Global versus regional influence on the carbonate factories of Oligo-Miocene carbonate platforms in the Mediterranean area

Accepted Manuscript Global versus regional influence on the carbonate factories of Oligo-Miocene carbonate platforms in the Mediterranean area M. Brandano, I. Cornacchia, L. Tomassetti PII:

S0264-8172(17)30078-8

DOI:

10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.03.001

Reference:

JMPG 2839

To appear in:

Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 1 September 2016 Revised Date:

20 December 2016

Accepted Date: 1 March 2017

Please cite this article as: Brandano, M., Cornacchia, I., Tomassetti, L., Global versus regional influence on the carbonate factories of Oligo-Miocene carbonate platforms in the Mediterranean area, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2017.03.001. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Global versus regional influence on the carbonate factories of Oligo-Miocene carbonate platforms in the Mediterranean area Brandano M.1, Cornacchia I.1 and Tomassetti L. 1 1

Italy

Corresponding author: [email protected]

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Abstract

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Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università Sapienza di Roma, P. Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma,

The Oligocene-Miocene is a key interval that was characterized by a cooling trend associated with a progressive decrease of atmospheric CO2 concentrations that ends in the Present days.

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In the Central Mediterranean area, during this interval, three main carbonate platform domains developed in the foreland zone of the Apennines: the Latium-Abruzzi-Campana and Apulia domain in the central and south-eastern sectors of the chain and the Hyblea and Pelagian carbonate platforms in the south and south-western sectors. This work analyzes the impact and interplay of global and regional factors controlling the development of different carbonate factories and facies associations over the Chattian and the early Messinian time interval. Three well-studied examples

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of the central Mediterranean will be used: the Chattian ramp of Malta, the Latium-Abruzzi ramp, and the Bolognano ramp within the northern portion of the Apulian carbonate platform (outcropping on Majella Mountain).

The Malta ramp represents the reference model for the heterozoan Oligo-Miocene carbonate

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factory, since it developed far from terrigenous input, in persistent oligotrophic conditions, and within a tropical climate. In contrast, the evolution of the central Apennine ramps is strictly related to the geodynamic evolution of the Apennines and simultaneously to global oceanographic

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changes.

The Chattian Apennine ramps are affected by a basin conformation that favored the development of dominant currents and related dune fields. Successively, these ramps were exposed to strong Aquitanian volcanism that induced a shift towards an aphotic-dominated carbonate factory. Since the Burdigalian the development of the Apennines has affected the evolution of the investigated ramps through the eastward migration of foredeep systems and related nutrients input. This influence becomes more evident between the Tortonian and Messinian, during which reef-rimmed platforms developed in the rest of the Mediterranean while red algae still dominated in the Apennine ramps. Amongst the global events, the C-cycle perturbation, occurring between the late Burdigalian and Serravallian (Monterey event), leaves a clear sign on the two Apennine ramps. Keywords: Oligo-Miocene, Central Mediterranean, Apennines, ramps, carbonate factory

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Introduction Carbonate platforms are sensitive recorders of past environmental and climate changes because sediment-producing carbonate biota thrive under definite ecological conditions (Fӧllmi et al., 1994; Weissert et al., 1998; Pomar et al., 2004; Nebelsick et al., 2005; Westphal et al., 2010). Platform development during the Oligocene-Miocene interval is of particular interest, given that it was associated with extinctions and evolutionary turnover, on land and in the oceans, and major shifts

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in the geochemical record. These records provide strong evidence for a phase of oceanic reorganization, global cooling, and the growth of the first semi-permanent, continental-scale icesheets on Antarctica (Zachos et al., 2001; Coxall and Pearson, 2007).

During the Oligocene-Miocene interval, the Mediterrranean area experienced the final phases of

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Alpine and Dinarides subduction and NW-directed Apennine subduction (Doglioni et al., 1999). Many carbonate platforms developed in the foreland zone of the Apennines, including the LatiumAbruzzi-Campana and Apulian platforms in the central and southern sector of the orogen

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(Carannante and Simone, 1996; Mutti et al., 1997, Brandano and Corda, 2002), the Ragusa platform (Hyblea, Sicily) and Malta in the Pelagian area (Pedley, 1998; Brandano et al., 2009a). In the Southern Alps, Oligocene neritic carbonate sedimentation developed on the Lessini shelf (Bassi and Nebelsick, 2010; Nebelsick et al., 2013).

In this paper we analyze the impact and interplay of global and regional factors controlling the development of different carbonate factories and facies associations in three well-studied, central

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Mediterranean examples: Malta, the Latium Abruzzi and northern Apulian (Majella) platforms. The Chattian ramp facies belt of the Lower Coralline Limestone Fm is well exposed on the Malta Island; the Guadagnolo and Bryozoan- Lithothamnion Fms of the Chattian to Tortonian interval outcrop in the Latium Abruzzi Platform, while the Bolognano Fm records the evolution of the upper

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Ruperlian to lower Messianian ramp in the Majella structure (Fig. 1). The Oligocene and Miocene isotope events

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A long-term cooling trend characterizes the global climate from the middle Eocene climatic optimum to modern times (Fig. 2). Despite this general trend, the climatic evolution of the OligoMiocene interval is particularly dynamic. At the Eocene-Oligocene transition (~34 Ma) a major δ18O shift recorded in the global pelagic signal, known in the literature as the Oi-1 event (Zachos et al., 2001), marks the onset of the Eastern Antarctica Polar Ice Cap, thus the transition between the previous warm greenhouse world to the modern icehouse one (Coxall and Pearson, 2007; Lear et al., 2008). This event is also associated with the decrease of atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Beerling and Royer, 2011). According to De Conto and Pollard (2003) a stable polar ice cap formed in the Eastern Antarctica when pCO2 values decreased below the threshold of 750 ppm, while the opening of the Southern Ocean Gateways played a secondary role in triggering the glaciation. A second major cooling step, known as the Mi-1 event, is recorded at the OligoceneMiocene boundary (~23 Ma) and interpreted as a sharp, but transient, glacial maximum related to

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT a rapid pulse in the growth of Antarctica (Zachos et al., 2001; 2008; Lear et al., 2004). The early Miocene is characterized by an overall global warming trend, occasionally interrupted by minor glaciations (Mi events), until the Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO), the warmest time interval of the last 35 million years, when seawater temperatures at mid-latitudes are estimated to have been 6°C higher than today (Flower et al., 1999; Zachos et al., 2001; 2008). These climate changes affected the global carbon cycle. For example, the δ13C global pelagic record shows three

