Gold mineralization in China: Metallogenic provinces, deposit types and tectonic framework

    Gold mineralization in China: Metallogenic provinces, deposit types and tectonic framework Jun Deng, Qingfei Wang PII: DOI: Reference:

S1342-937X(15)00242-7 doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2015.10.003 GR 1522

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Gondwana Research

Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

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Please cite this article as: Deng, Jun, Wang, Qingfei, Gold mineralization in China: Metallogenic provinces, deposit types and tectonic framework, Gondwana Research (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.gr.2015.10.003

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT GR Focus Review

Gold mineralization in China: Metallogenic provinces, deposit types and tectonic framework

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Jun Deng*, Qingfei Wang

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State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of

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*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

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Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Abstract: We present a review of the major gold mineralization in China including metallogenic provinces, deposit types, metallogenic epochs and tectonic settings. Over 200 investigated gold deposits are grouped into 16 metallogenic gold provinces within five tectonic units including the

Craton

comprising

the

northern

margin,

Jiaodong,

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China

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Central Asian orogenic belt comprising provinces of Northeast China and Tianshan-Altay, North and

Xiaoqinling;

the

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Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt composed of the West Qingling, North Qilian, and East Kunlun; the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts consisting of Lhasa, Garzê-Litang, Ailaoshan, and Daduhe-Jinpingshan; and the South China block comprising Youjiang basin, Jiangnan orogenic belt, Middle and Lower Yangtze River, and Southeast coast. These gold deposits can be divided into

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orogenic, Jiaodong-, porphyry-skarn, Carlin-like, and epithermal-types, among which the first three types dominate.

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The orogenic gold deposits were formed under various tectonic setting associated with the oceanic subduction and the following crustal extension in the Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun, Tianshan-Altay, northern margin of North China Craton, and Xiaoqinling, and with the

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Eocene-Miocene continental collision in the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts. The tectonic regime

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transition, including from slab subduction to block amalgamation, from continental soft collision to hard collision, from intracontinental compression to shearing or extension, contributed to the

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formation of the orogenic gold deposits. The orogenic gold deposit is associated with metamorphic fluid released from regional metamorphism during oceanic slab subduction or continental collision, or with the magmatic intrusions and hydrothermal systems related to the lithospheric extension after

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the ocean closure. The Jiaodong-type, clustered around Jiaodong, Xiaoqinling, and the northern margin of the North China Craton, is characterized by the contribution of mantle-derived fluids and the genetic link to distant slab subduction of Pacific oceanic plate concomitant with the decratonization in eastern North China Craton. The Carlin-like gold metallogenesis witnessed the activity of connate fluid, metamorphic fluid, and meteoric water in different ore deposits in the Youjiang basin and West Qinling; the former province was related to the distant subduction of Tethyan slab and the later was generated in the syn-collision setting. Porphyry-skarn ore deposits are distributed in the Tianshan-Altay, the Middle and Lower Yangtze River region, and Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts in both slab-subduction and continental collision settings. The derivation of magma for the porphyry-skarn ore deposit was commonly linked with the melting of thickened juvenile crust. The epithermal ore deposits, dominated by the low-sulfidation type with a few high-sulfidation ones, were produced in the backgrounds of Carboniferous slab-subduction in Tianshan-Altay, Early Cretaceous and Quaternary slab-subduction in Southeast coast of South 2 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT China Block, as well as Pliocene continental collision in Tibet. The statistics of the different isotopic systems, especially the fluid D-O isotopes and carbonate mineral C-O systems, reveals that the isotopic compositions are largely overlapped for different genetic types and differentiated for the various ore belts with the same genetic type. The isotopic compositions are thus not solely

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indicative of the genetic type of gold deposit due to that they are inevitably altered amidst the

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complex evolution of the fluid.

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Although the gold metallogeny in China was initiated from Cambrian lasting to Present, it is mainly concentrated in four main periods. The first is Carboniferous when Central Asian orogenic belt welded the diverse blocks and arcs together in Tianshan-Altay, generating a series of porphyry-epithermal-orogenic deposits. The second period is the Triassic to Earliest Jurassic when

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the tectonic mainframe of China was preliminarily formed. In central and southern China, the North China Craton, South China Block, and Simao block were amalgamated after the closure of

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Paleo-Tethys in Triassic forming orogenic and Carlin-like gold deposits. The third period is Early Cretaceous associated with the slab subduction of the Pacific Ocean to the east and that of Neo-Tethyan oceanic plate to the west. The subduction to the east produced the Jiaodong-type

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deposits in the North China Craton, the skarn in the northern margin (Middle to lower reaches of

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Yangtze river) and epithermal-type in the southeastern margin in the South China Block. The subduction in the west produced the Carlin-like gold deposits in the Youjiang basin and orogenic

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ones in Garzê-Litang orogenic belt. The Cenozoic is the last major phase, during which southwestern China experienced continental collision, generating orogenic and porphyry-skarn gold deposits in the Tibetan and Sanjiang orogenic belts. Due to the overlap of the second and third

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periods in one gold province, the Xiaoqinling, West Qinling, and northern margin of the North China Craton show two or more episodes of gold metallogeny. Key words: Gold deposits; Tectonics; Jiaodong-type; Orogenic; Carlin-like.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1. Introduction With the discovery of many large and superlarge gold deposits in China during the last 30 years, the country’s annual gold production has increased significantly from approximately 25 t in 1980 to 180 t in 1999 and to 340 t in 2010, to become one of the biggest gold producers in the

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world. Chinese geologists have carried out extensive research on the geological-geochemical

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characteristics of gold deposits in China, based on which they classified the deposits according to

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host rocks or metallogenesis, such as greenstone belt type deposits, and deposit related with magmatic, sedimentary, and weathering processes (e.g., Chen et al., 2001). Zhou et al., (2002) divided both gold-only and gold-as-by-product deposits in China into orogenic, Carlin-like, epithermal deposits, gold-placer, and gold-enriched porphyry, skarn, VMS and nickel-copper

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deposits. These authors also described the spatial-temporal distribution of gold deposits and their tectonic settings. During the last ten years, significant progress has been achieved on the research

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and exploration of gold deposits in China. As a result, the previous reviews and classifications require revision and update. The aim of this paper is to provide a review of recent advances in the study of gold metallogenic belts containing large and superlarge gold deposits, evaluate the genesis

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of the gold-only and gold-as-by-product deposits and their spatial-temporal distribution, and explore

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the relationship between gold metallogenesis and regional tectonics. Over 200 investigated gold deposits, most of which are large to superlarge, are grouped into

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five tectonic units which include 16 metallogenic provinces (Supplementary Table 1). The tectonic units are the Central Asian orogenic belt comprising provinces of Tianshan-Altay (1A) and Northeast China (1B), the North China Craton comprising the northern margin (2A), Jiaodong (2B),

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and Xiaoqinling (2C), the Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt with West Qing (3A), North Qilian (3B), and East Kunlun (3C), the South China block composed of the Youjiang basin (4A) in the west part, Middle and Lower Yangtze River along the northern margin (4B), Jiangnan orogenic belt (4C), and southeast coast (4D), and the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts with Lhasa (5A), Garzê-Litang (5B), Ailaoshan (5C) and Daduhe-Jinpingshan (5D) (Fig. 1b). It is shown that most of gold deposits in China are located along the margins of cratons and the adjacent orogenic belts, and occur in clusters (Fig. 1b). The genetic types of gold deposits mainly comprise the epithermal, porphyry and skarn, orogenic, and Jiaodong-type with subordinate placer-type, laterite-type, VMS and magmatic. The genetic types of the ore deposits are comprehensively constrained by the deposit geology, tectonic setting, ore fluid temperature and salinity, and multiple systems of isotopes, including D-O-C-S-Pb-He-Ar for both fluid and the gangue and ore minerals. The methods to date the metallogenic time, such as sericite Ar-Ar, zircon U-Pb, molybdenite Re-Os, with good accuracy 4 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT were taken in this review; and other imprecise methods, like quartz Ar-Ar in which the isotopes in the fluid inclusions perhaps comprising secondary ones were tested, were collected with great care, only in the condition that the age obtained by this method shows consistence with the regional geologic evolution and metallogenic event. The Jiaodong-type has recently been defined, after it

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was recognized that its genesis is different from the traditional orogenic type. Orogenic gold

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deposits typically occur in Archean or Paleoproterozoic greenstone belts and the formation of these

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deposits is closely related to the greenschist facies metamorphism during the orogenesis. In most cases, the metallogenesis is coeval with the Archean or Paleoproterozoic metamorphism, the ore fluid is dominantly CO2-rich and of metamorphic origin (Groves et al., 1998 and Goldfarb et al., 2001, 2014). The Jiaodong-type gold deposits occur mostly in terranes with Archean and

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Paleoproterozoic basement rocks which have been subject to amphibolite facies metamorphism as those in the North China Craton. However, the gold deposits in these cases are at least 1.6 billion

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years younger than the metamorphism of the basement rocks (Guo et al., 2013; Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Groves and Santosh, 2015a, b). 2 Central Asian orogenic belt

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The Central Asian orogenic belt (CAOB - Jahn et al., 2000a; Xiao et al., 2004, 2014a, 2015;

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Xiao and Santosh, 2014b) extends from the Urals Mountains in Russia in the west through Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Xinjiang in northwestern China, parts of Mongolia

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to Inner Mongolia, and further to Northeast China (Yakubchuk, 2004). The CAOB in China can be subdivided into eastern and western parts (Fig. 1a, b). The eastern part includes western Inner Mongolia and northeastern China (Jahn et al., 2000b, Zhou and Wilde, 2013), and the western part

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is mainly the Tianshan-Altay region. The CAOB was thought to have formed by accretion of continental blocks, arcs, and accretionary complexes with different subduction polarities in the Paleo-Asian Ocean during 1.0 Ga to ca. 250 Ma and closed between the latest-Permian and mid-Triassic (e.g., Buslov et al., 2002; Xiao,W.J. et al., 2009). 2.1 Tianshan-Altay ore belt (1A) 2.1.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The Tianshan-Altay, mainly covering northern Xinjiang province, is distributed between the southern active margin of the Siberian Craton to the north and the northern active margin of the Tarim Craton to the south (Ma et al., 2015). The Tianshan-Altay was developed by continuous southward accretion along the wide southern active margin of Siberia with the formation of a Japan-type arc systems (Altay, Central Tianshan) and Mariana-type arc systems (West Junggar, and East Junggar). The West and East Junggar arcs occur along the northwestern and northeastern margins of the Junggar Basin, respectively (Fig. 2a). The final amalgamation of the passive margin 5 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT of the Tarim Craton with the huge accretionary system to the north may have lasted to the end-Permian to early/mid-Triassic (Xiao et al., 2014a; Wei et al., 2014; Yi et al., 2015). The different geological units in Tianshan-Altay were separated by the accretionary complex. 2.1.1.1 Altay orogenic belt

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The orogenic belt includes the Altay arc and Erqis accretionary complex. The most important

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deposits in the Altay arc is the Buerkesidai (No. 1A-2) and Kuoerzhenkuola (1A-3) epithermal gold

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deposits hosted in andesite and andesitic breccia pipes of the Lower Carboniferous Heishantou Formation. These deposits formed in a volcanic arc setting (Shen et al., 2005). The gold mineralization is closely associated with intense hydrothermal alteration within faults. The typical alteration assemblage is quartz+jarosite+alunite+illite+sericite+chlorite+calcite (Zeng et al., 2007). 40

Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 335.53±0.32 Ma and 336.16±0.39 Ma obtained from Buerkesidai

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gold-bearing quartz vein are similar to those of 332.05±2.02 Ma and 332.59±0.51 Ma obtained from

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Kuoerzhenkuola gold-bearing quartz vein, which are all similar to the Rb-Sr isochron age of 343±22 Ma obtained from the hosting volcanic-subvolcanic rocks (Liu et al., 2003). Many orogenic gold deposits (Pirajno et al., 2011; Rui et al., 2002) are located in the Erqis

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accretionary complex which consists of Precambrian high-grade metamorphic basement (gneiss and

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schist), Devonian and Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, and Permian granites (Figs. 2a, 4). The gold deposits in Erqis are hosted in the Devonian sedimentary rocks, controlled by subsidiary faults

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of the NW-trending Erqis fault zone which extends for more than 1000 km into Mongolia and Kazakhstan and can reach width of up to 50 km. These deposits including the Duolanasayi (1A-1), Saidu, Kekesayi, Alatasi, and Mareletie deposits, all of which form a gold belt. The

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Ar/39Ar

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plateau ages of muscovite from the Duolanasayi, Saidu, Kekeasyi, and Alatasi deposits are 293 Ma, 289 Ma, 275 Ma, and 283 Ma, respectively (Yan, S.H. et al., 2004, 2006). 2.1.1.2 West Junggar arc The West Junggar arc contains large epithermal gold deposits and some gold-rich porphyry copper deposits (Shen et al., 2015), represented by the Baogutu (1A-5) porphyry and Hatu (1A-4) epithermal ore deposits. The Baogutu porphyry gold deposit was concomitant with the porphyry copper and antimony mineralization (Shen et al., 2009; An and Zhu, 2010). The Baogutu porphyry gold deposit is hosted in the arc-type tuffs of Baogutu Formation that have SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age of 328–342 Ma (An and Zhu, 2009), and a similar SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age (312–332 Ma) was obtained for the copper-bearing diorite of the Baogutu porphyry copper deposit (Shen et al., 2010b). This indicates that the gold mineralization took place in a slab subduction-related setting. The Hatu orefield contains the Hatu, Qiqiu, Qinyiqiu, and Saourtuhai gold deposits. In the ore deposits, mineralization mainly occurred in quartz veins cutting basaltic (lavas and tuffs) and sedimentary 6 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (siltstone and sandstone) rocks in Carboniferous Tailegula Formation, and to a lesser extent in the altered cataclastic rocks associated with the ENE-trending Anqi and Hatu faults (Shen et al., 2010a). The age of mineralization for the Hatu deposit has been constrained using different methods. Shen et al. (1993) reported the

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Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 308.6 Ma, 333.3 Ma, and 341.6 Ma for the

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auriferous quartz veins. Wang and Zhu, (2007) reported SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age of 328.1±1.8 Ma

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for the host tuff.

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2.1.1.3 East Junggar Arc

The gold deposits in the East Junggar arc are small and can be divided into orogenic, epithermal and gold-rich porphyry types. The orogenic gold deposits include Shuangquan (1A-6), Qingshui (1A-7), Kubusu, and Yemaquan. These deposits were hosted in the Early Paleozoic tuff,

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graywacke and turbidite. The 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of hydrothermal sericites from the Shuangquan orogenic gold deposit range from 269±9 Ma to 260±4 Ma, reflecting a post-collision tectonic

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setting (Lu et al., 2010). The epithermal type comprises Jinshangou (1A-11) and Shuangfengshan (1A-12) deposits, which are hosted in the Late Paleozoic volcanic rocks. The Huangyangshanxi (1A-8) and Weizixia deposits are typical gold-rich porphyry deposits which are hosted in the Late

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Carboniferous intermediate-acid rocks. The LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages of the host granite

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porphyry of the Huangyangshanxi gold-rich porphyry deposit range from 318.4±1.1 Ma to 310.3±2.6 Ma (Xu, B. et al., 2009).

