.g., data
sources, overall quality, formats, and file structures) which are to be included in metadata records. President Clinton issued an executive order for federal agencies to begin using this standard in 1995.* By building relationships or partnerships with state and local agencies, other libraries, and GIS research facilities, librarians can gain awareness of significant GIS data collections and learn how to assist or refer researchers when direct local access to needed data is not feasible. Monitoring Internet discussion lists such as GEOWEB and GIS-L is another way to stay abreast of trends in GIS data access and use (see Figure 1). Intellectual Access The two library roles discussed thus far encompass selecting, acquiring, and providing access to GIS information resources and spatial data, as well as the software and hardware with which it can be explored and utilized. The third role, which complements these activities, is facilitating intellectual access to GIS concepts and applications. Service models applicable to this role include providing on-demand assistance as the researcher presents a question; developing and providing classroom training sessions; and offering consultation on an appointment
Figure 2 Outline of the NCSU Libraries’ GIS Service Policy Management l
l
Structure:
Interdepartmental GIS Team. Members from Reference, Government Documents, and Systems departments; the Natural Resources Library; and from NCSU’s Academic Computing Center. Team leader reports directly to Associate Director for Public Services. Leader communicates frequently with the heads of various departments, including Reference, Systems, and Documents.
Service Objectives: Provide access to GIS and desktop mapping software that satisfies diverse campus needs so that users can explore a range of spatial information, Levels l-2.
Develop and provide instruction, classroom and individualized, in the use of selected software in Levels l-2. Identify and, when possible, acquire, store, and provide access to value-added and publicdomain digital spatial data for use in Levels l-3. Identify and recommend for purchase monographs, journals, and other media in the field of GIS. Service Structure: l
l
l
l
l
l
Three public GIS computers and color printers: two in the main library (one in general reference and one in government documents) and one in the Natural Resources Library. Software may be used by NCSU affiliates and non-NCSU affiliates. Reservations, in twohour blocks per day, may be required. If necessary, preference will be given to NCSU affiliates. Requests for on-demand
map production
will not be taken.
GIS Team may provide classroom instruction in the use of Levels l-2 software. affiliates may attend on a space available basis. On-demand
Non-NCSU
assistance is provided for Level 1 products by public services staff.
Consultation with a GIS Team member is available for NCSU affiliates for questions regarding software, Level 2, and data, Levels 2-3. Non-affiliates may be referred to other sources for consultation.
basis (especially for intermediate and research-level assistance). Providing assistance or instruction in the use of a menu-driven mapping software package (Level 1) is fundamentally similar to teaching someone to search a bibliographic CD-ROM database and print out the results. The same types of questions are asked: What is the scope of the information provided? How is a search performed? What are the display options? What are the printing or downloading options? Researchers using intermediate (Level 2) products will have similar and more detailed questions, such as How do I create a map illustrating two or more variables? How can I overlay my own natural resources data onto the TIGER/Line base maps? Classroom instruction can be an efficient and effective means of introducing GIS concepts, basic software commands, and functions to new users so that they may begin exploring GIS applications on their own. Depending on staff resources, librarians may also work with faculty to develop discipline-specific class sessions
which introduce students to GIS applications within their field. Projects which provide students the opportunity to apply GIS techniques may be designed. In recent years, library literature has devoted considerable attention to new models of service delivery such as research consultation services. As the reference function begins to address the intermediate and research levels of GIS use, the librarian is increasingly likely to be called upon as a consultant and educator rather than as a dispenser of prompt, factual answers. As described by Whitlatch, in this consulting model, the professional functions as a partner skilled in coaching and advising---clients provide not only the initial information to be worked on by the professional, but are directly involved in producing their own service products. Through this type of service process, users acquire relevant knowledge to solve their own information needs.’