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positive shifts during the Oligocene-Miocene interval, the first two being sharp and rapid positive carbon isotope peaks recorded in correspondence with the Oi-1 and Mi-1 events. This latter is known as the Early Miocene Carbon Maximum (EMCM). The youngest, on the other hand, is a long-term positive δ13C excursion, which starts in correspondence with the MMCO and that is

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known in literature as Monterey Carbon Isotope Excursion (Woodruff and Savin, 1991; Holbourn et al., 2004; 2007). These shifts are interpreted as C-cycle perturbations due to an increased primary

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productivity of surface waters and higher rates of organic carbon storage. The central-western Mediterranean area

The Apennines have been interpreted as an accretionary wedge developed along the subduction hinge of the Adria continental plate and the Ionian oceanic plate (Doglioni et al., 1999; Gelabert and Sabat, 2002; Carminati et al., 2010). According to Lustrino et al. (2009), subduction started in the Eocene (Fig. 2). The subsequent rollback of the Apennine subduction zone created the back-

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arc, lithosphere stretching of the Ligurian-Provencal Basin and Tyrrhenian Sea (e.g. Malinverno and Ryan, 1986; Doglioni, 1991).

Apennine subduction triggered the development of intense subduction-related igneous activity, which recorded a climax in the early Miocene (22-18 Ma), and a subsequent anorogenic activity

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(Lustrino et al., 2011; Lustrino & Wilson, 2007).

The complex geodynamic evolution of the Mediterranean affected its water circulation patterns and exchanges with the surrounding oceans. Until late Burdigalian both the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific

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connections were open and deep water flow was directed from west to east (Mutti and Bernoulli, 2003). Mediterranean waters were strongly influenced by the Indo-Pacific ocean during the early Miocene. Between the Burdigalian and Langhian the Mediterranean isotope signature represents a mix of both Atlantic and Pacific signals (Kocsis et al., 2008). During the Langhian the Indo-Pacific passage closed definitively (Rӧgl, 1999). Lastly, the Serravallian-Tortonian interval (13-8 Ma) is marked by a strong Atlantic influence (Kocsis et al., 2008). The isotopic record of the Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean sea are, in fact, totally comparable, while they decouple in the Messinian due to the isolation of the Mediterranean sea (Schildgen et al., 2014). Case histories

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In this work the terminology of Burchette and Wright (1992) is used to subdivide the carbonateramp facies, however the criteria employed to characterize the various parts of the ramps follow Pomar (2001a) and Pomar et al. (2002). As evidenced by Pomar and Haq (2016), the division between euphotic (high light rates on seafloor and occasionally high-wave energy), oligophotic (low-light conditions on seafloor, commonly below wave action), and aphotic (absence of light) represents a powerful tool to define sedimentary environments and processes in carbonate

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systems. This subdivision particularly useful considering the difficulty in evaluating the hydrodynamic bathymetric gradient and its relationship to climate and oceanographic conditions.

Malta Plateau

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The Malta Archipelago is part of the large Pelagian carbonate platform domain, which, together with the Hyblean Plateau, the Pelagian islands eastern Tunisia and north-western Lybia, represents the northern extension of the African Plate (Fig. 1). The Malta Plateau, which has been

of

Mesozoic

and

Paleogene

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a structurally elevated area since the Late Triassic (Bishop and Debono, 1996), comprises 4,500 m limestones

and

dolomites.

The

Oligo-Miocene

Maltese

lithostratigraphic succession consists of five units (Felix, 1973; Pedley 1978), the ages of which have recently been revised by Baldassini and Di Stefano (2016). The lowermost unit, named the Lower Coralline Limestone Fm (middle-late Chattian), was deposited in a ramp environment. The Lower Coralline Limestone is overlain by the Globigerina Limestone Fm (late Chattian-Langhian),

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which represents deposition on a distal outer ramp, within the aphotic zone. In turn, this unit is overlain by the hemipelagic deposits of the Blue Clay Fm (Serravallian-early Tortonian). Lastly, the Blue Clay Fm is unconformably overlain by the Greensand Fm and by the Upper Coralline Limestone Fm (Tortonian-Messinian).

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The Lower Coralline Limestone consists of four members (Pedley, 1978; 1998). The Maghlaq Member, which is the oldest, is represented by wackestones and mudstones that were deposited in an inner ramp environment. The Attard Member, composed of rhodolitic algal packstones,

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generally overlies the Maghlaq Member. The Xlendi Member consists of cross-bedded foraminiferal grainstones, which generally lie lateral to and above the Attard Member. Lastly, the Il Mara Member represents outer ramp wackestones, including bryozoan and Lepidocyclina beds, which lie lateral and down-ramp to the Attard Member. The inner ramp consists of deposits of the Xlendi Member and partially of the Attard Member. It is characterized by foreshore to shoreface deposits consisting of cross-bedded grainstone rich in porcellaneous foraminifera (Fig. 3A). Other important components include rounded and micritised bioclasts of articulate, non-articulate coralline algal debris and larger benthic foraminifera (LBF). They pass basinward to coralline algal rudstone to floatstone (including small rhodoliths), coralline algal debris and crusts, bioclasts of echinoids, molluscs, and scattered coral colonies in growth position, as well as porcellaneous, encrusting foraminifera and LBF. These deposits represent an

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT environment colonised by seagrass. Basinward this lithofacies changes into coral-bioclastic wackestones/floatstones. The ruditic fraction of this unit consists of Stylophora corals and scattered bioclasts, while the matrix consists of a bioclastic wackestone rich in miliolids. The foraminiferal assemblages (Borelis, peneroplids and Amphistegina) are typical of shallow and illuminated habitats, where seagrass meadows interfinger with adjacent non-vegetated areas. Laterally this facies interfingers with coral patch reefs that are 50 to 150 m long and wide and

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rarely more than 10 m thick. The middle-ramp is represented by the Attard Member and consists of structureless red algal-foraminiferal floatstones to packstones in a packstone to grainstone matrix. The main components are coralline algae that form mainly branches and, subordinately, small rhodoliths (Fig. 3A). The abundance of deeper, larger foraminifera (Operculina, Nephrolepidina),

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and the concomitant presence of the shallow foraminifera, such as Borelis, the strong fragmentation of the grains, and the relative enrichment of echinoid fragments resistant to mechanical abrasion, are indicative of deposition within the oligophotic zone of a middle ramp

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environment. All these features are due to the combined accumulation of in situ production as well as sediments swept from the inner ramp by waves and currents. The down-ramp extension of the Attard Member is represented by the Il Mara Member (Fig. 3A). It is dominated by thinly bedded, fine-grained wackestone beds with thin Lepidocyclina and erect bryozoan colonies (Pedley, 1978; 1998). These deposits represent sedimentation in the outer ramp, well below the storm weather

Latium-Abruzzi Platform

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wave-base, in the deepest area of the photic zone (Pedley, 1998; Brandano et al., 2009a).