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2.1.1.4 Central Tianshan Arc

This arc possesses the orogenic gold deposits including Kanggur (1A-20), Hongshi and Hongshan (Figs. 2a and 4), which are localized in the EW-trending brittle-ductile shear zones. The

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Kanggur deposit is hosted in the calc-alkaline volcanic series of the Aqishan Formation of Lower Carboniferous, including andesite, dacite, tuff, and sub-volcanic rocks. The orebodies are mainly composed of gold-bearing altered volcanic rocks, with minor sulfide-quartz veins. 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of sericite from several orogenic gold deposits (Kanggur, Hongshi, Hongshan) have shown that the time of ductile shear deformation is between 262.9 and 248.8 Ma, and that of the mineralization between 261 Ma and 252.5 Ma, indicating the gold mineralization is coeval to the shearing in the region (Chen, W. et al., 2007). The epithermal gold deposits in this gold belt include the Shiyingtan (1A-19), Mazhuangshan (1A-23), and Changchengshan deposits. The Shiyingtan (also called Xitan) (e.g., Qin et al., 2002; Zhang, L.C. et al., 2002), an adularia-sericite-type epithermal gold-silver deposit, is hosted in the Late Carboniferous andesite, ignimbrite, and volcanic breccia, in the Carboniferous Yamansu island arc, one constitute of the Central Tianshan arc. This deposit was deduced to form during Late Carboniferous. The Yandong (1A-21) and Tuwu (1A-22) porphyry Cu-Au deposits associated with arc magmatism were generated at 322.7±2.5 Ma (Rui et al., 2002, 7 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Goldfarb et al., 2014). The spatial distribution of porphyry copper-gold, orogenic gold, and epithermal gold in Central Tianshan arc is similar to that in Alaska, where NE-dipping subduction of the Pacific ocean resulted in a transition from orogenic gold to porphyry gold-copper deposits farther away from the trench

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(Goldfarb, 1997). The distribution of gold deposits in Central Tianshan arc also supports the

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interpretation that the subduction polarity was mainly to the north (Xiao et al., 2014a).

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2.1.1.5 North Tianshan accretionary complex

Numerous epithermal gold deposits are located in North Tianshan accretionary complex and hosted in the calc-alkaline volcanic series of Lower Carboniferous Dahalajunshan Formation. Important epithermal gold deposits in the region include the Axi (1A-15), Jinxi-Yelmand, Abiyndi,

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Tulasu, Tuhulasu, Qiabukanzauota, and Tawuerbieke deposits (de Jong et al., 2009). The Axi deposit is now the largest epithermal gold deposit in northern Xinjiang. The Rb-Sr isochron ages of

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auriferous quartz vein (301±29 to 340±8 Ma) (Li et al., 1998), and the SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age of the host dacite (363.2±5.7 Ma) (Zhai, W. et al., 2006b) show that the mineralization formed in the Early Carboniferous in a oceanic slab-subduction tectonic setting (Zhai et al., 2009). Besides, there

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are some small gold-rich porphyry and quartz-vein deposits .

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2.1.1.6 South Tianshan accretionary complex The South Tianshan (Kokshaal–Kumish) gold province extends E-W for more than 3000 km

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from the Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan in the west to the Xinjiang in the east, and is recognized as one of the largest gold provinces on Earth, containing several world-class gold deposits, such as the Muruntau deposit in Uzbekistan (Goldfarb et al., 2001; Wilde et al., 2001;

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Yakubchuk et al., 2002), the Kumtor deposit in Kyrgyzstan (Mao et al., 2004) and the Jilau deposit in Tajikistan (Cole et al., 2000). After the discovery of the Sawaya'erdun (1A-13) (Liu et al., 2007) gold deposit in the early 1990s, the South Tianshan accretionary complex has been proven to have great mineral potential. In fact, the Sawaya'erdun deposit and the Savoyardi deposit in Kyrgyzstan belong to the same gold field, which extends across both sides of the border between two countries (Rui et al., 2002). The Sawaya'erdun (1A-13), together with Dashankou, Bulong and Sahentuohai deposits, is hosted in the Late Silurian, Early Devonian, and Carboniferous turbidites and low-metamorphosed sandstone and siltstone. The distribution of these deposits is controlled by the ENE-trending Sawaya'erdun-Jigen shear zone. The Sawaya'erdun deposit is the largest orogenic gold deposit in the Tian-Altay region. The ore deposit is dominated by the slightly metamorphosed Upper Carboniferous clastic rocks with a few Mesozoic intrusive plutons outcropped (Liu et al., 2007). The

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Ar/39Ar plateau ages of auriferous quartz vein range from 213 to 206 Ma, and the Rb-Sr

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT isochron ages of quartz fluid inclusions are ~206 Ma for the Sawaya'erdun gold deposit (Liu et al., 2007). These ages are similar to the ages of the Dashankou gold deposit (212.59±0.68 to 207.16±0.85 Ma; 40Ar/39Ar of quartz; Liu et al., 2004b), and the Bulong gold deposit (212.18±0.83 Ma;

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Ar/39Ar of quartz; Liu et al., 2004a). These imprecise ages indicates that the Sawaya'erdun

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gold belt was most likely formed during the Late Triassic, similar to the age of the fourth stage

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mineralization of Muruntau (219.4±4.2 Ma; Kotov and Poritskaya, 1992). It was also suggested that

characteristics (Wilde et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2007),. 2.1.1.7 Tectonic setting for gold metallogenesis

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the Sawaya'erdun gold belt and the Muruntau gold deposit are related due to their similar geological

In the Tianshan-Altay, the epithermal gold deposits are spatially associated with the orogenic

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gold deposits and the mineralization ages of the former are mostly older than the latter (Fig. 2a). For example, in the Altay, the epithermal gold deposits, e.g., Buerkesida (1A-2), are mainly formed in

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the Carboniferous (335–332 Ma), while the orogenic gold deposits, e.g., Duonasayi (1A-1), formed mainly in the Permian (292–274 Ma). In the Central Tianshan arc, the Shiyingtan (1A-19) epithermal gold deposit is also formed earlier than the Kanggur (1A-20) orogenic gold deposit

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(261–252 Ma). In East Junggar, the epithermal gold deposits formed mainly in the Carboniferous

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whereas the orogenic gold deposits formed dominantly in the Permian. These data indicate that the orogenic gold deposits may all have formed late in the history of convergent margin settings during

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the syn- or post-collisional stages, which is in contrast to the arc-related epithermal and porphyry mineral deposits that formed during the constructional stage of accretionary orogens (Kerrich et al., 2000a; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Groves and Bierlein, 2007).

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A model for the geodynamic evolution of the Tianshan orogenic belt, as envisaged by Xiao et al. (2004) is used to discuss the tectonic settings of the gold mineralization in the Tianshan-Altay. Since the Late Ordovician-Silurian, north of the Central Tianshan and Tarim, and the central Asian archipelago were characterized by: (a) the Harlik-Dananhu subduction zone with a S-dipping polarity, which created the Harlik arc in the north; (b) southerly N-dipping subduction system beneath the Central Tianshan arc in the middle; and (c) the South Tianshan ocean against Tarim in the south. From the Devonian to Early Carboniferous, N-dipping subduction took place beneath the Dananhu-Harlik arc, giving rise to the Kanggurtag forearc basin/accretionary complex. The southward subduction of Karamay oceanic crust may have generated the epithermal gold deposits in the North Tianshan (i.e., Axi (1A-15)). From the Early to Mid-Carboniferous, the N-dipping subduction of Karamay Ocean beneath the southern Siberian plate may have generated the Sawuer epithermal gold belt (i.e. Buerkesidai (1A-2) in the continental arc, whereas the S-dipping subduction of Karamay Ocean beneath the Dananhu-Harlik arc have yielded the epithermal and 9 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT porphyry gold deposits in West Junggar, i.e., Hatu (1A-4) and Baogutu (1A-5). By the Late Carboniferous, the Dananhu-Harlik arc system was attached northwards to the Angaran margin, resulting in the orogenic gold mineralization in the South Altay (i.e. Duonalasaiyi (1A-1), Saidu, Kekeasyi, Alatasi) from the latest Carboniferous to Early Permian in a post-collisional setting.

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Meanwhile, the continued N-dipping subduction of intervening ocean beneath the Dananhu-Harlik

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arc may have generated the epithermal gold deposits in the Yamansu arc in Central Tianshan (i.e.

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Shiyingtan (1A-19)). From the latest Carboniferous to Early Permian, multiple soft collisions formed a composite suture zone represented by the North Tianshan accretionary complexes that contain ophiolitic fragments (Chung et al., 2005). The orogenic gold deposits in the Karamai gold belt and the Kanggurtag gold belt were formed in a post-collisional setting (i.e. Kanggur (1A-20),

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and Shuangquan (1A-6)).

In summary, the Tian-Altay gold province contains abundant orogenic and epithermal gold

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deposits, with some gold-rich porphyry copper deposits. The orogenic gold deposits are hosted in the slightly metamorphosed clastic rocks or in the volcanic rocks, structurally controlled by shear zones. They formed in three mineralization pulses from the Early Permian (293–275 Ma) in the

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Altay, Late Permian (269–246 Ma) in the Central Tianshan Arc and East Junggar Arc, to Late

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Triassic (213–206 Ma) in the South Tianshan accretionary complex. The epithermal gold deposits are mainly hosted in the volcanic rocks of Early Carboniferous and to a lesser extent in the Permian.

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They formed in two mineralization pulses from Early to Mid-Carboniferous (363–328 Ma) in the Altay, West Junggar, and North Tianshan accretionary complex, to Early Permian (290–270 Ma) in the Central Tianshan Arc. The gold-rich porphyry copper deposits formed during Carboniferous

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(310–332 Ma) in the West Junggar, East Junggar, and Central Tianshan Arc. In Altay and Central Tianshan Arc, the orogenic gold deposits formed later than the epithermal gold or gold-rich porphyry copper deposits in a single belt, which indicates that the orogenic gold deposits, in contrast to arc-related epithermal and porphyry mineral deposits, formed in the late stages during the evolution of convergent tectonics. The orogenic deposits in Altay and Central Tianshan Arc were probably generated at accretionary orogenic stage. In contrast, the orogenic deposits in South Tianshan accretionary complex probably formed in a post-collision stage, considering that the building of the Central Asian orogenic belt was suggested to complete between the end-Permian and mid-Triassic (Buslov et al., 2002; Xiao, W.J. et al., 2009a, 2015). 2.1.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types 2.1.2.1 Orogenic This type of ore deposit is exemplified by the Duolanasayi (1A-1, East Junggar) gold deposit formed at 292.9±1.0 Ma which was obtained from hydrothermal muscovite Ar-Ar age (Yan et al., 10 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2004). This ore deposit is composed of a number of mineralized bodies that occur along a 20-km-long by 10-km-wide zone between the Maerkakuli and Habahe faults near the Kazakhstan border. The lodes cut Middle Devonian graywacke, phyllite, and carbonate near hornfels associated with a series of ca. 290 Ma tonalites (Li et al., 1998). Granodiorite and plagiogranite dikes intruding

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quartz–pyrite–sericite–carbonate–chlorite

alteration

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orogenic

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the tonalite, occur as the footwall or hanging wall to orebodies (Fig. 2c). In addition to a typical assemblage,

skarn-like

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calc-silicate phases occasionally occurs (Rui et al., 2002). The gold occurs both in quartz veins and disseminated within adjacent igneous and metasedimentary country rocks. The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in the Duolanasayi (1A-1, East Junggar) orogenic deposits is mainly in the range of 255–315 °C, with salinity of 4.32–9.86 wt.% NaCl eq

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(Fig. 3a). Fluid inclusions in the ores contain Ca2+, K+, Na+, Mg2+, HCO3-, SO42-, HS-, F-, Cl- and Au+ (maximum: 5.3×10-6), and the fluid was dominated by a H2O-CO2 system (Xiao, H.L. et al.,

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2003). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in the Duolanasayi and Shuanquan (1A-5, East Junggar) orogenic deposits mainly range from 4.61‰ to 12.4‰ and the δD (SMOW) values vary from -104.2‰ to -61.9‰ (Fig. 3b). The δ34S in the pyrite from the Duolanasayi, and

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Shuangquan are -3.8‰ to -2.0‰ (Nie et al., 2012) and 3.76‰ to 10.68‰ (Xu et al., 2010),

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respectively (Fig. 3d).

The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in Kanggur deposit (1A-20, Central

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Tianshan Arc) are mainly in the range of 130–320 °C, with salinity of 8.5–22.5 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 3a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in Kanggur deposit mainly range from 1.21‰ to 5‰ with a minimum -8.34‰ (quartz), concentrating in -2.4‰ to -2.8‰ (dolomite), and the fluid

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δD (SMOW) values vary from -72‰ to -45‰ (Fig. 3b). The δ34S in Kanggur gold deposit are -0.66–4.1‰ for pyrite, -0.9–0.2‰ for galena, -0.3‰ for chalcopyrite (Zhang, L.C. et al., 2003) (Fig. 3d). The fluid inclusions of quartz in Kanggur show intermediate temperature (180–320 °C) and salinity (8.5–17.0 wt.% NaCl eq.), and the fluid is a H2O-CO2-NaCl system. The initial

87

Sr/86Sr

ratios of ores (0.7077–0.7106) in Kanggur are similar to those of the host rock (0.7079–0.7125). The

206

Pb/204Pb,

207

Pb/204Pb and

208

Pb/204Pb for pyrite and galena of ores (18.010–18.190,

15.480–15.583, and 37.860–38.090) in Kanggur are relatively uniform and similar to those of pyrite in andesite and quartz-syenite porphyry (18.049–18.255, 15.459–15.576, and 37.699–38.233). It was proposed that the ore fluids in Kanggur were derived from the mixing of magmatic and meteoric water according to the D-O-Sr isotopic system, and the andesite and porphyry provided main ore materials according to the S, Pb and Sr isotopic compositions (Zhang, L.C. et al., 2003). Hydrothermal fluids at Sawayaerdun (1A-17, South Tianshan accretionary complex) evolved at least through three stages, including an early high-temperature (>300 °C) CO2-rich stage with 11 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT barren quartz formation, a middle reduced medium-temperature (250 °C) stage with pyrite precipitation and mineralization, and a late low-temperature (<200 °C) non-mineralized calcite stage. Fluids trapped in early-stage quartz have a δ18OH2O range of 13.6–15.4‰, δD of -75–-48‰, δ13C of 0.5–4.2‰, and δ30Si of -0.2–0‰. In contrast, isotopic compositions of fluids entrapped in

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middle-stage quartz have δ18OH2O values of 6.7–14.7‰, δD of -110–-56‰, δ13C of 0.4–10.1‰, and 18

O and

13

C-rich fluids are probably derived from metamorphic

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isotopic values. The early-stage,

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δ30Si of -0.3–0‰. Diagenetic and hydrothermal pyrites have similar sulfur (-1.8–0.9‰) and Pb

decarbonation of the sedimentary rock at depth, leading to the precipitation of early barren quartz veins. In the middle stage, a decrease in the regional pressure and temperature regime could have resulted in the incorporation of external fluids into the ore-forming system. These external fluids

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with isotopic signatures similar to that of the host rock and generally rich in 34S and radiogenic Pb mixed with original ore fluids to generate extensive metal precipitation. Late-stage fluids show

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isotopic compositions similar to meteoric water (Chen et al., 2012). 2.1.2.2 Porphyry

This type of ore deposit is represented by the Baogutu (1A-5) gold deposit, which occurs to the

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southeast of the Darbut fault. The wall rocks of the deposit vary from Late Carboniferous intrusions

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to Lower Carboniferous volcanic-sedimentary rocks. The Baogutu gold deposit consists of ca. 20 orebodies, each of which contains several ore lodes. These lodes are NE-striking, mostly dipping

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70–85° to NW. Most of the lodes are less than 100 m in length (the maximum is up to 520 m) and 0.5–1.2 m in thickness. The ore lodes are mainly quartz veins and quartz stockworks, which are considered as the upper vein part in a porphyry ore system. The dominant sulfide minerals are

et al., 2015).