This dynamic is particularly applicable to GIS services. Users are in a position to learn about and gain experience using spa-
tial information tools that have many applications to a wide variety of disciplines and research questions. At the same time, building the necessary skills and providing such consultation services is a professional growth and development opportunity for librarians. This role demands that librarians develop and convey a deeper understanding of GIS than simply as a high-tech map-drawing tool. The maps produced are selective representations of databases, and they promote understanding by providing a visual and often colorful display of the information. Yet, the underlying GIS database is a powerful tool for additional dimensions of analysis and the assessment of alternative actions. Use of a GIS in research can illustrate, reveal, or model complex natural, social, and technological systems, and facilitate the formulation of questions for further investigation.
“This role demands that librarians develop and convey a deeper understanding of CIS than simply as a high-tech mapdrawing tool.” Service
Policy and GIS Issues As a library strives to formulate its GIS service configuration, a host of questions arise. Do the GIS services fit most naturally into the map library, the government documents department, or the reference department, or would a decentralized model with numerous service points be more appropriate? Will the primary staff involvement come from a specific department, or would an interdepartmental team approach fit? Which staff are the most qualified or interested in developing expertise in this new technology? Are funds available to send staff to GIS software training or “GIS literacy” conferences? As an alternative approach, are there grant or other funding opportunities to create, develop, and staff a lab devoted to GIS support? Which GIS or mapping software packages will the library choose to make available? Will all public services staff be educated in the GIS technology so that they are able to field questions on the use of certain products? Will maps be created on demand, and if so, will a fee be charged? Will these services be available to both university and non-university affiliates? To what extent does the depository library’s mission to provide free public
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access to federal government information encompass GIS services? When such questions are sufficiently resolved, the library may choose to articulate the answers in the form of a GIS service policy, similar to policies which govern existing services such as online database searching. The policy serves to define the scope of GIS services and establish appropriate expectations in terms of the assistance to be provided by library staff. It also serves as a communication device and source of guidelines for both the user community and the library staff at large (see Figure 2). In addition to matters of local policy and practice, there are broader, more complex, and unresolved issues lurking in the realm of GIS. Who owns (and may sell) the “value-added” map which is generated from “raw” public domain data? Can the metadata standards be enforced, and where will all of the spatial data, metadata, and indexes to the metadata reside? If certain geographic or statistical data are faulty, where does liability rest when those incorrect data are used? What will be the impact of GIS upon individual privacy? Libraries are beginning to join the GIS community, governmental agencies, pri-
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enterprise, and interested organizations in exploring these challenging questions of GIS law and policy.
provide GIS data and services?,” but “Which levels of service, and how much data, can we provide?’
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
GIS services in academic libraries represent an evolution of traditional information services. This evolution parallels major upward trends in the creation of digital spatial data and their distribution on CD-ROM and via the Internet.
1. Geographic Information Systems Service Policy (Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University Libraries, 1994), p. 1. 2. Maps ‘n’ Facts@, Broderbund Software, 500 Redwood Blvd., Novato, CA 94948-6121. 3. MapExpert@, DeLorme Mapping, Lower Main Street, PO. Box 298, Freeport, ME 04032. Systems Environmental 4. ArcView@, Research Institute, Inc., 380 New York Street, Redlands, CA 92373. 5. Russell G. Congalton and Kass Green, “The ABCs of GIS,” Journal of Forestry 90 (November 1992): 14-15. 6. Patrick McGlamery & Melissa Lamont, “Geographic Information Systems in Libraries,” Database 17 (December 1994): 35-44. “GIS Applications in 7. Brent Allison, Research Libraries,” ARL: A Bimonthly Newsletter of Research Library Issues and Actions 177 (November 1994): l-2. 8. McGlamery & Lamont, “Geographic Information Systems in Libraries,” p. 39. 9. Jo Bell Whitlatch, “Getting Close to the Journal of Academic LibrarCustomer,” ianship 18 (November 1992): 282.
“GIS services in academic libraries represent an evolution of traditional information services.” The presence of GIS in libraries also reflects the explosive growth of interest in and applications of GIS throughout society at large, especially in government, research, education, and business, over the past decade. As information formats and patterns of use change, library services must evolve with them, with staff building upon existing professional strengths. The question is no longer, “Should libraries