The Apennines comprise two main carbonate platforms, the Latium-Abruzzi-Campana Platform and the Apulian Platform (Mostardini and Merlini, 1986; Vezzani et al., 2010), which are separated

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by a narrow basin in the north that widens towards the south (Molisan and Lagonegrese basin). The Latium-Abruzzi Platform corresponds to the northern sector of the wide Latium-AbruzziCampana Platform (Fig. 1). Carbonate sedimentation on this platform took place between the Late

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Triassic and late Miocene, although significant hiatuses occurred between the Early and Late Cretaceous and between the Paleocene and early Oligocene. The late Oligocene is not recorded in the internal sector of the platform, where the Miocene Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestones directly lie on the Cretaceous platform carbonates (Accordi et al., 1967; Brandano and Corda, 2002). The Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestones, Burdigalian to Tortonian in age, were deposited in a carbonate ramp environment (Brandano and Corda, 2002; Pomar et al., 2004). Along the margin and slope of the Latium-Abruzzi platform, the late Oligocene and Miocene deposits are represented by the Guadagnolo Fm (Carboni et al., 1982; Brandano et al., 2015). This formation is divided into three members. The basal member is Chattian to early Burdigalian in age and may reach up to 100 m of thickness. This member is constituted by red algal and foraminiferalrich limestones. A few meter thick spongolitic-rich interval separates the Chattian from the upper

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Aquitanian – lower Burdigalian bioclastic limestones of this interval. The second member is a 300 m thick monotonous succession of alternating spongolitic marls to calcareous marls and crossbedded bioclastic calcarenites deposited in the distal outer ramp environment of the LatiumAbruzzi ramp (Brandano and Corda, 2002). The uppermost member consists of coarse-grained bioclastic grainstone-packstone, Serravallian in age, representing sedimentation in the outer ramp environment of the Latium-Abruzzi platform.

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Carbonate sedimentation in the Latium-Abruzzi platform ended with hemipelagic marls followed by siliciclastic turbiditic deposits of the Apennine foredeep system (Cipollari and Cosentino, 1992).

The Chattian ramp

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The Chattian deposits of the Latium-Abruzzi platform are represented by the lower interval of the basal member of the Guadagnolo Fm. They deposited on a small carbonate ramp, a few km in size, along the northern and eastern margins of the platform on the tectonically deformed

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Cretaceous to Eocene carbonate substrate. Only the middle ramp environment of this small ramp crops out. It is characterized by cross-bedded red algal rudstone to floatstone, alternating with coarse cross-bedded bioclastic packstone to rudstone rich in larger benthic foraminifera (Brandano and Corda, 2011). The red algae are present as small rhodoliths, free-living branches and coralline debris. The middle ramp was characterized by the migration of superimposed small bedforms, which transported the bioclastic sediment from the inner to the middle ramp. Here the

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sedimentation results from the combined accumulation of in situ products and sediments swept from the shallower inner ramp. The Chattian middle ramp deposits are overlain by a 3-5 m thick interval of horizontally bedded spongolitic packstones, rich in planktonic foraminifera, which were deposited in the aphotic zone of an outer ramp environment (Brandano et al., 2015). Brandano et

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al. (2015) show the carbon isotope record of this succession across the Oligocene–Miocene boundary. A positive δ13C shift corresponds with vertical facies from middle to outer carbonate ramp facies (Fig. 4). This C-isotope shift has been interpreted by Brandano et al. (2015) as the

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“Early Miocene Carbon Isotope Excursion” (EMCM).

The Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestone ramp The Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestone Fm deposited on a low-angle homoclinal ramp (Fig. 3 C) during a marine transgression that was produced by tectonic subsidence linked to the eastward migration of the Apennine deformation fronts and related foredeeps (Brandano and Corda, 2002). The inner ramp is characterized by high energy deposits represented by balanid floatstone to rudstone and lithoclastic conglomerates. These deposits grade basinward into seagrass deposits represented by crudely stratified, unsorted bioclastic packtone to floatstone and to rudstone to floatstone with red algae nodules and branches (Brandano, 2003). The main components are epiphytic foraminifera, larger benthic foraminifera, echinoids, balanid macroids, bryozoan colonies,

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and micritized mollusc fragments. These deposits are also characterized by remains of psammobiontic sponges (Reuter et al., 2013) living in association with seagrass. Seaward, the seagrass facies passes into scattered coral buildups characterized by platy and encrusting Porites, commonly encrusted by red algae and associated with oyster beds. The middle ramp deposits mainly consist of rudstone with rhodoliths and echinoid fragments. Bioeroders form sand-sized bioclastic sediment. The red algae genera associations and the larger foraminifera assemblages of

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the middle ramp facies are typical of the oligophotic zone, below the base of wave action (Civitelli and Brandano, 2005; Brandano et al., 2010a). The outer ramp deposits form three lithofacies belts: proximal, intermediate and distal outer ramp. The proximal outer ramp consists of crudely stratified bryozoan-bivalve floatstones alternating with coarse-grained echinoid-foraminiferal packstones.

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The intermediate outer ramp is characterized by fine to medium-grained echinoid-planktonic foraminiferal packstones. The distal outer ramp is composed of highly bioturbated limestone-marl alternations containing siliceous sponge spicules, echinoid fragments, and planktonic foraminifera.

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Based on sedimentological features and the dominance of bryomol and molechfor associations, the outer ramp was located in the aphotic zone (Pomar et al., 2004).

The stratigraphic architecture of the Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestone ramp between the early Burdigalian and Langhian does not reflect sea-level cyclicity, notwithstanding the fact that important sea-level changes occurred during this interval (Miller et al., 2005). The stratigraphic architecture highlights the outer-ramp facies belt expansion, with a simultaneous backstepping and

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progradation (Fig. 5A) at the end of Burdigalian (Brandano and Corda, 2002; Pomar et al., 2004). Only the stratigraphic architecture of the inner-middle ramp lithofacies shows a moderate expression of relative sea-level cyclicity, represented by a moderate landward / basinward migration of sub-facies belts, as shown by the free living branching red-algal rudstones and

et al., 2012).