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pyrite and arsenopyrite. Gold mainly occurs as electrum, native gold, and rarely aurostibite (Zheng

The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in Baogutu deposit (1A-5, West Junggar) are mainly in the range of 240–510 °C, with salinity of 6.88–8.0 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 3a). The fluid inclusions changed from a high halite CH4-rich system to low halite CH4+CO2 system (Shen et al., 2010b). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in Baogutu concentrate between 3.2‰ and 3.8‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values mainly range from -98.2‰ to -74.8‰. The δ34S in the Baogutu (1A-5, West Junggar) is -0.4–0.2‰ for pyrite and -2.4–0.4‰ for chalcopyrite (Shen et al., 2012). 207

The

Pb

isotopes

Pb/204Pb=15.45–15.62, and

of 208

sulfides

were

tested

to

be

206

Pb/204Pb=17.92–18.89,

Pb/204Pb=37.68–38.36. The D-O isotope for quartz and S-Pb

isotope for sulfides from Baogutu indicate that the ore constituents were mainly derived from the mantle-derived magma (Shen et al., 2012). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in Tuwu (1A-22, Central Tianshan) mainly 12 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT range from -5.37‰ to -2.01‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values mainly from -63‰ to -45‰. It suggests the participation of meteoric water in ore fluid (Fig. 3b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Tuwu are mainly from 6.17‰ to 15.34‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite mostly from -6.2‰ to -0.7‰ (Fig. 3c). In the Tuwu deposit, the δ34S is -0.5–1.3‰ for pyrite and

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-0.9–0.2‰ for chalcopyrite (Han et al., 2006) (Fig. 3d), implying the metal may be derived from the

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mantle-derived magma.

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2.1.2.3 Epithermal

The epithermal type is exemplified by the Axi (1A-15) gold deposit, the largest of this type in Tianshan-Altay. The main rocks exposed at Axi are intermediate to felsic lavas with related pyroclastic rocks of the Dahalajunshan Formation. Hydrothermal alteration shows a clear zoning,

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changing outward from the center of the quartz veins, and grading from a zone of silicification through a zone of phyllic alteration into a zone with propylitic alteration (Fig. 2b). Three types of

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Au ore are documented, including the quartz vein type, altered rock type and breccia type. The Au ores are characterized by crustiform texture, showing an open-space filling process. Ore minerals mainly include pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena. Gold mainly occurs as

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and laumontite (Zhao et al., 2014).

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electrum with minor native gold. Gangue minerals are quartz, chalcedony, sericite, calcite, adularia,

The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in Axi deposit (1A-15, North Tianshan)

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are mainly in the range of 120–240 °C, and their salinity are 0.3–10.4 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 3a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids range from -1.8‰ to 0.4‰, the δD (SMOW) values are from -116‰ to -98‰ (Fig. 3b), and the 3He/4He values of fluid inclusions in pyrite are 0.022–0.138

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R/Ra, suggesting that the ore fluids were meteoric in origin (Yang, F.Q. et al., 2009). The δ34S in pyrite from Axi vary from -4.0‰ to 3.1‰ (Zhai et al., 2009). The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions from another epithermal deposit, i.e., Shiyingtan (1A-19, Central Tianshan), are mainly in the range of 108.4–190.5 °C, with salinity of 9.18–19.24 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 3a). The δ34S in pyrite from Shiyingtan, Buerkesidai (1A-2, Altay), Hatu (1A-4, West Junggar) vary from 1.09‰ to 1.33‰ (Cai et al., 1997), 0.4‰ to 2.8‰ (Zeng et al., 2007), -0.52‰ to 0.85‰ (Wang and Zhu, 2006), respectively (Fig. 3d). He and Ar isotopes for fluid inclusions in pyrites in Kuoerzhenkuola (1A-3, Altay) and Buerkesidai produce 40Ar/36Ar and 3He/4He ratios in the range of 282–525 and 0.6–9.4 R/Ra, respectively, indicating a mixed source of deep-seated magmatic water (mantle fluid) and meteoric water (Zeng et al., 2007). 2.2 Northeast China (1B) 2.2.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The Northeast China region comprises four important blocks: Erguna, Xing’an, Songliao, and 13 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Jiamusi (Fig. 5a). It has been suggested that the Erguna block collided with the Xing’an block in Early Paleozoic, and that they further welded with Songliao block in Late Paleozoic (Wu et al., 2011). The allochthonous Erguna, Xing’an, and Songliao blocks collided with the North China Craton at ca. 230 Ma (Zhou and Wilde, 2013), and the Jiamusi block rifted away and re-assembled

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with the CAOB from 210 to 180 Ma (Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Ouyang et al., 2015). Subsequently,

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the NE China combined blocks was subducted by the Izanagi plate in Jurassic to Cretaceous. The Range, Lesser Xing’an Range and Yanbian-Dongning. 2.2.1.1 Erguna

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gold deposits in the northeastern China form well defined belts including Erguna, Greater Xing’an

The Erguna block mainly consists of Early-Middle Jurassic (200-160 Ma) granitoids with

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minor Early Paleozoic (~490 Ma) and Early Cretaceous (~130 Ma) ones, most of which have intruded into Precambrian rocks (Fig. 5a) (Wu et al., 2011). Early Paleozoic granitoids that mainly

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occur along the suture between the Erguna and Xing'an blocks formed in a post-orogenic setting; whereas the Jurassic granitoids are related to the southward slab subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean beneath the Erguna, and the Early Cretaceous granitoids are related to the reactivation of the

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previously thickened lithosphere as the Izanagi slab subducted.

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The Erguna has long been an important placer gold producer in China. Recently, many more gold deposits have been discovered, e.g. Shabaosi (1B-1) (Fig. 5a). Wu et al. (2007) studied the

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characteristics of fluid inclusions in the gold deposits in Erguna and considered these deposits as orogenic gold deposits. The

40

Ar/39Ar age of auriferous quartz veinlets from the Shabaosi gold

deposit is 130.1±1.3 Ma (Liu et al., 2014). The Shabaosi gold deposit is hosted in the clastic rocks

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of Middle Jurassic and may have formed during the Early Cretaceous. These gold deposit could form in a post-collisional setting after the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean was closed in the Middle Jurassic (Kravchinsky et al., 2002; Tomurtogoo et al., 2005). 2.2.1.2 Greater Xing’an Range The Greater Xing'an Range stretches in NE direction in the Xing’an Block, and exposes Early Paleozoic limestone and Late Paleozoic clastic sediments, Ordovician island arc igneous rocks, and voluminous Mesozoic volcanic rocks and granitoids. The Ordovician island arc igneous rocks are present mainly in the Duobaoshan area and were associated with the Duobaoshan (1B-3) porphyry Cu-Au mineralization related to the arc magmatism (Ge et al., 2007), with formation ages of 482–468 Ma (Pyrite and chalcopyrite Re-Os) and 485.6±3.7 Ma (Molybdenite Re-Os) (Liu et al., 2012). This area is notably characterized by abundant Late Mesozoic volcanic rocks (Zhang, J.H. et al., 2008), which is the main host for the epithermal gold deposits, such as the Zhengguang (1B-4) and Pangkaimeng (1B-2) deposits. 14 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2.2.1.3 Lesser Xing’an Range Lesser Xing’an Range is distributed within the Songliao Block. The gold deposits in this range include the large Dong’an (1B-6), Tuanjiegou (1B-7) and Pingdingshan epithermal gold deposits and some small ones (Qi, J.P. et al., 2005). Among the 14 gold orebodies in the Dong’an, eight are

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hosted in rhyolitic lavas, five are hosted in rhyolitic porphyry dykes, and only one is hosted in the

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underlying Triassic alkali-feldspar granite (Zhang et al., 2010). Zhang et al. (2010) reported a sericite 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 107.2±0.6 Ma, and a zircon SHRIMP age of 108.1±2.4 Ma for the

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hosted rhyolitic porphyry. They suggested that the Dong’an gold deposit formed in the Early Cretaceous during the subduction of the Izanagi plate. In the Tuanjiegou epithermal deposit, mineralized veins and breccias cut a ca. 110 Ma granodiorite porphyry (Goldfarb et al., 2014),

2.2.1.4 Yanbian-Dongning Yanbian-Dongning

ore

belt,

distributed

in

the

Jiamusi

Block,

contains

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The

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indicating the age of gold mineralization in Tuanjiegou is possibly coeval to that in Dong’an.

porphyry-epithermal gold deposits (Fig. 5a). The Xiaoxinancha (1B-10) is a typical Au-rich porphyry Cu deposit with molybdenite Re-Os isochron age of 111.1±3.1 Ma (Sun et al., 2008). The

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host rock is the Early Cretaceous monzogranites and granodiorite, with SHRIMP zircon U-Pb ages

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of 111.7 to 104.6 Ma. The Jinchang (1B-9) gold deposit is mainly hosted in breccia pipes and widely referred to as breccia-pipe type gold deposit in China. However, some researchers believed

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that the Jinchang deposit is a part of porphyry ore system (Qi, J.P. et al., 2005; Ge et al., 2009). 2.2.1.4 Tectonic settings for the ore deposits In summary, the Xing’an-Mongolia gold province contains orogenic, epithermal, and porphyry

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(or porphyry-epithermal) gold deposits. The orogenic gold deposits are mainly distributed in the Erguna block and may have formed during the Late Jurassic in a post-collisional setting after the Mongol-Okhotsk ocean was closed in Middle Jurassic. The epithermal and porphyry gold deposits mainly occur in the Greater Xing’an Range, Lesser Xing’an Rang and Yanbian-Dongning belts; they formed during the Early Cretaceous in an intracontinental setting during the subduction of Izanagi plate. 2.2.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types 2.2.2.1 Orogenic The orogenic mineral system is exemplified by the Shabaosi (1B-1, Erguna) gold deposit, which is located in the Erguna metallogenic belt. The deposit is strictly controlled by the E-W trending Luoguhe-Ergenhe and NNE trending Ergunahe ductile shear zones. Orebodies are hosted in subsidiary fractures of the two ductile shear zones. Silicification, pyritization, and argillation are extensively distributed in the deposit. Fluid inclusions in quartz can be classified into aqueous 15 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT two-phase, CO2 bearing three-phase and pure CO2 types. The vapor-phase is mainly composed of H2O, CO2, and N2, with minors of H2S, CH4 (Wu et al., 2007). Fluid inclusion studies indicate that the ore fluids belong to a H2O–NaCl–CO2–CH4 system, with salinities between 0.83 and 8.28 wt.% NaCl eq. and homogenization temperatures from 180 to 320 °C. The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of

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the ore fluids in Shabaosi range from 7.1‰ to 12.6‰ and the δD (SMOW) values vary from -104‰

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to -95‰ (Fig. 3b). The δ34S in pyrite from Shabaosi vary widely from -8.3‰ to 5.6‰ concentrating in 3.03‰ to 5.6‰ (Fig. 3d) (Song, B.L. et al., 2007). The Pb isotope compositions of sulfides are 207

Pb/204Pb, and 38.149–38.509 for

208

206

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characterized by a narrow range of ratios: 18.289–18.517 for

Pb/204Pb, 15.548–15.625 for

Pb/204Pb. These results were interpreted by that the ore

fluids/materials were mainly of magmatic origin and the metal-carrying magmas produced by

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partial melting of the lower crust (Liu et al., 2014). 2.2.2.2 Porphyry

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This type of ore deposit includes the Duobaoshan (1B-3, Greater Xing’an Range) Cu–Au–Mo deposit. The country rock at Duobaoshan comprises a sequence of arc-like, alkalic to calc-alkalic, andesitic to dacitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Ordovician Duobaoshan Formation,

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overlain by Silurian sedimentary rocks (Fig. 5b). A large number of lenticular mineralized zones

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were comprised within two strongly altered, lens-like, NW-striking granodiorite porphyries. The ore minerals include pyrite, cuprite and covellite (Seltmann et al., 2014). The ore fluid belongs to the

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H2O-CO2-NaCl system (Liu et al., 2012). The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in the three porphyry deposits including Duobaoshan (1B-3), Jinchang (1B-9), and Xiaoxinancha (1B-10) range widely in 116–600 °C, with salinity of 0.8–73.96 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 3a). The δ18OH2O

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(SMOW) values of the ore fluids in the porphyry ore deposit mainly range from -1.2‰ to 10.06‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values from -99‰ to -38‰ for the ore deposits including Zhengguang (1B-4), Jinchang and Xiaoxinancha (Fig. 3b). 2.2.2.3 Epithermal The Tuanjiegou (1B-7, Lesser Xing’an Range) is a large breccia-hosted epithermal gold deposit. The outcropped units in the deposit are the Late Paleozoic greenschists, Early Cretaceous intermediate–felsic volcanics, Late Cretaceous clastic rocks, and a Mesozoic granite complex. The orebodies were mainly developed in an apophysis of the granite complex occurred in the NWW-trending fault zone, with some mineralization within a contact zone between the granite porphyry apophysis and greenschist (Fig. 5c). The majority of mineralization within the orebody is present as gold-bearing chalcedony, which can be split into quartz–pyrite and carbonate–pyrite types of ore, and as gold-bearing colloidal chalcedony, which can be split into quartz–stibnite and sulfide-rich types. The ore contains pyrite, with minor stibnite, marcasite, and native gold (Sun, J.G. 16 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT et al., 2013). The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in the epithermal deposits are mainly in the range of 119–396 °C, with salinity of 0.3–13.11 wt.% NaCl eq. for the five deposits including Pangkaimen (1B-2), Zhengguang (1B-4), Tuanjiegou (1B-7) etc. (Fig. 3a). The δ18O (SMOW)

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values of calcite in Pangkaimen (1B-2, Greater Xing’an Range), mainly range from -1.92‰ to

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-0.97‰, with a maximum 10.29‰, and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite mainly range from -7.94‰ to -7.03‰ (Fig. 3c). The δ34S in pyrite from Pangkaimen ranges from 1.5‰ to 4.6‰ (Xu et al.,

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1987). The δ34S data in Tuanjiegou is relatively uniform, mostly centering to zero (-1.2‰ to -0.4‰ for pyrite and -3.1‰ to -2.6‰ for stibnite) except some data in marcasite (-33.6‰ to -3.5‰) (Li, J.Q. et al., 2008), which possibly may be due to the involvement of organic matters in the

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ore-forming process (Fig. 3d). The majority of the O-C-S isotopic data imply that the ore fluid was mostly the magmatic hydrothermal.

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3. North China Craton

The North China Craton (NCC) consists of the Western and Eastern Blocks that are separated by the Trans-North China Orogen formed during collision between the two blocks at ca. 1.85 Ga

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(Fig. 6) (Zhao et al., 2001; Yang and Santosh, 2014, 2015). Recent studies suggest that the NCC is a

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collage of Archean microblocks which were assembled into larger crustal crustal blocks during the Archean – Paleoproterozoic transition (Yang et al., 2015). The basement of the NCC is dominated

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by Mesoarchean to early Paleoproterozoic amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphic rocks consisting of tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite gneiss, migmatite, amphibolite, ultramafic bodies, banded iron formations and minor amounts of supracrustal rocks (Zhao et al., 2001; Santosh et al.,

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2010, 2013; Zhai, 2014; Wang et al., 2012). From Late Paleoproterozoic to Paleozoic, the NCC witnessed almost continuous deposition of shallow-marine carbonate (Qu et al., 2014). The southern and northern margins of the NCC have been affected by multiple Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic orogenic events. On the northern margin of the NCC, the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean during the Late Permian has led to the eruption of a large volume of Late Carboniferous-Permian volcanic rocks, and continued convergence from the north during the Triassic to early Jurassic induced thrusting and considerable crustal thickening (Xiao, W.J. et al., 2003). The Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogenic belt extending for 1500 km along strike flanks the southern margin of the NCC (Fig. 6). This orogenic belt formed in response to Late Paleozoic arc accretion and the Triassic collision between the Yangtze and North China cratons and subsequent continental subduction (Dong et al., 2011; Zhu, G. et al., 2010). The Western block has remained stable since the Paleoproterozoic and is characterized by a thick mantle root (150–200 km), low heat flow, and little internal deformation or magmatism 17 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (Santosh, 2010). In sharp contrast, the Eastern block has thin lithosphere (60–120 km) and high heat flow, and contains numerous Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous intrusions (Wu et al., 2005; Chen, B. et al., 2008; Pei et al., 2011) (Fig. 6). Multidisciplinary observations suggest that the NCC was tectonically reactivated since the Mesozoic after prolonged stabilization (Zhu, R.X. et al., 2011;

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Zhai, M.G.., 2014). Peridotite xenoliths from Middle Ordovician kimberlites confirm that the NCC

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had a thick (ca. 200 km), ancient, refractory lithosphere root in the early Paleozoic (Fan, W.M. et al.,

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2000). In contrast, mantle xenoliths sampled by Meso-Cenozoic kimberlites and Cenozoic basalts reveal thin (80–120 km), hot, and fertile lithosphere beneath the eastern NCC (Fan, W.M. et al., 2000). Early Cretaceous intracontinental rift basins mostly containing voluminous bimodal volcanic rocks are well developed over the Eastern block (Ren et al., 2002; Zhu, G et al., 2010). In addition,

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a number of metamorphic core complexes spatially related to the rift basins formed in the early Cretaceous constrained by the Ar-Ar dating of the kinematic micas (142.81±1.43 Ma to

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127.73±1.34 Ma) (Fig. 6; Davis et al., 2002; Liu, X.D. et al., 2005). It was considered that the a significant loss or destruction of the ancient lithosphere beneath the craton dominantly occurred in Cretaceous (Yang, J.H. et al., 2008; Li et al., 2012a; Li and Santosh, 2014; Yang, Q.Y. et al., 2014).