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seagrass-meadow deposits alternating with conglomeratic levels (Brandano et al., 2010a; Pomar

The δ¹³C values of the Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestone, measured in the succession of the

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outer ramp domain (Pietrasecca section, Brandano et al., 2010b), show a range between +0.1‰ and +2.48‰ (Fig. 4). The δ¹³C curve shows a positive shift from 0.10‰ to 1.71‰ in the lower interval, constituted by intermediate outer ramp lithofacies, to 2.1‰ to 2.48‰ in correspondence of the proximal outer ramp lithofacies. The last 20 m of the succession, constituted again of intermediate outer ramp facies, show a negative δ¹³C shift until values fluctuate around ±0.5‰. This isotope excursion corresponds to the Monterey Event (Brandano et al., 2010b; Brandano et al., 2017).

Apulian Platform The Apulian Platform is exposed in the Majella Mountain, Gargano, Murge and Salento areas of central and southern Italy (Fig. 1). The eastern portion of the Apulian Platform constitutes the

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT gently deformed foreland of the Apennines, while the western portion is down-faulted and buried underneath the foredeep and adjacent Apennine chain (Mostardini and Merlini, 1986; Casero et al., 1988). This platform records mainly neritic carbonate sedimentation from the Late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous (Bosellini and Parente, 1994). Similar to the adjacent Latium-AbruzziCampana Platform, the Paleogene shallow-water deposits are preserved along the platform margins exposed in the northern, eastern and south-eastern parts of the Majella Mountain (Vecsei

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et al., 1998), Gargano Promontory (Bosellini et al., 1999), and Salento peninsula (Bosellini et al., 1999, Pomar et al., 2014), respectively.

An Oligo-Miocene homoclinal ramp outcrops on the Majella Mountain. It developed above the former shelf and slope and is represented by the Bolognano Fm (late Rupelian - early Messinian).

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Brandano et al. (2016a) recognized five different lithofacies associations: Lepidocyclina calcarenites, Cherty marly limestones, Bryozoan calcarenites, Hemipelagic marls and marly limestones, and Lithothamnion limestones. Each association corresponds to a single

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lithostratigraphic unit, except for the Lepidocyclina calcarenites (Fig. 6A) that constitute two separate lithostratigraphic units (Lepidocyclina calcarenites 1 and 2). The stratigraphic architecture of the Bolognano Fm results from the alternation of shallow-water carbonate production and deeper, low-energy environment sedimentation.

A carbonate ramp environment (Lepidocyclina 1 ramp) developed during the first shallow-water phase (Rupelian to Chattian). On the Majella Mountain only the middle ramp and a portion of the

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outer ramp environments outcrop (Fig. 3B). The sediment consists of larger benthic foraminifera, (represented by well-preserved Nephrolepidina and Eulepidina, Amphistegina and nummulitids), red-algal debris, small benthic foraminifera (rotaliids, discorbaceans, buliminaceans, and textularids), and very common bryozoans. A large part of the sediment of the middle ramp

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environment appears to have a parautochthonous origin, while there is an increase of autochthonous sediments with depth in the outer ramp. According to Brandano et al. (2012) and (2016a), the middle ramp environment was affected by a generally north–west directed flow,

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inducing the development of a wide, downslope-migrating dune field. Successively, a drowning event produced a sharp facies shift toward the low-energy outer ramp environment corresponding to the Cherty marly limestone unit. The sediment of this unit consists of planktonic foraminifera with common bryozoans, radiolarians, and siliceous sponge spicules. Physical sedimentary structures are rare, while biogenic structures are abundant and include Thalassinoides and Zoophycos traces. This unit represents sedimentation in a distal outer ramp environment from the Chattian to the top of the Aquitanian. During the early and middle Burdigalian, a second shallow-water phase occurred. It is again a high-energy carbonate ramp (Lepidocyclina 2 ramp) characterized by the same depositional and environmental features as the Chattian ramp. Only middle to outer ramp environments are preserved, characterized by a wide, NW directed submarine dune field (Fig. 6B). The main

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT differences with the Chattian ramp are represented by a minor abundance of Lepidocyclina specimens, an increased percentage of bryozoans, and a higher primary porosity. Currently this unit shows abundant bitumen within both matrix and fracture porosity, a fact that encouraged hydrocarbon exploration of these accumulations during the first half of the twentieth century (Scrocca et al., 2014). Successively, during the late Burdigalian, a new transgressive event took place, as represented by

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the Hemipelagic marls and Bryozoan calcarenite units. Both these units lie on a phosphatic hardground (Mutti and Bernoulli, 2003). This phase occurred between the Late Burdigalian and Serravallian.

The Hemipelagic marls include three marly lithofacies, all of which are dominated by planktonic

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foraminifera: bioturbated packstone, planktonic wackestone to packstone, and cross-bedded bioclastic packstone. Bioturbation is diffuse, mainly represented by Thalassinoides traces. The Bryozoan calcarenites unit is characterized by bioclastic grainstones and packstones

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dominated by bryozoans (cellariiform and celleporiform), echinoids, planktonic and small benthic foraminifera, and subordinate larger benthic foraminifera (amphisteginids and nummulitids). The sedimentary structures of this unit are represented by a compound cross-bedded stratification produced by basinward, north–west directed currents. This unit represents the sedimentation in the middle to proximal outer ramp.

The youngest shallow-water unit, Tortonian to early Messinian in age, is the Lithothamnion

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Limestone. This unit displays quite homogeneous compositional and sedimentological features over large portions of the Majella, and also in the northern and eastern sectors of the Apulian Platform, as illustrated by exploration well logs on land and in the Adriatic sea (Patacca et al., 2013; Brandano et al., 2016b). This unit

consists of an association of five lithofacies:

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Heterostegina floatstone to rudstone, free-living red algae branches in floatstone to rudstone, red algal bindstone, bioclastic packstone, and cross-bedded bioclastic packstone with bivalves and vertebrates (Brandano et al., 2016b). All the recognized facies were deposited between the inner

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and middle ramp environments (Fig. 3D). The inner ramp contains small coral build-ups, located in the southernmost sector of the Majella Mountain (Danese, 1999), passing basinwards to an environment colonized by seagrass meadows that interfinger with mäerl facies. The carbon isotope record of the Bolognano Fm displays two main carbon isotope excursions (Fig. 4). The first excursion occurred in correspondence with the Chattian-Aquitanian boundary. It falls between the Lepidocyclina calcarenite 1 and the Cherty hemipelagic marly limestone and it is marked by a minor, but sharp, positive δ¹³C shift. This excursion is interpreted by Mutti et al. (2006) as the Early Miocene Carbon Maximum. The second carbon excursion corresponds to the Monterey Carbon Isotope Excursion (Brandano et al., 2017). The onset of this carbon isotope shift falls in the upper portion of the Lepidocyclina calcarenites 2, in the upper Burdigalian, followed by the main excursion occurring between the calcarenites and the following hemipelagic marls. The

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT end of the positive excursion is recorded in the upper Serravallian portion of the Hemipelagic marls unit. Discussion During the transition from the warm Eocene to the Oligocene “icehouse” a series of major changes in climate, ice volume, and ocean circulation occurred (Fig. 2) that influenced the composition and

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production of the carbonate factory (Nebelsick et al., 2005; Pomar and Hallock, 2008; Brandano et al., 2009b). Specifically, the progressive global cooling led to a time interval in which larger benthic foraminifera experienced a major decline, whereas coral bioconstructions underwent renewed development, coralline algae became a dominant biota-producing sediment, and seagrass

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environments expanded causing a change in the facies association of the Cenozoic carbonate platforms (Fig. 7) (Brandano et al., 2009b; Brandano et al., 2016a).

The standard model of Buxton and Pedley (1989) is the classical depositional model used for the

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Oligocene Mediterranean carbonate platforms (Fig. 8). This model, revised in the last few years, comprises a platform with a ramp depositional profile (Pedley, 1998; Jorry et al., 2006; Brandano 2016). The inner ramp association comprises peritidal and inner lagoon facies, separated from the seagrass meadows facies by a grainstone barrier facies. The mid-ramp association is characterized by shallow sub-tidal facies, such as gastropod and foraminifera packstone to wackestone, and by red algal facies (mäerl and rhodolith pavements) interfingering with coralgal

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patch-reefs. In the outer ramp association the coralline algal facies evolves basinward to large benthic foraminiferal facies (LBF wackestone to packstone) and distal pelagic marl facies (wackestone with abundant planktonic foraminifers). This model shows some obvious variations in the presented examples, according to the varying

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tectonic, climatic and trophic conditions in the Mediterranean from the Oligocene to the Miocene. The Buxton and Pedley model was elaborated starting from the Oligocene of Malta, which perfectly fits with the Maltese Chattian ramp presented here. This example, developed in oligotrophic

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conditions and a tropical climate (Brandano et al., 2009b), highlights a distinctive characteristic of Chattian ramps: the expansion of seagrass meadows which host an important epiphytic carbonate production, as also documented in other Mediterranean sites (Tab. 1) (Southern Apulia, Pomar et al.,

2014; Lessini Mountains, Nebelsick et al., 2013). This expansion induced the red algal-

dominated facies, and production, to be located in the middle ramp, within the oligophotic zone, occupying an environment slightly basinward of the seagrass meadows. The Chattian Apennine ramps, however, show substantial differences. These platforms lack inner ramp outcrops. Their compositional characteristics are typical of a general oligophotic zone (e.g. Buxton and Pedley, 1989; Pomar, 2001; Brandano et al., 2009a,b), while their taphonomic characteristics highlight the coexistence of both abraded and well preserved components. This feature indicates a parautochthonous origin for a conspicuous part of the sediments in the middle

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT ramp environment and an increase of autochthonous sediments with depth. In the outer ramp environment, in fact, aphotic biota dominate, such as bryozoans, echinoids and small benthic foraminifera. High energy conditions, produced by steady currents, were present from the proximal part of the middle ramp to the transition between middle and outer ramp (Fig. 3B). The bedforms of the proximal middle ramp were fed by epiphytic components of the inner ramp, while in the intermediate and external middle ramp deeper components, such as flat larger benthic foraminifera

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and red algal debris, are more abundant (Brandano et al., 2012; 2015). These basinward-flowing currents led to the development of a wide (10×15 km) downslope-migrating dune field. These ramps differ from the Malta example due to the development of downwelling currents induced by regional oceanographic conditions (Brandano et al., 2012). This dune field constitutes an important

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oil reservoir of the Ombrina field in the eastern sector of the Apulia domain, within the central Adriatic sea (Campagnoni et al., 2013).

During the Oligocene-Miocene transition the central Mediterranean ramps suffered a crisis of

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carbonate production (Fig. 7) (Mutti et al., 2006; Fӧllmi et al., 2008). During the late Chattian the Malta ramp drowned, as the Lower Coralline Fm was overlain by hemipelagic to outer ramp deposits of the Globigerina Limestone Fm (Fӧllmi et al., 2008; Baldassini and Di Stefano, 2016). A drowning event also occurred in the Majella at the end of the Chattian. This event produced a sharp facies shift toward the low-energy outer ramp environment corresponding to the deposition of the Cherty marly limestone unit. This environment persisted from the Chattian to the top of the

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Aquitanian (Brandano et al., 2016). In the Latium Abruzzi domain the Chattian ramp deposits are overlain by Aquitanian spongolitic-rich sediments (Schiavinotto, 1979; Brandano et al., 2015). The crisis between the end of the Chattian and the Aquitanian may be attributed to regional and global factors. The Sr and Nd isotope records of the central-western Mediterranean pelagic

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successions show a strong influence of subduction-related, western Mediterranean volcanism (Fig. 2A) on sea-water chemistry (Kocsis et al., 2008). This volcanic activity supported an increase of nutrients in Mediterranean seawaters (Duggen et al., 2010; Olgun et al., 2011) and produced a rise

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in the atmospheric and marine CO2 concentrations. The increased CO2 concentrations lowered the seawater pH and reduced carbonate ion concentration in surface waters, thus favoring calcite dominated skeletal assemblages and, overall, siliceous production as shown by chert formation in the marly deposits (cf. Weissert and Erba, 2004). Furthermore, the effects of volcanism may have been amplified by a perturbation of the C-cycle event (Fig. 2C). For example, the positive δ13C shift in the Apennine ramps reveals an increase of organic matter burial, which is generally produced by an increase of organic productivity in the ocean surface waters. This global eutrophic event (EMCM), summed to the influence of volcanism, caused the shift from a oligophotic red algae- and LBF-dominated system, to an aphotic carbonate factory (Brandano et al., 2015). The shallow-water carbonate production of the Apennine ramps recovered in the early Burdigalian. In the Latium-Abruzzi platform all the facies belts of the Buxton and Pedley model are present,

11

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT even if the euphotic inner ramp belt had a limited extension when compared with the middle and outer ramp belts (Brandano and Corda, 2002; Pomar et al., 2012). In the Majella a second phase of high-energy carbonate ramp (Lepidocyclina 2 ramp) developed. This ramp shares the same depositional and environmental characteristics as the Chattian ramp: a wide, NW migrating, submarine dune field established in the middle to outer ramp (Fig. 6B). From the late Burdigalian both Apennine ramps suffered a deterioration of trophic conditions and a

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consequent expansion of the oligophotic and aphotic carbonate factories (Fig. 5) .