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The gold deposits in the NCC are mainly clustered into three areas, i.e., the northern margin,

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Jiaodong, and the Xiaoqinling (including the Xiong’ershan area), and most deposits in these areas were formed in Early Cretaceous. Most of the gold deposits located in the craton have long been

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referred to as greenstone belt type gold deposits (Zhai et al., 2002; Deng et al., 2003b). Such interpretation has been challenged recently because the host rocks of these deposits are high-grade metamorphic rocks, not the low-grade greenschist facies rocks that characterized the greenstone belt

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type deposits. More importantly, most of these gold deposits have Phanerozoic mineralization ages (Supplementary Table 1), which may be attributed to the orogenic overprinting such as the Permian closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean between the NCC and the Siberian Craton, the Triassic collision between the NCC and Yangtze Craton, and the Jurassic-Cretaceous subduction of the Pacific Ocean beneath the Eurasian continent. 3.1 northern margin of North China Craton (2A) 3.1.1 Spatial-temporal distribution A 1500 km-long EW-trending gold belt in the northern margin of the NCC hosts a gold resource approaching 1000 t Au (Hart et al., 2002). Several hundred individual deposits and occurrences formed as the result of multiple orogenic events (Wang, W. et al., 2015). Most deposits are hosted within Precambrian metamorphic rocks, but a certain proportion (~30%) is within Paleozoic or Mesozoic intrusions (Cook et al., 2009). The gold deposits in the northern margin of the NCC can be grouped into five districts including Daqingshan, Zhangjiakou, Yanshan, West 18 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Liaoning, and Changbaishan from west to east (Fig. 7a). 3.1.1.1 Daqingshan The Daqingshan gold district contains Hadamengou (2A-1) (Hart et al., 2002) superlarge deposit and many medium to small deposits, such as the Saiyinwusu, Shibaqinghao, Houshihua,

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Wachanggou, Gongyiming, Laoyanghao, Hijigou, and Nalinggou (Fig. 7a). They are mainly hosted

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in the amphibolites and gneisses of the Late Archean Wulashan Group. The Hadamengou deposit,

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with gold reserve greater than 100 t, is located about 15 km west of Baotou city, Inner Mongolia and was controlled by the EW-trending ductile-brittle faults. The Dahuabei granitic pluton, located west of the Hadamengou deposit, is the main intrusion which is composed of biotite granite and K-feldspar granite with the SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age of 353±7 Ma (Miao et al., 2000). The

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orebodies are mainly composed of auriferous quartz veins with minor auriferous K-alteration rocks. Nie et al. (2005) reported the sericite 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 240 Ma for auriferous quartz veins.

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3.1.1.2 Zhangjiakou

The Zhangjiakou gold district occurs within the Shuiquangou syenite-monzonite complex, which intruded into the migmatite, gneiss, amphibolite of the Late Archean Sanggan Group and has

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a crystallization age of 390±6 Ma based on the SHRIMP zircon U-Pb data (Miao et al., 2002). In

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addition, the Guzuizi and Shangshuiquan monzogranite plutons are present south of the Shuiquangou pluton. They were emplaced much later at 236±2 Ma and 142.5±1.3 Ma based on the

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SHRIMP zircon U-Pb data, respectively (Miao et al., 2002). Most of the gold deposits in the region (i.e., Xiaoyinpan (2A-4)) are hosted in the Sanggan Group. The only exception is the Dongping (2A-4) deposit which is hosted in the Shuiquangou syenite-monzonite complex and was once

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considered to be a intrusion-related gold deposit (Hart et al., 2002). Bao et al. (2014) reported the hydrothermal zircon U-Pb age of 389±1.0 Ma for the Dongping deposit. Mao et al., (2003b) studied the fluid inclusions and noble gas of Dongping deposit and suggested that the ore fluids may have derived from the mantle. 3.1.1.3 Yanshan The Yanshan gold district, 150 km northeast of Beijing, contains the Jinchangyu (2A-7) and Yuerya (2A-8) large gold deposits with some medium to small gold deposits. The Jinchangyu and Yuerya gold deposits are hosted in the late Archean metamorphic rocks and early Proterozoic phyllite and schist, respectively. The Qingshankou granitic pluton, located about 3 km west of the Jinchangyu deposit, was emplaced at 199±2 Ma based on the SHRIMP zircon U-Pb data (Luo et al., 2001a), and the Yuerya granite, located at the Yuerya deposit, was emplaced at 175±1 Ma dated by SHRIMP U-Pb method (Luo et al., 2001b). Seven molybdenite samples from Jinchangyu yield Re-Os model ages of 233 to 219 Ma with a weighted mean age of 225±4 Ma and an isochron age of 19 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 223±5 Ma (Song et al., 2014). The zircon fission-track dating age of Yuerya deposit is 200–115 Ma (Tang et al., 2003). The formation ages of the Jinchangyu and Yuerya gold deposits are similar to those of Qingshankou and Yuerya granitic plutons (Table 1). 3.1.1.4 West Liaoning

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The gold district in West Liaoning contains Jinchanggouliang (2A-9) and Paishanlou (2A-10)

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large deposits and many smaller gold deposits including the Honghuagou, Lianhuashan, and Shuiquan. The regional magmatism lasted from Triassic to Cretaceous (Miao et al., 2003; Luo et al., 40

Ar/39Ar ages of biotite from the NNE-trending ductile shear zone and K-feldspar

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2001c). The

from gold-bearing altered rocks in the Paishanlou deposit are 126.6±1.1 Ma (Zhang, X.H. et al., 2005) and 116.7±1.2 Ma (Wang, R.H. et al., 2008), respectively, most likely suggesting a coeval

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shearing and mineralization in Cretaceous. 3.1.1.5 Changbaishan

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The Changbaishan gold district, located in eastern Liaoning and southern Jilin provinces, contains the Jiapigou (2A-11) superlarge goldfield, as well as the large Maoling, Wulong (2A-13), and Xiaotongjiapuzi (2A-12) gold deposits (Fig. 7a). In the Jiapigou goldfield, there are many felsic,

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alkaline, and mafic dikes that occur in the same fault system as the gold lodes and locally host gold

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mineralization. The SHRIMP zircon U-Pb ages for these dykes are ~220 Ma (Miao et al., 2005). Luo et al., (2002) reported the sericite

40

Ar/39Ar plateau age of 204.0±0.5 Ma from Jiapigou.

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Different ages are obtained for Wulong (112.2±3.2 Ma by quartz Rb-Sr) deposit and Xiaotongjiapuzi (167±2 Ma by sercite Ar-Ar) gold deposit (Table 1). 3.1.1.6 Metallogenesis and associated regional tectonic evolution

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There are four pulses of magmatic events in the northern margin of NCC at 390–353 Ma, 236–218 Ma, 199–161 Ma, and 143–125 Ma. The 390–353 Ma magmatic event, represented by the Shuiquangou syenite-monzonite in Dongping deposit and the Dahuabei granite in Daqingshan, may have formed in response to the arc accretion to the northern margin of the NCC. The 236–218 Ma magmatic event represented by the Guzuizi monzogranite in Dongping and the igneous dikes in Jiapigou (2A-11), may have formed during post-collisional stage following the closure of Central Paleo-Asian Ocean. The 199–161 Ma magmatic event represented by the Qingshankou granite in Jinchangyu (2A-7), the Yuerya granite in Yuerya (2A-8), the Loushang quartz diorite in Jinchanggouliang, may have formed at a post-orogenic stage. The 143–125 Ma magmatic event represented by the Shangshuiquan monzogranite in Dongping (2A-4), which temporally coincided with the widespread Cretaceous magmatism in eastern China, has been considered to be related to the lithosphere thinning (Miao et al., 2002; Deng, J.F. et al., 2004; Deng et al., 2009b). Therefore, the last three pulses of gold mineralization, i.e., 240–204 Ma, 192–167 Ma, 127–117 Ma, 20 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT correspond to the post-collisional stage, post-orogenic stage, and lithospheric thinning processes, respectively. 3.1.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types 3.1.2.1 Orogenic

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This type of ore deposit is exemplified by the Jiapigou (2A-11) gold deposit, which occurs on

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the southwestern side of the Jiapigou granitic-greenstone belt, located in a zone of late subsidiary

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fault to the Jiapigou shear zone. Gold-bearing quartz veins are the dominant ore type, accounting for more than 85% of the total gold reserve. The wallrocks are dominated by greenstones (metamorphosed basic volcanics) and the TTG. Felsic dykes, quartz syenite porphyry dykes, diabase dykes, and lamprophyre dykes are also intimately related to the gold mineralization whereby

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gold-bearing quartz veins generally occur along the contacts between the syenite porphyry and felsic dykes with the country rocks (Deng et al., 2014c). Fluid inclusions in pyrite for the Jiapigou 40

Ar/36Ar ratios range from 1444 to 9805,

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have 3He/4He ratios of 0.6 to 2.5 Ra, whereas their

indicating a dominantly mantle fluid with a small crustal component (Zeng et al., 2014). Fluid inclusions from all the orogenic ore deposits in the northern margin of NCC show varied

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homogenization temperatures between 240 and 400 °C, and are consistently characterized by low

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salinity, H2O–CO2±CH4, N2 solutions (Hart et al., 2002). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) of the ore fluids mainly range from -2.09‰ to 8.2‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values from -108.6‰ to -70‰ for

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the five deposits including Hadamengou (2A-1, Daqingshan), Xiaoyingpan (2A-3), and Yuerya (2A-8, Yanshan), etc. (Fig. 8b). In the δ18OH2O vs. δD diagram, some data are near the meteoric water line which indicates the part of ore fluid was largely mixed by meteoric water. The δ18O

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(SMOW) values of calcite and ankerite in Hadamengou range from 3.59‰ to 12.87‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of the minerals range from -4‰ to -3.2‰ (Fig. 8c). The δ34S in Hadamengou, Yuerya, Xiaotongjiapuzi (2A-12, West Liaoning), Jiapigou (2A-11) are from -18.3‰ to 18.5‰ (Zhang et al., 2011), 1.6‰ to 4.5‰ (Wang, Z.L. et al., 2008), 6.3‰ to 16‰ (Zhang, S. et al., 2012), and -0.2‰ to 12.6‰ (Miao et al., 2005) respectively. The data suggest that sulfur in the orogenic deposits is of multi-source with the involvement of organic matter and other regional crustal rocks locally (Fig. 8d). 3.1.2.2 Jiaodong-type This type of ore deposit is introduced by the Dongping (2A-4) and Hougou(2A-5) deposits. The Dongping gold deposit, hosting a series of parallel, commonly en echelon auriferous quartz vein swarms and quartz–K-feldspar veinlets within syenite occurring along 0–35° striking and 45–75° NW dipping fault zones (Fig. 7b). The veins are enveloped by altered wallrock, dominated by intense K-feldspar alteration with thickness from centimeter to meter scale. The immediate host 21 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT rocks also contain quartz, calcite, chlorite, epidote and fluorapatite (Cook et al., 2009). The composition of fluids in the Dongping deposit was mainly CO2 and H2O with lesser H2S and N2. The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in Dongping are mainly in the range of 255–375 °C, with salinity of 5–7 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 8a). The 3He/4He ratios for fluid inclusions

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of ore-stage pyrites in Dongping are 2.1–5.2 Ra for orebody 1 and 0.3–0.8 Ra for orebody 70,

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which were interpreted to reflect different mantle helium abundance in ore fluid (Mao et al.,

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2003b). The Hougou deposit lies within a potassic alteration zone within a Variscan syenite, with mineralization controlled by fractures. The limits between ore and waste are defined solely on chemical basis (Cook et al., 2009). The orebodies display shallow inclination, and unlike Dongping, Archean rocks are abundant in the mine (Fig. 7c).

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In thee northern margin of NCC, the δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from -1.7‰ to 8.15‰ with a minimum -13.2‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values from -101.9‰ to

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-62‰ for the Dongping (2A-4, Zhangjiakou), Jinchanggouliang (2A-9), Paishanlou (2A-10), and Wulong (2A-13) (Fig. 8b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite mainly range from 7.33‰ to 15.60‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values are between -4.3‰ and -3.18‰ for Dongping and

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Jinchanggouliang deposits (Fig. 8c). The δ34S data in pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite

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from Dongping are -13.4‰ to 0.5‰, -6.9‰ to -6.7‰, -13.6‰ to -8.2‰, and -10.3‰ to -7.8‰ respectively (Nie, 1998). The δ34S data in Jinchanggouliang and Paishanlou from West Liaoning are

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between 0.6‰ and 4.3‰ (Sun et al., 2014) and 0.3‰ to 7.5‰ (Zhang, X.H. et al., 2005) (Fig. 8d). It means that the ore materials are miscellaneous for the Jiaodong-type ore deposits. 3.2 Jiaodong (2B)

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3.2.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The Jiaodong gold province is located in the eastern Jiaodong Peninsula, eastern China, and is the largest producer in China (Fig. 9a). It is bound by the N- to NE-trending Tan-Lu fault zone to the west and the Su-Lu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt to the south. The total proven gold reserve exceeding 2000 t, accounts for more than 25% of the total proven gold reserve in China. The basement of the Jiaodong gold province mainly consists of the Neoarchean and younger tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) gneisses (Jiaodong Group), and Paleoproterozoic (Fenzishan/Jinshan Group) and Neoproterozoic (Penglai Group) metasedimentary sequences (Fig. 9a) (e.g., Tang et al., 2007). The regional granitoids were generated episodically at ca. 225–205, 160–150, 130–126, and 125–90 Ma; the first bodies are mantle-derived syenite-granitic complex (i.e., Shidao) formed during the collision of the NCC and Yangtze Craton (Chen et al., 2003), the second type of intrusions are mainly monzogranites and biotite granites (i.e., Linglong) derived by partial melting of Neoarchean lower-crustal rocks (Wang, L.G. et al., 1998; Hou, Z.Q. et al., 2007), 22 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the third are porphyritic granodiorites (i.e., Guojialing) formed by the mixing of melt derived from delaminated eclogitic lower crust with upwelling asthenospheric mantle (Wang, L.G. et al., 1998; Hou, Z.Q. et al., 2007), whereas the last type are alkaline granitoids (i.e., Weideshan) and mafic dikes formed by crustal-mantle mixing due to the lithospheric thinning (Yang et al., 2003; Guo et al.,

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2005; Qiu et al., 2014; Yang, Q.Y. et al., 2014). Contemporaneous to the mineralization, the

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OIB-like and arc-like mafic dikes intruded at about 120 Ma (Ma et al., 2014).

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The majority of deposits are hosted by the NE-trending ductile-brittle faults traversing the Linglong, Guojialing granitoids and, less commonly, the basement rocks (Fig. 9a) (Deng et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2016a, 2016b). These NE-trending faults are evenly distributed, at a spacing of about 35 km, and are parallel to each other. From west to east, they are defined as the Sanshandao, Jiaojia,

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Zhaoping, Qixia, Muping-Jimo, and Mouru faults, which are associated with nearly 90% of the defined gold resource on the Jiaodong Peninsula. The NW-trending faults, locally distributed in the

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Jiaodong, often cut the orebodies and were generated after the gold mineralization (Yang et al., 2013). Gold mineralization occurs either as extensional massive gold-quartz-pyrite veins (Linglong-type) that can continue for more than 1 km along strike or as shear zone-hosted

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disseminated sulfides in fractured granitoids (Jiaojia-type) in the northwestern part of Jiaodong

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(Deng et al., 2000, 2004; Yang et al., 2006). The spatial occurrence of mineralization was partly controlled by the water-rock reaction during alteration and mineralization (Yang L. et al., 2015).

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Along the northern periphery of the Jiaolai basin, several gold deposits developed in brecciated Paleoproterozoic metamorphic rocks or in Cretaceous sediments of the Jiaolai basin, which are best represented by the Pengjiakuang deposit (Pengjiakuang-type) (Li, J.W. et al., 2006). Gold 40

Ar/39Ar dating of sericite from the ores

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mineralization mainly developed at 120±10 Ma by

(Supplementary Table 1), although there are a few possible outliers at ca. 108 Ma (Li, J.W. et al., 2006) dated by 40Ar/39Ar of sericite and SHRIMP U-Pb zircon on host rocks at the Rushan (2B-16) deposit.

3.2.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of Jiaodong-type deposits The features of the ore deposit are represented by the Dayingezhuang (2B-12), Xincheng (2B-4), and Pengjiakuang (2B-14) deposits. The Dayingezhuang gold deposit is located about 18 km southwest to the Zhaoyuan city and in the middle of the Zhaoping Fault (Deng et al., 2011a). The hanging wall of the Zhaoping fault zone is composed of Jiaodong group metamorphic rocks (Fig. 9d), and the footwall is Linglong granite. Rocks at the hanging wall of the Zhaoping fault zone are characterized by carbonatization, chloritization, and by weak silicification and gold mineralization, with gold grades less than 0.10 g/t. Orebodies are confined in the footwall of the Zhaoping fault zone, and mineralization steadily extends downwards (Wang et al., 2010a, 2010b). The orebodies 23 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT were mainly developed in pyritized, sericitized and silicified granitic rocks, with different degrees of fracturing (Deng et al., 2009a). The control of attitude change of the fault on the mineralization degree can be well illustrated. The compression-shear sense suppresses the mineralization, and the extension-shear part facilitates the development of huge orebody.

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The Xincheng (2B-4) gold deposit is hosted by both Linglong biotite granite and Guojialing

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granodiorite (Wang, Z.L. et al., 2015). Both "Jiaojia-type" and "Linglong-type", have been

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identified in this deposit (Fig. 9b). Gold mineralization occurs as disseminated- and stockwork-style ores ("Jiaojia-type") within the cataclastic zones controlled by the Jiaojia fault, whereas echelon tensile auriferous veins ("Linglong-type") hosted in the NE- and NNE-trending subsidiary faults

sericitization, silication and potassic alteration.

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cutting the granitoids occur subordinately. The orebodies are surrounded by the intense

The Pengjiakuang (2B-16) gold deposit is located about 25 km northwest of the city of Rushan.

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There are three principal lithologic units in the deposit including metamorphic rocks of the Paleoproterozoic Jinshan Group, continental sedimentary rocks of the Early Cretaceous Laiyang Formation, and a gneissic granite pluton called the Queshan granite. Mineralization is structurally

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controlled by the NW-oriented Yazi fault, which is more than 5000 m long, 20 to 50 m wide, and

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with a gentle dip angle of 10° to 35° to the south (Fig. 9c). The Pengjiakuang deposit is composed of three orebodies (lodes), which are hosted in a cataclastic zone along the Yazi fault, forming a

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discontinuous W-NW–striking belt. Hydrothermal alteration affected nearly the entire cataclastic zone defined by the Yazi fault. Sericitic alteration is the most pervasive throughout the alteration zone, in association with disseminated sulfides and veins (Li, J.W. et al., 2006). Pyrite is the

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predominant Au-bearing mineral and typically occurs as sub- to euhedral cubes and irregular disseminated aggregates. Alteration assemblages are contiguous within mineralized veins but are absent away from the fault. The fluid inclusions in quartz associated with the Jiaodong-type gold deposits show three principal phase types: H2O, CO2, and CO2+H2O. These inclusions show various morphologies including negative crystal, oval, rectangular, or irregular with diameters of 5 to 20 μm. Under room temperature, the H2O–CO2 inclusions show CO2 liquid±CO2 vapor and H2O. The abundance and association of fluid inclusions vary in the different stages of quartz and carbonate minerals. The milky quartz of early stage contains H2O–CO2 and minor CO2 primary inclusions with CH4 and sometimes also with N2. In the smoky gray quartz of main mineralization stage, coexistence of CO2 and H2O inclusions are common with nearly the same homogenization temperature, reflecting the presence of immiscible fluids at the time of fluid capture (Lu, 2011). The quartz and calcite of the late stage is characterized mainly by small-sized H2O inclusions with low vapor H2O/liquid H2O. In 24 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the early mineralization period (quartz stage), the total homogenization temperature of the H2O–CO2 inclusion (mainly to liquid phase) generally varies within a range of 350±70 °C, and the densities of carbon-bearing phase and that of the whole inclusion vary from 0.3 to 0.7 g/cm3 and from 0.7 to 1.0 g/cm3 respectively. The salinity of the liquid H2O shows variation from 4 to 7 wt.%

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NaCl equivalent. In the main mineralization period (pyrite and polymetallic stages), the total

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homogenization temperature of CO2 (mainly to vapor CO2 or Liquid CO2) and H2O inclusions vary within a range of 250±100 °C, the densities of carbon-bearing phase and that of the whole inclusion

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values show variation from 0.2 to 0.8 g/cm3 and 0.4–1.0 g/cm3 respectively, and the salinity ranges from 3 to 8 wt.% NaCl. In the later mineralization period (carbonate stage), the homogenization temperature and salinity of the H2O inclusions are lower than those of the main mineralization

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period, and show 200±50 °C and 1 to 3 wt.% NaCl eq., respectively (Fig. 10a) (Li, L. et al., 2015). The 3He/4He ratios for fluid inclusions of pyrite in Pengjiakuang are 0.38–0.79 R/Ra; those are

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1.93–2.14 in Denggezhuang (2B-22) and 1.64–2.36 in Jiaojia (2B-6). The 40Ar/36Ar ratios for fluid inclusions of pyrite in Pengjiakuang are 310–393; those are 680–756 in Denggezhuang and 500–1148 in Jiaojia. The characteristics of He-Ar isotopic system in the Pengjiakuang,

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Denggezhuang and Jiaojia in Jiaodong Peninsula were interpreted as mantle-source fluids

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involvement during gold metallogeny in the Jiaodong region (Zhang, L.C. et al., 2008). In the Jiaodong Peninsula, the δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from

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0.08‰ to 8.85‰ and the δD (SMOW) from -106.48‰ to -48‰ for the typical ore deposits, including Sanshandao (2B-1), Cangshang (2B-2), Xingcheng (2B-4) etc. (Fig. 10b). In the Jiaodong gold province, the δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite, ankerite and siderite mainly range from 6.47‰

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to 14.10‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of these minerals concentrate from -6.6‰ to -3‰ for the deposits including Jiaojia (2B-6), Linglong (2B-10), Xiadian (2B-13), etc. (Fig. 10c). The δ34S in the various ore deposits differ to some extent, e.g., Sanshandao (8–12‰ for pyrite) (Mao et al., 2005; Jiang et al., 2011), Cangshang (11.3–12.5‰ for pyrite) (Mao et al., 2005), Xincheng (4.3–10.6‰ for pyrite) (Lu et al., 2011; Zhang, C. et al., 2014), Jiaojia (10.1–12.2‰ for pyrite) (Mao et al., 2005), Wangershan (2B-8) (8.5–8.9‰ for pyrite) (Mao et al., 2005), Dayingezhuang (2B-12) (6.8–7.9‰ for pyrite) (Mao et al., 2005), Xiadian (3.3–5.2‰ for pyrite) (Deng et al., 2002) (Fig. 10d). 3.3 Xiaoqinling (2C) 3.3.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The Xiaoqinling region, located at the Qinling Mountains of eastern Shaanxi and western Henan provinces in the southern margin of the NCC, has witnessed the Mesozoic continental collision between the NCC and the Yangtze Craton, and has produced the Xiaoqinling-Xiong’ershan 25 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT gold province with at least 600 t of proven gold reserve in China. These deposits cluster in three areas: the Xiaoqinling district to the west, the Xiaoshan district in the center, and the Xiong'ershan district to the east (Fig. 11a). The geology of the Xiaoqinling is dominated by metamorphic rocks of the Late Archean

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Taihua Group, Middle Proterozoic Xiong’er Group, and several Mesozoic granitoid plutons. The

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Taihua Group is composed of plagiogneiss, migmatite, plagioclase-amphibole gneiss, and biotite

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plagiogneiss, with ages ranging from 2900 to 2200 Ma. The Xiong’er Group is composed of andesites and basaltic andesites with minor dacites, rhyolites and interlayered sedimentary rocks, with ages of ~1.78 Ga (Zhao et al., 2002). In the Xiaoqinling district, there are also three important granitic plutons including the Huashan, Wenyu, and Niangniangshan, with SHRIMP zircon U-Pb

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ages of 133.8±1.1 Ma, 138±3 Ma, and 142±3 Ma, respectively (Mao et al., 2005; Guo et al., 2009). In the Xiong’ershan district, there are three granitic plutons including the Wuzhangshan, Huashani

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and Heyu, with SHRIMP zircon U-Pb ages of 156.8±1.2 Ma, 132.0±1.6 Ma, and 127.2±1.4 Ma, respectively (Li, G.M. et al 2005; Ye et al., 2008). The major regional fault is the EW-trending Tieluzi-Luanchuan fault which juxtaposed the North China Craton and the North Qinling arc terrane

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of the Qinling orogenic belt and formed during early Triassic collision between the Yangtze Craton

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and NCC (Fig. 11a) (Dong et al., 2011).

Many gold deposits occur north of this fault. In the Xiaoqinling district, deposits are clearly

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associated with EW folds in the metamorphic rocks of the Taihua Group and associated EW-trending faults that follow fold hinges; whereas deposits in the Xiong’ershan district are dominantly controlled by NE-trending faults. Compared with the gold deposits in Jiaodong, the

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gold deposits in Xiaoqinling are mostly hosted in the metamorphic rocks of Taihua Group and the volcanic rocks of Xiong’er Group, rather than the much younger Mesozoic intrusions. The orebodies in the Xiaoqinling district dominantly occur in gold-bearing quartz veins and to a lesser extent in auriferous altered rocks hosted in the Taihua Group. Whereas, the orebodies in the Xiong’ershan district mainly occur in auriferous altered rocks hosted in volcanic rocks of the Xiong’er Group and to a lesser extent in gold-bearing quartz veins. In the Xiong’ershan district, The

40

Ar/39Ar age of quartz from the Shanggong (2C-8) gold

deposit is 223±25 Ma (Ren and Li, 1996). In the Xiaoqinling district, the K-Ar age of sericite from the Tongyu (2C-1) gold deposit is 237.5 Ma, and the Re-Os age of molybdenite from the Dahu (2C-4) Au-Mo deposit is 218±41–206.4±3.9Ma (Li, N. et al., 2011; Jian et al., 2015). The gold-as-by-product Mo ore deposits were also formed in Triassic (242–219 Ma) (Zhao et al., 2007). For instance, Mao et al. (2011) noted development of significant molybdenum in the Dahu deposit, yet the economic gold- and molybdenum-rich orebodies are in different parts of the deposit. 26 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The Au-Mo mineralization was generated during reworking of crust during Yanshanian orogenesis, as suggested by the molybdenite Re-Os modal ages of 130.8±1.5 Ma and 129.1±1.6 Ma for the Quanjiayu Au-Mo deposit near the Dahu deposit (2C-4) (Li, H.M. et al., 2007). Tang and Li. (2009) reported 40Ar/39Ar age of sericite from the Qianhe (2C-14) gold deposit is 126.99±1.56 Ma,

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which is similar to the age (135.6±5.6 Ma) of Qiyugou (2C-10) gold deposit in the Xiong’ershan Ar/39Ar data of 132.2±2.6 Ma for sericite in Dongchuang (2C-2) gold deposit. Most recently, Li et

al. (2012a) presented Re-Os and

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Ar/39Ar data between ca. 135 and 120 Ma for ten deposits

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40

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district based on the Re-Os age of molybdenite (Yao et al., 2009). Li, Q.Z. et al. (2002) presented

throughout the Xiaoqinling district. In summary, gold mineralization of the Xiaoqinling probably took place at 135–120 Ma, which is basically coeval with those of Jiaodong Peninsula.

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The gold deposits in the Xiaoqinling formed in Triassic associated with the regional continental collision between the NCC and South China block and are best classified as orogenic

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type. Those formed in Cretaceous, far from the Triassic collision in time, are categorize into the Jiaodong-type. One exception is the Qiyugou (2C-10) gold deposit. This deposit is associated with breccia pipes, and considered as an epithermal type (Zhang, Y.H. et al., 2005). These breccia pipes

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were emplaced in the Taihua Group of metamorphic rocks and commonly located at the top of the

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granitic porphyries with the zircon SHRIMP U-Pb age of 134.1±2.3 Ma (Yao et al., 2009). 3.3.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types

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3.3.2.1 Orogenic

This deposit type is exemplified by the Dahu Au-Mo deposit (2C-4, molybdenite Re-Os age of 206.4 ± 3.9 Ma, Xiaoqinling) which is hosted by biotite plagiogneiss, amphibole plagiogneiss, and

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amphibolite of the Archean Taihua Group (Fig. 11c). Mineralized quartz veins dip to the northwest at shallow to moderate angles (23°–52°). Individual veins are parallel or slightly oblique to each other and the host structures. The system is characterized by carbon-aqueous fluids of low to moderate salinity and high oxygen fugacity. Total homogenization temperatures of the H2O-CO2 fluid inclusions in stage I and stage III quartz range from 230° to 440 °C and 198° to 320 °C, respectively (Jian et al., 2015). Sulfide samples in Dahu yield ISr ratios of 0.70470–0.71312, ƐNd(t) values of -18.1–-13.5, and

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Pb/204Pb values of 17.033–17.285,

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Pb/204Pb values of 15.358–15.438,

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Pb/204Pb values of 37.307–37.582, which were interpreted that the ore fluids are sourced

from a depleted mantle or a depleted, subducted oceanic slab (Ni et al., 2012). In the Xiaoqinling, the homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in orogenic deposits are mainly in the range of 115–380 °C, with salinity of 1.0–14.77 wt.% NaCl eq. for three deposits including Dahu (2C-4), Shanggong (2C-8), Beiling (2C-9) (Fig. 12a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from 5.8‰ to 10.8‰, with a minimum 1.9‰ and the δD (SMOW) 27 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT values span from -95‰ to -65‰ for two deposit Dahu and Shanggong (Fig. 12b). The δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values of ankerite in Shanggong are 9.0‰ and 1.5‰ separately (Fig. 12c). The δ34S values for the Shanggong gold deposit are -14.6–10.9‰ for pyrite, 6.7‰ for chalcopyrite, -19.2–1.5‰ for galena, -13.9‰ for sphalerite (Chen, Y.J. et al., 2008). In the Beiling

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gold deposit, the δ34S is -10.2‰ to -2.2‰ for pyrite and -0.6‰ for galena (Wang, M.S. et al., 1998).