The spread of bryozoans in both ramps between the late Burdigalian and early Serravallian has been linked to increased nutrient availability in surface waters (Brandano and Corda, 2002; Pomar et al., 2004; Brandano et al., 2016a). Under an enhanced nutrient flux the primary production

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intensifies the surface water turbidity and consequently reduces the light available for photodependent, bottom-dweller organisms, such as calcareous algae, corals and larger benthic foraminifera. In contrast, primary production constitutes a very good resource for photo-

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independent filter feeders, such as the bryozoans, which can proliferate in high trophic conditions (Mutti & Hallock, 2003; Pomar et al., 2004; Westphal et al., 2010). The two Apennine ramps display different facies belt evolution between the late Burdigalian and early Serravallian (Fig. 5A, B). A back-stepping trend of the ramp facies belt is recorded in the stratigraphic architecture of the Majella ramp. The Lepidocyclina calcarenites 2, in fact, are overlain by the hemipelagic marly unit in the northern (basinward) sector of the ramp (Fig. 5B), whereas these calcarenites are overlain

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by the coeval and proximal Bryozoan calcarenites unit in the southern sector (Mutti et al., 1999; Reuter et al., 2013; Brandano et al., 2016a). In the Latium-Abruzzi platform the general stratigraphic architecture of the ramp defines a progressively back-stepping of the bryozoan unit, as a consequence of the landward (upward) migration of the shallow photic facies and a

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contemporaneous progradation of the bryozoan unit basinward (Brandano and Corda, 2002; Corda and Brandano, 2003).

In both Apennine ramps the high rates of sediment production in the deeper oligophotic and

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aphotic zones create a depositional profile of a low-angle ramp (Pomar et al., 2004, 2012). In the Majella, the Bryozoan calcarenites display only a retrogradational pattern and they pass laterally to the hemipelagic marls (Brandano et al., 2016a). This means that the Majella ramp was impacted by a considerable fine-grained terrigenous input derived from the northern Apennines and Alps. The terrigenous accumulation exceeded the bryozoan production and accumulation, thus hampering the progradation of this facies belt. The middle Miocene interval, affected by high trophic conditions in the Mediterranean, perfectly coincides with the Monterey event. Its influence on the trophic conditions of the central Mediterranean was hampered by other regional factors, such as the evolution of the Apennine accretionary wedge and foredeep system. The eastward migration of this system led to a constant increase of sediment runoff, whose finest portion should have reached the Latium-Abruzzi and Majella ramps (Brandano and Corda, 2002).

12

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The stratigraphic architecture of the Latium-Abruzzi and Majella ramps does not reflect sea-level cyclicity higher than 2nd order (Fig 5A, B), despite the fact that significant sea-level fluctuations occurred during the period of deposition of these carbonate ramps (Abreu and Anderson, 1998; Miller et al., 2005). According to Pomar and Kendall (2008) the different rates of sediment production in the different depositional environments control firstly the depositional profile and secondarily the facies architecture heterogeneities. In both ramps the minor productivity and

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accumulation in the inner-ramp environments, dominated by loose fine-grained sediments and the absence of rigid framework, inhibits the impact of high-frequency sea-level fluctuations in creating facies architecture heterogeneities (Pomar and Kendall, 2008; Brandano et al., 2010a; Pomar et al., 2012). The volumetrically important production by the bryomol assemblage took place in the

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aphotic zones, exceeding the coralline algae production in the oligophotic zone. This difference produced a low-angle ramp profile because the bryomol-dominated sediment produced in the aphotic outer ramp exceeded the volume of the up-dip middle and inner ramp environments

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(Pomar and Kendall, 2008). Consequently, only major sea-level fluctuations of low order (2nd order) were capable of causing facies belts shifts that were large enough to create platform heterogeneities. In the inner ramp, carbonate sedimentation and accumulation occurred above the hydrodynamic base level and a moderate expression of higher order sea-level cyclicity can be recorded as landward / basinward migration of sub-facies belts (Brandano et al., 2010a; Pomar et al., 2012).

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The evolution of shallow water environments in the central Apennine domain during the Tortonianearly Messinian interval may be analyzed in the youngest carbonate units of the Bolognano Fm, represented by the Lithtothamnion Limestone.

The Lithothamnion Limestone marks the return to oligo- to mesotrophic conditions in the early

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Tortonian, when a wide homoclinal ramp, characterized by mäerl facies, seagrass meadows and coral buildups, developed in the northern sectors of the Apulia platform (Patacca et al., 2013; Brandano et al., 2016b). These conditions characterize all Mediterranean areas until the early

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Messinian. In particular, flourishing coral reefs developed between the late Tortonian and early Messinian (Esteban, 1996, Pomar et al., 1996; Pedley, 1996), thus promoting the development and spread of reef-rimmed platforms throughout the Mediterranean area. In the northern part of the Apulia platform, however, this type of platform did not develop, and a homoclinal ramp persisted until the end of the early Messinian. During this interval this ramp was dominated by coralline algae associated with typical low-oxygen foraminiferal taxa (Bulimina spp. and Bolivina/Brizalina spp.) tolerating abundant organic matter accumulation in dysoxic to anoxic conditions. In fact, the Lithothamnion limestone ramp developed under eutrophic conditions. This increase in nutrients may have been caused by the development and migration of the Apennine accretionary wedge and foredeep system (Brandano et al., 2016b), which led to enhanced terrigenous input and controlled the progressive narrowing of the proto-Adriatic sea (Fig. 9). This evolution favoured

13

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT restricted circulation of the proto-Adriatic and enhanced nutrient concentration. The Lithothamnion limestone ramp may be considered as an example of regional control on the development of a carbonate factory type. A wide sector of the Apulia platform was dominated by red algae, which, according to some authors, globally dominated the carbonate factory between the Burdigalian and Serravallian (Halfar and Mutti, 2005), when a global increase of water fertility was recorded (the Monterey event). In this case, the regional conditions of the proto-Adriatic during the Tortonian to

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early Messinian time interval promoted its development, whereas in the rest of the Mediterranean rimmed-reef platforms were developing. Conclusion

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The general picture offered by the central Mediterranean platforms shows a clear link between global and regional factors controlling the dominance of carbonate factory types. The Maltese platform constitutes a reference model that developed in optimal, oligotrophic conditions and away

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from orogenic systems that could contaminate the system with terrigenous inputs. In contrast, the Apennine platforms were subjected to geodynamic processes that amplified the global conditions. During the Chattian, the Apennine platforms were influenced by a basin configuration that promoted the development of dominant currents and related dune fields. In the Aquitanian the silica input from volcanic activity had an influence on the crisis of these platforms. Successively, between the early and middle Miocene, the terrigenous input began to influence the Apennine

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platforms, when the Monterey event was still having an influence on the efficiency of the carbonate factories along the ramp environment. Their low-angle ramp depositional profile resulted from low rates of carbonate production in the euphotic inner ramp, whereas significant rates of coralline algae carbonate production occurred in the oligophotic middle ramp and even greater bryozoan

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carbonate production occurred in the aphotic outer ramp. The dominance of the bryozoan factory in the aphotic zone strongly impacted the stratigraphic architecture of the Latium-Abruzzi and Majella ramps. Their architecture do not reflect high-order sea-level cyclicity because the

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volumetrically important, outer-ramp sediments accumulated below the hydrodynamic base level in a wide depth range controlled by light penetration and, consequently, only major, 2nd order sealevel fluctuations caused shifts of facies belts sufficient to create platform heterogeneities. The influence of nutrients on Apennine platforms development also persisted during the Tortonian and Messinian, as red algae continued to dominate while reef-rimmed platforms developed throughout the rest of the Mediterranean. These local nutrient increases were linked to terrigenous input caused by Apennine orogenesis evolution and the associated approach of foredeep systems. Acknowledgments Financial support from MIUR (PRIN 2010-11) and Sapienza University (Ateneo project 2015) are gratefully acknowledged. Criticism and comments by two anonymous reviewers

and AE Luis

14

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Pomar greatly improved the manuscript. As usual many thanks are due to Stan Beaubien for comments and English revision. Irene Cornacchia was funded by an IAS postgraduate grant (2016).

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experience. Global and Planetary Change, 146, 190-225. Pomar, L., Kendall, C.G.S.C., 2008. Architecture of carbonate platforms: A response to hydrodynamics and evolving ecology. In: Lukasik, J., Simo, A. (Eds.), Controls on Carbonate

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late

Oligocene

(Chattian),

Salento

Peninsula,

southern

Italy.

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Facies, 57(3), 431-446.

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temperate carbonate ramp, Montagna della Maiella, Italy. SeD.* Geol. 123, 103–127. Vecsei, A., Sanders, D. G. K., Bernoulli, D., Eberli, G. P., Pignatti, J., 1998. Cretaceous to Miocene sequence stratigraphy and evolution of the Maiella carbonate platform margin, Italy. In: Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, SEPM Special Publication 60, 53-74. Vezzani, L., Festa, A., Ghizzani, F.C., 2010. Geology and tectonic evolution of the CentralSouthern Apennines, Italy. Geological Society of America Special Paper 469, 58 pp. Weissert, H., Erba, E., 2004. Volcanism, CO2 and palaeoclimate: a Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous carbon and oxygen isotope record. Journal of the Geological Society, 161(4), 695-702. Weissert, H., Lini, A., Föllmi, K. B., Kuhn, O., 1998. Correlation of Early Cretaceous carbon isotope stratigraphy and platform drowning events: a possible link?. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 137(3), 189-203.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Westphal, H., Halfar, J., Freiwald, A., 2010. Heterozoan carbonates in subtropical to tropical settings in the present and past. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 99(1), 153-169. Woodruff, F., Savin, S., 1991. Mid-Miocene isotope stratigraphy in the deep sea: high resolution correlations, paleoclimatic cycles, and sediment preservation. Paleoceanography 6, 755–806. Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., Billups, K., 2001. Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present. Science 292, 686-693.

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Fig 1 - Map of the Mediterranean domain showing the location of the investigated platforms. Fig 2 - Chrono-diagram showing the correlation between regional and global events during the late

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Eocene-Recent interval, and temporal distribution of the studied carbonate platforms. A) Qualitative volumes of the subduction-related igneous rocks emplaced in the central-western Mediterranean between the late Eocene and middle Miocene, correlated with the main igneous activity and geodynamic events that occurred within the same area. B) Global δ18O isotope curve and main recorded events during the Oligocene-Miocene interval (modified after Zachos et al., 2001); MMCO= Mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum. C) Global δ¹³C isotope curve and main recorded events during the Oligocene-Miocene interval (modified after Zachos et al., 2001); EMCM=Early

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Miocene Carbon Maximum. D) Temporal distribution of the studied Mediterranean carbonate

Fig. 3 - Depositional models of the studied platforms (not to scale). A) Depositional model of the

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Maltese Chattian carbonate ramp (modified after Brandano et al., 2009a). B) Depositional model of the Lepidocyclina ramp of the Bolognano Fm, Majella Mountain. C) Depositional model of the Latium-Abruzzi Burdigalian-Serravallian ramp (Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestone ramp). D)

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Depositional model of the Lithothamnion Limestone of the Bolognano Fm, Majella Mountain (modified after Brandano et al., 2016b). Fig. 4 - Comparison of the carbon isotope composition of the studied sections plotted against stratigraphic depth. Monte La Serra and Opi stratigraphic sections and carbon isotope curves are modified after Brandano et al. (2015). Pietrasecca stratigraphic section is modified after Brandano et al. (2010b). San-Bartolomeo-Orta river section is modified after Brandano et al. (2016a), while its carbon isotope record is from Brandano et al. (2017). All the ages in the stratigraphic logs and related isotope curves have been calibrated with GTS 2004. Fig 5: A) Stratigraphic architecture of the Bryozoan and Lithothamnion Limestone Formation, Latium Abruzzi Platform (after Brandano & Corda, 2002), with the Pietrasecca carbon isotope

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The Acquafredda mine (Majella Mountain) excavated into the cross-bedded (dune field) Lepidocyclina calcarenites 2.

Fig. 7. Facies belt evolution of the Mediterranean carbonate platforms within the late EoceneMiocene time interval, plotted against δ¹³C and δ18O global curves (after Zachos et al., 2001).

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Fig. 8 - Standard depositional model and facies association of the Cenozoic Mediterranean

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carbonate platforms (modified after Buxton and Pedley, 1989, Jorry, 2006, Brandano et al., 2016). Fig 9. Paleogeographic map of the Mediterranean area during the Tortonian (modified after Carminati et al., 2010).

Tab. 1. Summary of the characteristics of the PaleoMediterranean Cenozoic carbonate platforms (modified from Brandano et al., 2009a). LBF= Larger Benthic Foraminifers; SBF= Small Benthic

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Istrian Platform (Adriatic carbonate platform)

NW part of Eastern Adriatic Coast (Slovenia and Croatia)

Castelgomber to Limestone

Colli Berici and Monti Lessini area (northern Italy)

Distally steepened carbonate ramp. High energy inner ramp shoal complex; middle ramp characterized by nummulitic packstone and grainstone; outer ramp with nummulitic packstone to planktonic wackestone Carbonate ramp. Inner ramp constituted by coarsegrained, LBF-mollusc packstone. Middle to outer ramp are dominated by medium- to fine-grained larger foraminiferal packstones and planktonic foraminiferal wackestones to mudstones Homoclinal ramp. Seagrass meadows developed in the inner ramp, interfingering basinward with rhodoliths and red algal fragments. Coral mounds developed in the upper portion of the middle ramp, within the oligophotic zone. LBF and red algal floatstones dominated the lower portion of the middle ramp, within the mesophotic zone.