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The δ34S data of orogenic gold deposits in Xiaoqingling are mostly less than zero suggesting the

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involvement of organic matters (Fig. 12d). 3.3.2.2 Jiaodong-type

This type of deposit is exemplified by the Dongchuang (2C-2) and Wenyu (2C-3) deposits. The Dongchuang deposit is located 4 km south of the Wenyu granite pluton, intruding within gneiss and

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migmatite of the Archean Taihua Group. Within the deposit, there are a number of NNW-striking diabase dikes (Fig. 11b). Several small, NE-striking syenite porphyry dikes are also exposed in the

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deposit. A series of E–W-trending, ore-bearing shear zones parallel each other. The ore veins developed discontinuously hosted in the shear zones with ultramylonitic textures in the center of many ore veins (Mao et al., 2002a).

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The Wenyu (2C-3) giant gold deposit is hosted in the Precambrian Taihua metamorphic rocks

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within the Xiaoqinling. The gold ore is hosted by quartz veins and subordinately by altered rocks. Hydrothermal alteration associated with gold mineralization includes silicification, potassic

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alteration, pyritization, sericitization, and carbonation. Quartz formed in two earlier ore stages contains three compositional types of fluid inclusions, i.e. pure CO2, CO2–H2O and NaCl–H2O, but the late-stage minerals only contain NaCl–H2O inclusions. The inclusions in quartz formed in the

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early, main and late stages yield homogenization temperatures of 262–417 °C, 236–407 °C and 114–239 °C, respectively, with salinities no higher than 13 wt.% NaCl eq. (Zhou et al., 2014). The carbon (δ13C=-27.4–4.4‰ for fluid inclusions in pyrite), sulfur (δ34S=-4.7–6.5‰ for hydrothermal sulfides), 208

Pb/

204

and

lead

isotope

(206Pb/204Pb=16.676–17.518,

207

Pb/204Pb=15.212–16.746

and

Pb=36.509–39.919 for pyrite, galena and others in ores) compositions were interpreted as

the result of ore material contribution of Taihua metamorphic rocks (Zhou et al., 2014). In the Xiaoqinling, the homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in Jiaodong-type deposits are mainly in the range of 114–407 °C, with salinity of 0.1–21.77 wt.% NaCl eq. for the six deposits including Tongyu (2C-1), Dongchuang (2C-2), and Qianhe (2C-14) etc. (Fig. 12a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from 0.9‰ to 7.88‰ for the Tongyu, Dongchuang, and Qianhe, and the δD (SMOW) values are from -90‰ to -37.3‰ (Fig. 12b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite and ankerite mainly range from 7.9‰ to 11.94‰ and their δ13C (PDB) values concentrate between -7.5‰ and -3.2‰ for Dongchuang and Wenyu (Fig. 12c). The 28 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT δ34S differs in various ore deposits, including Dongchuang (1.21–5.52‰ for pyrite, 3.58–3.64‰ for chalcopyrite, -2.75–4.6‰ for galena) (Nie et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2012), Yangzhaiyu (2C-7) (-3.8–3.2‰ for pyrite) (Li et al., 2011), Miaoling (2C-13) (-18.4–4.8‰ for pyrite) (Zhai et al., 2011), and Qianhe (-10.6–0.26‰ for pyrite and -22.2–-7.7‰ for galena) (Wang, M.S. et al., 1998;

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Tang et al., 2013) (Fig. 12d). It means a diverse source for this type of gold deposits .

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3.3.2.3 Epithermal

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This type of deposit is exemplified by the Qiyugou (2C-10) gold deposit, which is situated in the eastern part of the Xiong’ershan mountains and is 5 km southeast of the Mesozoic Huashani granitic pluton. The Qiyugou gold deposit is hosted in a series of cryptoexplosion breccia pipes. These breccia pipes and many small porphyries are distributed along NW- and NE-striking faults. mineralization

is

strictly

contained

in

the

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Gold

altered

breccia

pipes.

Intense

K-feldspar–quartz–pyrite alteration is closely associated with gold mineralization (Mao et al.,

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2002a). The CO2-rich and daughter mineral-bearing fluid inclusions are common in the early-stage quartz and absent in the late-stage quartz and calcite, which only contain water-rich fluid inclusions. The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions from early middle and late stages range from

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351 to 460 °C, 265 to 349 °C, and 157 to 244 °C, respectively. The early-stage ore-fluids are

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magmatic in origin and characterized by high-temperature (> 350 °C), high-salinity (> 30 wt.% NaCl eq.), and CO2-rich (Fig. 12a) (Chen, Y.J. et al., 2009). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) and δD (SMOW)

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values of the ore fluids in Qiyugou mainly range from 1.1‰ to 8.3‰ and from -83.6‰ to -60.1‰ respectively (Fig. 12b). The δ34S data in pyrite, chalcopyrite, and galena from Qiyugou are -3–2.5‰, -2–0.9‰, and -3.5–0.8‰ respectively (Chen, Y.J. et al., 2009) (Fig. 12d).

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4 Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt The WNW trending Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt, also named Central Orogenic System in China, extends from the eastern Sulu through Dabie, Tongbai, Qinling, and Qilian, East Kunlun to West Kunlun. It separates the South China block and Tibet-Sanjiang orogenic belt on the south and the North China and Tarim cratons on the north (Fig. 1b). The ore deposits are dominantly clustered in the West Qinling (3A), North Qilian (3B), and East Kunlun (3C). 4.1 West Qinling (3A) 4.1.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The West Qinling is the western segment of the Qinling orogenic belt, which experienced a prolonged and complex tectonic evolution from Grenvillian orogenesis, Late Paleozoic slab subduction, and Triassic continent collision and the later reactivation in Cretaceous, each of which is associated with widespread formation of granitoids (Fig. 13a). Two sutures are defined in the Qinling orogenic belt. The Shangdan suture is widely considered to be the result of the Early 29 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Silurian (444–427 Ma) collision between the North China Craton and the South Qinling block (Meng and Zhang, 2000; Qiu and Wijbrans, 2006). The Mianlue suture is thought to have formed by the Late Triassic (242–219 Ma) collision between the NCC and the Yangtze Craton (Zhao et al., 2007).

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The gold deposits in West Qinling can be subdivided into the northern, central and southern

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belts (Fig. 13a). The northern gold belt lies between the Shangdan suture and Fengzhen fault. This

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elongate belt, the most productive gold belt of West Qinling, consists mainly of Devonian sedimentary rocks which unconformably overlie the Lower Paleozoic rocks. Several centers of subsidence, distributed from west to east and filled by thick flysch sandstone-shale-carbonate sequences, host most of the gold deposits in the region such as the Zhaishang (3A-1), Liba (3A-2),

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Baguamiao (3A-4), Shuangwang (3A-5) and Ma’anqiao (3A-6) gold deposits (Ma et al., 2004). The central belt is located between the Fengzhen fault and the Mianlue suture. It consists mainly of

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Cambrian to Devonian carbonaceous cherts, carbonaceous slate, carbonaceous carbonate rocks and siliceous mudstone. This belt contains stratabound Au deposits such as the La’erma (3A-8), Dashui (3A-7), Qiongmo (3A-9), and Luerba (3A-26) deposits. There are some dykes but few granitoids in

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this gold belt. Ore minerals include pyrite, cinnabar, stibnite, arsenopyrite, selenide, with minor

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native gold, realgar, and orpiment. The southern belt is located between the Mianlue suture and the Aba-Heishui fault. It consists mainly of Triassic turbidites dominated by slate and feldspathic

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greywacke, which host many gold deposits including the Yangshan (3A-17), Jianchaling (3A-19) and Dongbeizhai (3A-20) deposits (Fig. 13a). These deposits contain arsenopyrite, realgar, orpiment, and stibnite, but little native gold.

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The ages of gold mineralization in West Qinling are poorly constrained. The Liba (3A-2) deposit has 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 211–205 Ma for the fluid inclusions in quartz veins, which is similar to those of nearby Zhongchuan granite with K-Ar ages of 218–177 Ma (Feng et al., 2004). Most recently, Zeng et al. (2012) reported a mineralization age of ca. 216 Ma for the Liba deposit via

40

Ar/39Ar analysis of minerals formed in hydrothermal alteration zones associated with gold

mineralization. The Dashui (3A-7) deposit has Rb-Sr isochron age of 181.8–141.0 Ma for the fluid inclusions in jasper and biotite

40

Ar/39Ar age of 240–220 Ma from the nearby granodiorite,

respectively (Zhao et al., 2003). As for the Yangshan (3A-17) gold deposits, the

40

Ar/39Ar plateau

age of fluid inclusions in quartz veins and SHRIMP U-Pb age of hydrothermal zircon from gold-bearing quartz vein show the mineralization age is ca. 201–190 Ma (Qi et al., 2007). The 40

Ar/39Ar plateau age of fluid inclusions in the NW-trending quartz veins of the Baguamiao (3A-4)

deposit is 233–222 Ma, similar to the apatite U-Th-Pb age (244–220 Ma) of Xiba granite nearby the Baguamiao deposit (Feng et al., 2004). However, Feng et al. (2004b) also reported another 30 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 40

Ar/39Ar plateau age of 132–129 Ma for the fluid inclusions in the NE-trending quartz veins of the

Baguamiao deposit. This Cretaceous age is similar to the

40

Ar/39Ar age of sericite from the

Zhaishang deposit (3A-1) (130–125 Ma) (Lu et al., 2006a). It is ambiguous whether the Cretaceous ore deposits belong to the orogenic or the Jiaodong-type gold deposits. Considering their locations

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are a little far from the eastern NCC where the Jiaodong-type is typical, these ore deposits are

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preliminarily grouped into the orogenic type formed in the intracontinental extension setting.

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In summary, the gold mineralization in West Qinling probably took place mainly between Late Triassic and Middle Jurassic (ca. 220–170 Ma) associated with continental collision between the NCC and the South China Block. Small amount of gold deposits were reworked during the Early Cretaceous, coeval with the gold mineralization of the Jiaodong and Xiaoqinling.

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4.1.2 Geological and isotope systematics of different genetic types 4.1.2.1 Orogenic

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In the West Qinling, most orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Baguamiao, Ma’anqiao) occur between the Shangdan suture and the Fengzhen fault. Generally, the mineralized structures were ductile deformed and superimposed by later brittle faulting, both of which are gold-related. This type of

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deposit is exemplified by the Zhaishang (3A-1) and Baguamiao (3A-4) in the northern belt of West

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Qinling. The Zhaishang gold deposit lies within a regional brittle–ductile shear zone and occurs both in rocks of low metamorphosed Middle Devonian and Lower Permian clastic formation, which

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is composed of quartz sandstone, siltstone, calcareous slate and argillaceous limestone (Fig. 13b). More than 30 orebodies have been delineated and these orebodies are spatially controlled both by bed cross-cutting and bedding faults. The bedded and lenticular orebodies are mainly delineated on

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the basis of geochemical data, because the boundary between wall rock and orebody is not sharp. Parts of the deposit can be delineated as independent scheelite orebodies characterized with the association Au–Sb–W. Alteration includes silicification, carbonitization, pyritization, and kaolinitization. Gold mineralization, for the most part is most common where silica, carbon and pyrite are most intense (Liu et al., 2015). The Baguamiao (3A-4) deposit in the northern belt is hosted in Middle Devonian rocks which locally consists of phyllite, marl, and limestone (Fig. 13c). A series of WNW-striking compressional folds and faults in the mine area parallel the regional Shangdan fault zone. Gold, both within veinlets and in altered country rock, occurs in mylonitic shear zones characterized by massive silicification along a major fold axis (Mao et al., 2002b). The Liba (3A-2), Baguamiao (3A-4), Shuangwang (3A-5) and Ma’anqiao (3A-6) deposits in the northern belt, and the Yangshan (3A-17) deposits in the southern belt have CO2-H2O, CO2-rich and aqueous fluid inclusions, with high contents of CO2 (10–80 mol%) and the features of fluid boiling or immiscibility (Mao et al., 2002b; Feng et al., 2003a, 2003b; Zhang et al., 2004b). For 31 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT example, the Liba, Baiguamiao and Shuangwang in West Qinling have ore fluid inclusions with CO2 concentrations of 11–68 mol%, 50–80 mol%, 10–30 mol%, respectively (Feng et al., 2003a, 2003b; Zhang et al., 2004b). Most of the gold deposits in the northern and southern belts have ore fluids with moderate- to high- temperature, such as Liba (300–420 °C), Shuangwang (260–400 °C),

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Baguamiao (190–280 °C), and Yangshan (210–270 °C) (Table 1). It is different from the

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characteristics of ore fluids of Carlin-like gold deposits (Cline et al., 2005), but similar to those of

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orogenic gold deposits (Groves et al., 1998; Goldfarb et al., 2001). The δ18O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from 1.35‰ to 15.84‰ for the seven deposits, including Zhaishang (3A-1), Liba (3A-2), Baguamiao (3A-4) etc. The Yangshan (3A-17) can reach a negative values of -12.13‰. The fluid δD (SMOW) values mainly range from -96‰ to -53.38‰ (Fig. 14b). In the West Qinling,

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the δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite, ankerite and magnesite concentrate from 10.23‰ to 19.73‰ with a maximum 23.40‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of these minerals mainly vary between -7.8‰

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and -2.3‰ for the five deposit including Baguamiao (3A-4), Shuangwang (3A-5), Ma’anqiao (3A-6) etc. (Fig. 14c). The 3He/4He ratios for fluid inclusions of quartz in Baguamiao are 0.026–0.736 R/Ra and the

40

Ar/36Ar ratios are 296–1102, which were interpreted as involvement of

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mantle-source fluids during gold metallogeny (He, H. et al., 2009). The δ34S data of orogenic gold

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deposits in the West Qinling show much variation for most ore deposits, and they are relatively uniform and mostly greater than zero, except the Yangshan (3A-17) gold deposit. The δ34S are

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3.1–10.32‰ for pyrite, 0.2–10.24‰ for galena, and 1.47–4.92‰ for stibnite in Zhaishang (Lu et al., 2006b; Liu et al., 2015); 9.4–15.4‰ for pyrite, 10.1–13.9‰ for pyrrhotite, and 4.1–13.8‰ for marcasite in Baguamiao (Zheng and Yu, 1994); 2.6–26.43‰ for pyrite in Shuangwang (Wang, K.X.

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et al., 2012), 0.78–12.6‰ for pyrite, 4.4–8.64‰ for pyrrhotite in Ma’anqiao (Zhu et al., 2009), and 6.3–18.5‰ for pyrite, 10.5–10.9‰ for realgar in Jingchaling (3A-10) (Yue et al., 2013). The Yangshan gold deposit have the δ34S values of -12.1–10.9‰ for pyrite, -4.2–3.0‰ for arsenopyrite, and -6.6–-3.28‰ for stibnite (Luo et al., 2004; Yang, G.C. et al., 2007; Li, N. et al., 2012) (Fig. 14d), suggesting the involvement of organic matters. 4.1.2.2 Carlin-like This type of deposit is represented by the Dashui (3A-7) and Qiongmo (3A-9) deposit in the central belt. The Dashui deposit is hosted in Middle Triassic shallow marine carbonate rocks and younger igneous dikes. The deposit occurs adjacent to a 20 to 40 m wide, high-angle, NW-striking reverse fault, which is filled by a series of calcite veins and breccias. Gold is disseminated in altered limestone and granodiorite dikes (Mao et al., 2002b) (Fig. 13d). Limestone displays variable intensities of fracture-controlled and pervasive silica–hematite alteration. Hematite is inferred to have formed as a result of the oxidation of fine-grained pyrite. The Qiongmo gold deposit is hosted 32 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT in a series of carbonaceous cherts and slates. Major alterations include silicification, stibnitization, pyritization, baritization, and dickitization (Liu et al., 2000). Interformational fractures are important structures in the localization of the orebodies (Fig. 13e). The orebodies are mostly layered and lenticular in shape, 60–330 m long, 1.0–8.49 m across and 40–430 m in vertical extent, carrying

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gold commonly in the content of 1.0–6.14 ppm with the maximum up to 41.47 ppm. Generally, no

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sharp boundary can be recognized between the orebodies and host rocks.

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Fluid inclusions in the Carlin-type gold deposits in the West Qinling are a little different from those in orogenic gold deposits. For instance the Dashui (3A-7) deposit is characterized by dominant aqueous fluid inclusions with low contents of CO2, low- to moderate-temperature (120–220 °C), and low-salinity (2.7–9.1 wt.% NaCl), and without the phenomena of fluid boiling or

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immiscibility (Han et al., 2004). These characteristics of ore-fluid inclusions are similar to those of Carlin-like gold deposits. The δ18O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly change from 1.04‰ to

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15.5‰ and the δDH2O ‰ (SMOW) values concentrate within -70.6‰ to -102.6‰ for the three Carlin-like deposits, including Dashui (3A-7), Laerma (3A-8), and Manaoke (3A-15). And the Laerma has a minimum as negative as -11.07‰ in δ18OH2O ‰ (SMOW), and a minimum -137.36‰

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and a maximum -26.64‰ in δD (SMOW), suggesting involvements of both connate water and

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meteoric water (Fig. 14b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Dashui mainly range from 10.23‰ to 19.73‰ with a maximum of 33.40‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite mainly range

al., 2004) (Fig. 14d).

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from -2.8‰ to 6.1‰ (Fig. 14c). The δ34S in the pyrite from Dashui is from -1.8‰ to 4.1‰ (Han et

4.2 North Qilian (3B)

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4.2.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The Qilian orogenic belt extends for about 1000 km along the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 15a) (Song et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2014). It is situated between the Qaidam block to the south and the Alaxa block to the north (Cai et al., 2015). The Qilian orogenic belt can be further divided, from north to south, into the North Qilian, Central Qilian, South Qilian, and the Oulongbuluk terrane (Xiao, W.J. et al., 2009b). The tectonic evolution of the Qilian belt has been investigated by many geologists (Song et al., 2006, 2013; Xiao, W.J. et al., 2009b). The North Qilian suture zone with ophiolitic mélanges, island arc volcanic rocks, and high-pressure eclogites and blueschists, was considered to be associated with the northward subduction of Paleo-Qilian oceanic crust beneath the North China Craton during 490–440 Ma. The North Qaidam ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphic belt comprising pelitic and granitic gneisses, eclogites and garnet peridotites was considered to be associated with the early oceanic subduction of the intervening ocean between the Qaidam block and Qilian block during >460–440 Ma and the late 33 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT continental subduction between the North China Craton and the Qilian-Qaidam block at 420–430 Ma (Song et al., 2006). The amalgamated blocks of the North Qilian were accreted to the North China Craton by ca. 380–360 Ma (Xiao, W.J. et al., 2009b). The gold deposits in Qilian orogenic belt are mainly located in the North Qilian and northern margin of Qaidam Block.

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The gold deposits in the North Qilian include the Hanshan (3B-1) large gold deposit and the

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Yingzuishan medium size gold deposit, as well as some smaller ones (Fig. 15b). The Hanshan

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deposit is hosted in the weakly metamorphosed Middle Ordovician marine volcanic sequence and structurally controlled by the WNW-trending ductile-brittle Hanshan shear zone. Mao et al. (2000) reported the K-Ar ages of 213.9±3.1 Ma and 224.4±3.3 Ma for the hydrothermal sericites, whereas Yang et al. (2005) reported the Rb-Sr isochron age of 372±8 Ma for the auriferous quartz veins. The

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poorly constrained mineralization age hampered the understanding of tectonic background for gold formation.

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The northern margin of Qaidam contains one large gold deposit and some smaller ones (i.e., Qinglonggou, Hongliugou, Qianmeiling, and Yeluotuoquan). These deposits are orogenic, and the orebodies can be further divided into altered rock and quartz vein types. The Tanjianshan (3B-3),

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Qinglonggou, Hongliugou, Qianmeiling, and Yeluotuoquan deposits are mainly altered rock type

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hosted by the shear zone developed in the low-grade metamorphic rocks of the Mesoproterozoic, Cambrian and Ordovician. The Saibagou deposit is mainly quartz vein type. It is hosted in

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granodiorite and also structurally controlled by the shear zone. The mineralization age of the Tanjianshan deposit is not well constrained. Zhang et al. (2001a, 2005) reported the sericite 40

Ar/39Ar ages of 400 Ma and 284 Ma; subsequently, Zhang, D.Q. et al. (2009) also reported an

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K-Ar age of 268.9±4.3 Ma and an Rb-Sr isochron age of 288±9.7 Ma for hydrothermal minerals from Tanjianshan gold ores. Zhang et al. (2005) reported the sericite

40

Ar/39Ar ages of 409.4±2.3

Ma, 425.5±2.1 Ma, 246±3 Ma for the Qinglonggou, Saibagou, and Yeluotuoquan deposits, respectively. The gold mineralization occurred Middle Paleozoic, generally coeval to the UHP metamorphism, could form in the subduction/accretion zones due to the amalgamation of Qaidam block and the Qilian Block, and that in Early Triassic was considered to the reactivation of the orogenic belt due to the collision between the Yangtze Craton and NCC. 4.2.2 Geological and isotopic systematics This type of orogenic deposit is exemplified by the Hanshan (3B-1) gold deposit, which is located in northern Gansu Province. The deposit is hosted by a WNW-striking shear zone in Ordovician andesite and basalt. Mineralization consists of surface to near-surface oxidized ore (the yellow sandy gossan type) and three types of primary ore, i.e. early-stage quartz sericite-pyrite ores in stockworks, early-stage disseminated ore, and the most important late-stage quartz ± 34 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT calcite-sulfide veins. The ore system is characterized by variable degrees of potassic and silicic alteration. Late-stage gold-related fluid inclusions have homogenization temperatures between 170 to 310 °C, with a peak around 260 °C and low salinities (5.4–10.5 wt.% NaCl eq) (Fig. 14a). The ore fluids had high contents of CO2, CH4, and N2 (Mao et al., 2000). The δ18O (SMOW) values of

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calcite in Hanshan range from 3.10‰ to 10.50‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite vary between

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-2.3‰ and -1.2‰ (Fig. 14c). The δ34S values of pyrite are from -1.9‰ to 1.7‰ (Mao et al., 2000)

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(Fig. 14d). 4.3 East Kunlun (3C) 4.3.1 Spatial-temporal distribution

The Kunlun orogenic belt extends for more than 2500 km along the northern margin of the

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Tibetan Plateau and is divided into western and eastern sections by the Altyn Fault (Fig. 15c). The East Kunlun is bounded by the Qaidam basin to the north, the Bayankala Mountains to the south,

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and the NE-trending Altyn strike-slip fault to the west. It can be divided, from north to south, into the northern Kunlun, central Kunlun, southern Kunlun, Animaqing and northern Bayankala (Bian et al., 2002; Zuo et al., 2015). The gold deposits in Kunlun orogenic belt are mainly distributed in the

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East Kunlun. Paleoproterozoic to Cenozoic strata are exposed in the East Kunlun. Among them, the

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middle- to high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Paleoproterozoic Jinshuikou Group, the low-grade metamorphic rocks of the Mesoproterozoic Xiaomiao Group, the metasedimentary rocks of the

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Lower Triassic Bayankala Formation, and the sedimentary rocks of the Middle Triassic Naochangjian Formation are the major hosts of many Au-Sb deposits (Feng et al., 2009). The Wulonggou (3C-1) and Dachang (3C-2) gold deposits are the two important large deposits and

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located in the central Kunlun and northern Bayankala respectively. Zhang et al. (2005) reported sericite 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 236.5±0.5 Ma and 218.6±3.2 Ma for the Wulonggou and Dachang deposits respectively. These deposits are considered to relate with the final amalgamation of Kunlun and Qiangtang blocks.

4.3.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of orogenic deposits This type of deposit is exemplified by the Wulonggou (3C-1) gold deposit, which is in middle of the eastern Kunlun Mountain. The occurrence of orebodies generally accords with fault controls. Wall-rock alterations are mostly silication and sericitization, closely related to pyrite mineralization and gold mineralization. Since the orebodies are controlled by fracture zone, the wallrocks of the orebody are same as the rocks in the fracture zone, mostly being Proterozoic metamorphic rocks and intrusive rocks (Yuan et al., 2013). The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in Dachang (3C-2) deposit are mainly in the range of 160–280 °C, with salinity of 2–5 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 14a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) 35 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT values of the ore fluids in East Kunlun mainly range from -4.71‰ to 8.9‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values mainly range from -106‰ to -57.32‰ for Wulonggou (3C-1) and Dachang deposit which suggests the participation of meteoric water (Fig. 14b). The Wulonggou gold deposit has the δ34S values of 2.7–6.9‰ for pyrite, 3.9‰ for arsenopyrite, 2.4‰ for sphalerite, 1.3–5.9‰ for

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5 South China Block

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values of -4.7–-3.2‰ for pyrite (Feng et al., 2004) (Fig. 14d).

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stibnite, and 3.9‰ for arsenopyrite (Zhao et al., 2014) and the Dachang gold deposit has the δ34S

The South China block consists of the Yangtze Craton in the northwest and the Cathaysia block in the southeast (Fig. 19), which was amalgamated during Neoproterozoic (Li, X.H. et al., 2009; Zhao and Cawood, 2012). The present boundary between the two blocks is the northeasterly

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trending Jiangshan–Shaoxing Fault (Fig. 19) (Wang, Y.J. et al., 2008; Zhang, F.F. et al., 2012; Qiao et al., 2015). The Yangtze basement consists predominantly of Proterozoic rocks, with minor

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outcrop of Archean rocks such as the Kongling complex that was dated up to ca. 3.2 Ga (Qiu et al., 2000,). Neoproterozoic igneous rocks are exposed widely around the margins of Yangtze Block. In the western part of the Yangtze Craton, Neoproterozoic granulite-gneiss complex and

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low-grade metasedimentary rocks and clastic rocks with interlayers of volcanic rocks are exposed.

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The Neoproterozoic volcanic rocks and coeval plutons along the western and northern margins of the Yangtze Craton display arc-like geochemical features, which were deemed to represent a

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Neoproterozoic continental arc developed at around 840 Ma, termed the Panxi-Hannan arc (Fig. 19a; Zhou et al., 2002). The metamorphosed Precambrian rocks are overlain by Paleozoic argillaceous and arenaceous rocks and carbonates. The Emeishan flood basalts triggered by mantle plume

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erupted in the latest Permian (Fig. 19a; Deng et al., 2010). The Jiangnan orogenic belt between the Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia block developed at ~870–820 Ma (Zhao and Cawood, 1999). The bimodal volcanic rocks (818–803 Ma) and mafic volcanic-intrusive rocks (~760 Ma) in the west part of the Jiangnan orogenic belt (Zhou et al., 2008) are indicative of magmatism in the post-collisional and post-orogenic extensional stages, respectively. In the Cathaysia Block, the oldest basement rocks were the amphibolite dated at ~1.80 Ga in the Wuyishan area in the northeastern part (Li, L.M. et al., 2011). An intracontienntal orogenic event occurred during early Paleozoic time, which is named as the Wuyi–Yunkai orogeny (Li, Z.X. et al., 2010; Zhang, F.F. et al., 2012). The orogeny was induced by the collision between the Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia block (Chen, H.D. et al., 2006; Yan, D.P. et al., 2006). The resultant Early Paleozoic granites are mainly located in the core of the Wuyi–Yunkai orogen (Fig. 19), with minor outcrops far away from the orogen (Wang, Y.J. et al., 2011; Chu et al., 2012a, 2012b). Early Paleozoic mafic igneous rocks have also been recognized in the Early Paleozoic Wuyi–Yunkai 36 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT orogenic belt (Zhao et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2015). In Jurassic to Cretaceous, as a consequence of the flat slab subduction of Pacific, the southeastern South China block is characterized by the developments of voluminous granitoids, NE-striking normal faults, and basins filled with terrestrial sedimentary strata with interbedded red beds and volcanic rocks (Wang, Y.J. et al., 2012). Spatially,

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the Jurassic granitoids are mostly located in the regions to the west of the Zhenghe–Dapu Fault, and

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the Cretaceous granitoids are to the east.

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The effect of Cenozoic continental collision between the Indian and Eurasian continents has penetrated into the western margin South China Block, including the potassic intrusion-related gold-rich porphyry-skarn ore deposits along the Ailaoshan shear zone and the hydrothermal ore deposit in Jinpingshan area. We categorize them into the Sanjiang orogenic belt according to the

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traditional cognition. 5.1 Youjiang basin (4A)

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5.1.1 Spatial-temporal distribution

The gold province in Youjiang basin, also called the Dian-Qian-Gui gold province, contains six large deposits (e.g., Lannigou (4A-4), Zimudang (4A-2), Shuiyingdong (4A-3), Getang (4A-8),

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Gaolong (4A-6), and Jinya (4A-5) plus some medium deposits (e.g., Banqi (4A-10), Yata, Nipu,

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Dachang, Funing, Gedang (4A-24), Mingshan (4A-17), and Tianwan). These gold deposits occur in a continental basin which was filled with a thick sequence of Devonian to Triassic marine

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sedimentary rocks on top of Cambrian to Silurian sedimentary rocks (Liu et al., 2001, Hu et al., 2002). There are hardly any intrusive rocks except some mafic dikes and small quartz porphyries, granite porphyries, or dacite porphyries in the area (Hu et al., 2002). The gold deposits are

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predominantly hosted in the Paleozoic to Mesozoic unmetamorphosed marine siliciclastic or carbonate rocks, most importantly in the Triassic and Permian pelitic siltstones, mudstone, and silty carbonates that contain large amounts of organic matters in places (Fig. 16a; Hu et al., 2002; Su et al., 2009). The deposits are controlled by steep faults in the axis of anticline (e.g. Lannigou) and those between different lithological units (e.g. Banqi), and by strata interfaces (e.g., Zimudang, Shuiyingdong) and unconformity (e.g., Getang). Ore minerals mainly include arsenian pyrite, arsenopyrite, orpiment, realgar, stibnite, cinnabar, and thallium sulfides. Gangue minerals include quartz, calcite, ankerite, and clay minerals. The types of alteration include silicification, pyritization, arsenopyritization, argillization, carbonatization (Hu et al., 2002). In the Youjiang basin, gold mineralization is considered to relate to basin topography, growth faults, and fluid migration. It was explained that basinal fluids may migrate towards basin paleo-highs in response to syndepositional faulting of the platform-marginal faults, that resulted in platform-proximal micro-disseminated gold deposits. Lateral migration of fluids up faults 37 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT crosscutting some sealed beds during the later stage of basin evolution may produce platform-distal deposits far from the carbonate platform and at a higher stratigraphic position (Fig. 16b; Liu, J.M. et al., 2002). Therefore, the tectonic setting of gold deposits in Youjiang basin is extensional, which is similar to that of Nevada Carlin-like gold deposits that formed at 40–36 Ma in a back-arc setting

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(Arehart et al., 2003; Cline et al., 2005; Ressel and Henry, 2006; Groves and Bierlein, 2007).

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The mineralization age of the Carlin-like gold deposits in Youjiang basin is still not clear due

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to the fine-grained nature of alteration and mineralization, and lack of minerals clearly associated with gold deposition that is suitable for isotopic dating. Diverse mineralization ages of gold deposits in this area have been proposed, e.g., 193±13 Ma (Re-Os dating of pyrite) in the Lannigou (4A-4) deposit by Chen, M.H. et al. (2007). Recently, the Sm-Nd isotopic compositions of hydrothermal

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calcites in the Shuiyindong (4A-3) Carlin-like gold deposit, Guizhou were analyzed and the age of 135±3 Ma for the deposit was constrained (Su et al., 2009). The accumulating ages suggested that

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those Carlin-like gold deposit in Youjiang basin area were deposited dominantly around 200 Ma and subordinately around 130 Ma (Su et al., 2009; Gu et al., 2012 ). 5.1.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of Carlin-like deposits

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This type of deposit is exemplified by the Lannigou (4A-4), Shuiyindong (4A-3) and

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Zimudang (4A-2). The Lannigou gold deposit is located in Guizhou Province in the northern part of this province. The orebodies occur as veins and lenses hosted in high-angle NW-striking faults and

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at the intersection of the NW-striking faults and NE-striking faults. The host units for the deposit are the Middle Triassic calcareous sandstone and mudstone (Fig. 16c) (Chen et al., 2015). Alteration in the deposit is distributed along and within host fault zones concomitant with the orebody.