Salento region (southeatern Italy)

Distally steepened ramp, due to the presence of the paleo-escarpment of the Apulia Carbonate Platform. Seagrass meadows dominate the inner ramp. Large rotalid foraminifers dominated the mesophotic zone. Near the edge of the paleo-escarpment corals build discrete mounds and cluster reefs.

Porto Badisco Calcarenites

Salento region (southeatern Italy)

Homoclinal ramp. Seagrass meadows dominate the inner ramp. Large rotalid packstone and small coral mounds developed in mesophotic conditions within the upper portion of the middle ramp. Coralline algal rhodolithes and large lepidocyclinid characterize the sediments of the lower middle ramp.

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Attard Member (Lower Coralline Limestone Fm.)

Malta Island

Dominant Biota

Age

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LBF (Nummulites, discocyclinids). SBF, echinoid and oyster fragments and planktonic foraminifera

Early Eocene

Loucks et al. (1998); BeavingtonPenney et al. (2005)

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El Garia Formation (Metlaoui Group)

Platform description

Early Cuisian to late Lutetian

Cosovic et al. (2004); Drobne & Cosovic (1998)

Corals. LBF (Nummulites, Operculina, Asterigerina, Neorotalia, Praerhapydionina, Penarchaias, Spirolina). SBF (miliolids, textularids) Red algae.

Early Oligocene

Bassi & Nebelsick (2010) ; Nebelsick et al. (2013); Pomar & Haq (2016)

SBF (epiphytic foraminifers, porcellanaceous). LBF (Neorotalia, Amphistegina, Lepidocyclina, nummulitids). Corals. Articulated and non-articulated red algae. Echinids. SBF (Planorbuina, Lobatula, miliolids, victoriellids, Haddonia). LBF (Heterostegina, Nephrolepidina, Operculina, Amphistegina). Corals. Red algae, mostly non-articulated.

Early Chattian

Pomar et al. (2014)

Late Chattian

Pomar et al. (2014)

SBF (porcellanaceous and agglutinated foraminifers). LBF (Amphistegina, Heterostegina, Operculina, Nephrolepidina). Non-articulated red algae.

Chattian

Brandano et al. (2009a)

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Homoclinal ramp. Seagrass meadows developed in the upper portion of the inner ramp, interfingering with a rhodolith dominated facies. Coral mounds developed in the lower portion of the inner ramp. Red algal and LBF floatstone to packstone facies dominate the mesophotic middle ramp environment.

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Lepidocyclina ramp (Bolognano Formation)

Majella Mountain (Central Apennines)

Carbonate ramp. Most of the sediments appear to be parautochthonous in the middle ramp where a large dune field developed under the action of storm-driven, basinward directed, currents. Grainstones dominated the middle ramp. The autochthnous material increases with depth within the outer ramp.

LBF (Amphistegina, Nephrolepidina, Eulepidina, Heterostegina). Nongeniculated red algae. Echinoids, bivalves, bryozoans

Asmari Formation

Southwest Iran (Zagros Basin)

Carbonate ramp. Inner ramp constituted by fenestral-stromatolitic boundstone passing into lagoon facies with abundant imperforate foraminifera. Slope facies contains abundant LBF. Basin facies are dominated by planktonic foraminifera mudstones-wackestones

LBF (nummulitids, lepidocyclinids, alveolinids), SBF (rotaliids). Basin facies marked by high planktonic foraminifera percentage

OligoMiocene (ChattianBurdigalian

Bryozoans, Coralline red algae, LBF (nummulitids, Amphistegina). Epiphytic foraminifera, balanids, echinoids and molluscs are also present Coralline red algae, LBF (Heterostegina, Amphistegina), epiphytic foraminifera, bryozoans, echinoid and mollusc fragments. Rare planktonic foraminifera

Early to middle Miocene

Early Tortonian

Pomar (2001b); Pomar et al. (2002)

Coralline Algae. Bivalves. Corals. SBF(discorbids, textularids, epiphytic foraminifers). LBF (Heterostegina, Operculina, Amphistegina). Bryozoans

Tortonianearly Messinian

Brandano et al. (2016a, 2016b)

Bryozoans, bivalves, coralline red algae. Barnacles, echinoids, LBF, SBF and solitary corals occur as secondary constituents

Late Miocene (early Tortonian) to early Pliocene (Zanclean)

Martin et al. (1996); Betzler et al. (2000); Brachert et al. (2001); Braga et al. (2001, 2006)

Lithothamnion ramp (Bolognano Formation)

Majella Mountain (Central Apennines)

Homoclinal carbonate ramp. The inner ramp contained small coral build-ups, passing basinwards to an environment colonized by seagrass meadows interfingering with mäerl facies. The middle ramp is dominated by coralline algal rhodolith deposits.

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Betic carbonate ramp system

Betic Basin (SE Spain)

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Low-angle carbonate ramp. Inner ramp facies is representive of a seagrass-dominated environment interfingered basinward with red algae and LBF facies (mid-ramp facies). Outer ramp consists of aphotic assemblages Distally steepened carbonate ramp dominated by rhodalgal-foramol sediment associations. Inner ramp facies consist of seagrass meadow deposits interfingered basinwards with mid-ramp bioclastic grainstone. Slope facies consist of rhodolithic clinoform beds

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Latium-Abruzzi region (Central Apennines, Italy)

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Latium- Abruzzi carbonate ramp

Homoclinal and distally steepened ramp. Homoclinal ramp presented inner ramp environment characterised by seagrass meadow facies, mid-ramp is dominated by red algae facies. Aphotic biota facies are representative of outer ramp environment. Distally steepened ramp showed a slope characterised by rhodolith concentrations cut by oysterrich beds.

Chattian & Burdigalian

Brandano et al. (2012); Brandano et al. (2016a)

VaziriMoghaddam et al. (2006); Amirshahkara mi et al. (2007); Sadeghi et al. (2011); Shabafrooz et al. (2015). Brandano (2001); Brandano & Corda (2002); Corda & Brandano (2003)

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Red algae dominated Apennine platforms when corals formed Messinian reef-rimmed platforms