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Silicification, carbonatization, and argillitization are the most significant alteration types and locally accompanied by cinnabar, orpiment, and realgar alterations (Stephen et al., 2007). Sedimentary strata exposed in the Zimudang deposit (4A-2) are the Lower Permian, Upper Permian, and Lower Triassic. Gold orebodies are hosted in brecciated zone that cross cuts organic-rich bioclastic limestone, siltstone, and claystone. Orebody is spatially related to the EW-striking thrust fault that dips south 25° to 30° (Fig. 16d). Ore minerals are pyrite, marcasite, arsenopyrite, realgar, and native Au, and rare chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, as well as intergrowths of Ti minerals with Zn-, and Fe-sulfides. Gangue minerals include calcite, dolomite, quartz, and hydromica. Sulfide and gangue minerals display disseminated, network, and breccia textures. Gold mainly is present as both visible and μm-sized inclusions of native gold dominantly in the pyrite and arsenopyrite. Hydrothermal alteration closely related to orebody mainly consists of silicification that is accompanied by pyrite and realgar alteration (Peters et al., 2007). The Shuiyindong (4A-3) gold deposit in Guizhou Province, is hosted in Permian bioclastic 38 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT limestone near the axis of the Huijiabao anticline. Sedimentary rocks in the deposit consist of bioclastic limestone, siltstone, and argillite of Middle to Upper Permian and Lower Triassic ages. These rocks form the nearly E–W trending Huijiabao anticline. The anticline is cut by reverse faults, striking E–W and dipping steeply to the north and south, respectively (Fig. 16e). Gold

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mineralization mainly occurs on the flanks of the anticline and is preferentially disseminated in

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bioclastic limestone and calcareous siltstone of the Upper Permian Longtan Formation. Wallrock

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alterations include decarbonation, silicification, sulfidation and dolomitization. Sulfides in the deposit consist mainly of arsenian pyrite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, and small amounts of orpiment, realgar and stibnite. Gangue minerals consist of quartz, dolomite, calcite, and clay minerals (e.g., kaolinite). The dominant gold-bearing sulfides are arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite. A large amount

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of gold-bearing arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite are concentrated along jasperoid quartz grain boundaries where the dolomite was completely dissolved, indicating the removal of calcite and

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dolomite from the host rocks by weakly acidic solutions and sulfidation of reactive iron in the host rocks (Su et al., 2012).

The aqueous fluid inclusions of gold deposits, including Lannigou, Shuiyingdong, Yata (4A-9),

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Taipingdong (4A-12), in Youjiang basin are dominant in the early stage barren quartz veins (stage I),

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with a homogenization temperature range of 230 °C to 270 °C and a salinity range of 2.6 to 7.2 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 17a). Fluid inclusions in the main and late-stage quartz and calcite are

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dominated by aqueous inclusions as well as hydrocarbon- and CO2-rich inclusions. The presence of abundant hydrocarbon fluid inclusions in the gold deposits suggests the ore fluids consisted of an aqueous solution and an immiscible hydrocarbon phase. Aqueous inclusions in the main stage

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quartz associated with gold mineralization typically have a homogenization temperature range of 200–230 °C and a salinity around 5.3 wt.% NaCl eq. Homogenization temperatures and salinities of aqueous inclusions in the late stage drusy quartz and calcite (stage III) typically range from 120 °C to 160 °C and from 2.0 to 5.6 wt.% NaCl eq., respectively (Gu et al., 2012). In the Youjiang basin, the δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids range from -5.4‰ to 16.25‰ and the δD (SMOW) values mainly vary from -92.4‰ to -53.4‰ for the Shuiyindong (4A-3), Jinya (4A-5) and Gaolong (4A-6) ore deposits (Fig. 17b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Shuiyindong concentrate from 13.90‰ to 17.61‰ with a maximum 23.21‰ and its δ13C (PDB) values mainly range from -8.5‰ to -2.7‰ (Fig. 17c). The wide isotopic range and the diverse fluid inclusion types were interpreted that different sources of the ore fluids in various ore deposits. For instance, both metamorphic fluid and brine were involved in the Funing deposit. Support for a metamorphic fluid is: (i) Th values in gold-ore-stage fluid inclusions, ranging from 180 to 330 °; (ii) low to medium salinities in fluid inclusions and (iii) the abundance of CO2 in fluid 39 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT inclusions. Evidence for a brine-derived fluid includes: (i) moderately high salinities ranging from 11.8 to 13.4 wt.% NaCl in gold-ore-stage fluid inclusions and (ii) moderately heavy δ34S isotopic signatures ranging from 9‰ to 15‰ for sulphides (Cromie and Zaw, 2003). The δ34S compositions of Carlin-like gold deposits in Youjiang basin show great variation. The

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δ34S in realgar in Zimudang (4A-2) gold deposit range from 1.18‰ to 1.81‰ (Wang et al., 2012)

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indicating a possibly origin from mantle. The δ34S in pyrite and arsenopyrite in Shuiyindong (4A-3) gold deposit varied widely from -8.41‰ to 27.17‰ and 0.8‰ to 17.1‰ (Liu et al., 2006; Xiao,

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X.N. et al., 2009b; Chen et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2010) respectively and the δ34S in arsenopyrite from Lannigou (4A-4) range from 11.3‰ to 12.1‰ (Chen et al., 2014). The δ34S in pyrite, arsenopyrite, and realgar from Jinya (4A-5) gold deposit range from -7.76‰ to -1.85‰, -9‰ to

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-1.68‰, and -22‰ to -6.3‰ (Wang et al., 1989; Li et al., 1995; Chen et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2014) respectively, which suggest evident involvement of organic matters. The δ34S in the pyrite,

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arsenopyrite, and stibnite from Gaolong (4A-6) gold deposit are -15.27–15.54‰, 7.99‰, and -12.5–-1.4‰ respectively (Li et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 2008), which suggests multi-sources and involvement of organic matters in local places (Fig. 17d).

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5.2 Middle and Lower Yangtze River (4B)

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5.2.1 Spatial-temporal distribution

The gold-bearing skarn deposits in China are particularly developed along the Middle and

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Lower Yangtze River (Fig. 18a). Most of the deposits are copper-dominated with varying gold grades (Zhou et al., 2015; Wang, Q.F. et al., 2008). However, a few skarn deposits, with gold as the main economic commodity or independent orebody occur, each containing >20 t Au, such as the

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Jilongshan (4B-2), Jiguanzui (4B-1), Xinqiao (4B-8), and Mashan (4B-9). The orebodies of these deposits are developed in the contacts between granodiorite and country rocks. Ores contain chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, chalcocite, molybdenite, magnetite, hematite, and falkenhaynite (Sb-Cu sulfide), with minor galena, sphalerite, gold, electrum, orpiment, and realgar. The gangue minerals include garnet, diopside, wollastonite, actinolite, epidote, carbonate, quartz, feldspar, and lesser chlorite, mica, fluorite, and orthoclase (Zhou et al., 2002). A few of orebodies are strataform nearby a deposit with contact skarn controlled by the bed fault formed as the amalgamation between Yangtze Craton and NCC (Deng et al., 2011b; Wang et al., 2011), like the Huangshilao gold deposit in the Tongguanshan orefield, (Fig. 18b, c). The skarn gold deposit in the Middle and Lower Yangtze River was formed in a concentrated time from ~150 Ma to ~120 Ma (Chen, Y.J. et al., 2007). 5.2.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of skarn deposits This type of deposit is represented by the Jilongshan (4B-2) Au-Cu deposit in eastern segment 40 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT of the metallogenic belt. The Au-Cu orebodies occur mainly in the Middle Triassic limestone at the contact zones with granodiorite porphyry (Fig. 18b). The ore-bearing calcic skarns are composed of garnet, pyroxene, and wollastonite, as well as late retrograde hydrothermal metasomatic minerals, such as epidote, quartz, calcite, siderite, rhodochrosite, sericite and zeolite. The representative skarn

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zoning is from granodiorite porphyry, diopsidized or garnet-diopsidized granodiorite porphyry,

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diopside–garnet skarn, garnet skarn, wollastonite skarn, and to marble. Au and Cu mineralization

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are developed not only in exoskarn zones, but also in brecciated marble adjacent to the skarn. Vertical zoning is demonstrated by the Cu–Au or Cu orebodies in deep parts and hydrothermal Au-only or Au-polymetallic mineralization in shallow parts. Ore minerals are mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite and bornite, with subordinate sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, tennantite, magnetite,

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hematite, molybdenite, chalcocite, digenite, orpiment and realgar, and minor native gold, electrum, petzite, tellurobismuthinite, tetradymite, bellidoite and umangite (Zhao, Y.M. et al., 1999). The He

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and Ar isotopes for fluid inclusions of pyrites in Jilongshan produce 40Ar/36Ar and 3He/4He ratios in the range of 261.2–580.2 and 0.025–0.051 R/Ra, respectively, indicating a main source of shallower meteoric water (Jia et al., 2012).

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The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in skarn deposits change largely in the

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range of 126–680 °C, with salinity of 17–50.8 wt.% NaCl eq. for four deposits including Jilonghsan (4B-2), Chengmenshan (4B-5), and others. (Fig. 17a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore

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fluids in Mashan mainly range from 6.9‰ to 10.7‰, and the fluid δD (SMOW) values are -69‰ to -62‰ (Fig. 17b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Mashan mainly range from 12.25‰ to 12.87‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite vary from -5.2‰ to -3.6‰ (Fig. 17c). The δ34S in

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Jilongshan (-1.85–6.1‰ for pyrite, 0.35‰ for chalcopyrite, -2.54–3.35‰ for galena, 0.9–2.5‰ for realgar) (Wu and Yang, 1993), Mashan (4B-9, 6.1–7.2‰ for pyrite and 6.1–8.0‰ for pyrrhotite), and Xinqiao (4B-8, 2.87–3.98‰ for pyrite) (Zeng et al., 2004) were different to a small extent (Zhou, 1984; Tian et al., 2007). The δ34S for the pyrite in the Huangshilao stratabound gold deposit distal to the contact skarn is from 4‰ to 8‰, indicating a prevalent magmatic hydrothermal source (Li et al., 2013) (Fig. 17d). 5.3 Jiangnan orogenic belt (4C) 5.3.1 Spatial-temporal distribution Many orogenic gold and epithermal gold deposits are located in southeastern part of South China block (Fig. 19a). The orogenic gold deposits are mainly located in the Jiangnan orogenic belt, formed due to the amalgamation of Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia block during the period of 1000–825 Ma (Zhao, 2015). The deposits are represented by the Woxi (4C-1) and a few other Au-Sb-W deposits located in the Xuefengshan area. The Woxi Au-Sb-W deposit is hosted in the 41 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT slates of Neoproterozoic Banxi Group and controlled by a brittle-ductile shear zone (Hu et al., 2007). Peng et al. (2003) reported a scheelite Sm-Nd isochron age of 402±6 Ma and a

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Ar/39Ar

plateau age of 423–416 Ma for the auriferous quartz veins of the deposit, indicating the gold mineralization took place in late-Silurian to Devonian. The Jinshan (4C-2) gold deposit, with a

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reserve of 200 tonnes in the Jiangnan orogenic belt, is hosted in the weakly metamorphosed rocks

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of the Meso-Proterozoic Shuangqiaoshan Group and controlled by the Jinshan ductile shear zone. Li

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et al. (2007b) reported a sericite 40Ar/39Ar age of 660–560 Ma for the Jinshan gold mineralization. 5.3.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types

The ore deposits in this region are exemplified by the Woxi (4C-1) and Jinshan (4C-2) gold deposits. The ore-hosting strata exposed in the mine area consist mainly of the Neoproterozoic

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greenschist-facies Shuangqiaoshan Group rocks. The strata consist of sericitic, argillaceous, sandy, and tuffaceous phyllite, with a strike of NE 110–150° and a dip of 10–35° to the northwest. The

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Wanjiawu ductile zone, composed primarily of ultramylonite, strikes roughly NW 310–330° and dips NE at an angle of 5–35°, acting as an important ore-controlling structure. The Yangshan ductile–brittle zone strikes NE 30–50° and dips NE at angles of 10–40°. Both disseminated type and

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quartz vein type are identified in Jinshan. The disseminated type is associated with the

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ultramylonite in the early stage NWW-trending ductile shear zone, whereas the quartz vein-type mineralization is hosted in the later-stage NE-trending ductile–brittle shear zone. Extensive

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hydrothermal alteration, causing the development of silica, sericite, chlorite, and carbonate, is closely associated with gold mineralization (Fig. 19b). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in Jinshan (4C-2) mainly range from 2‰ to 11.35‰ with a minimum -8.21‰ and the δD

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(SMOW) values from -41‰ to -73‰ (Fig. 17b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of ankerite in Jinshan range from 4.42‰ to 7.30‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of the mineral vary from -4.2‰ to -5‰ (Fig. 17c). Fluid inclusions from pyrite have 3He/4He ratios of 0.15–0.24 and

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Ar/36Ar ratios

575–3060. The δ34S are 3.1–5.47‰ for pyrite in Jinshan (Zeng et al., 2002) (Fig. 17d). The stable isotope and noble gas data were explained as a predominant crustal source of ore fluids (Li, X.F. et al., 2010). Orebodies in the Woxi deposit are predominantly banded quartz veins, which are strictly controlled by bedding faults and display significant vertical extents up to 2 km without obvious vertical metal zoning (Fig. 19d). There are four types of fluid inclusions, including type I (two-phase, liquid-rich aqueous inclusions), type II (two- or three-phase, CO2-rich inclusions), type III (two-phase, vapour rich aqueous inclusions), and type IV (single-phase aqueous inclusions). Microthermometric and laser Raman data indicate a low-to-moderate temperature (140–240 °C), low salinity (<7.0 wt.% NaCl eq), CO2-rich, N2-bearing aqueous ore fluid (Fig. 17a). The δ34S are 42 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT -2.8–-1.2‰ for stibnite in Woxi (Fig. 17d ; Gu et al., 2004). It was suggested that the ore fluid is a deep non-magmatic crustal fluid (Zhu et al., 2015). 5.4 Southeast coast (4D) 5.4.1 Spatial-temporal distribution

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Both orogenic and epithermal gold deposits were developed in this region. The orogenic gold

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deposit is exemplified by the Hetai (4D-3) and Baolun (4D-4) gold deposit, with formation age of

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153.6±2.1 Ma (Zircon U-Pb, Zhai et al., 2006a) and 219.4±0.6 Ma (Muscovite Ar-Ar, Wang, P.A. et al., 2006), respectively. The epithermal gold deposits are mainly located at the Southeast coast region and Taiwan Island, including the Zijinshan (4D-1) and Chinkuashih (4D-2) gold deposits, which formed at 125±9.8 Ma (Bulk rock Rb-Sr, Zhang et al., 2001b) and 1.166±0.020 Ma (Zircon

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U-Pb, Gao et al., 2010), respectively (Fig. 19a). The epithermal gold deposits are basically hosted in coeval volcanics and subvolcanic rocks. For example, most of the Zijinshan orebodies occur in the

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Jurassic granites and only a few of them occur in the early Cretaceous dacites above the granites (Zhang, D.Q. et al., 2003). The Zijinshan and Chinkuashih deposits are associated with porphyry ores at depth, similar to some high sulfidation type epithermal gold deposits elsewhere in the world.

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The gold mineralization commonly occur above copper mineralization. The best documented

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example is the Zijinshan gold field where 154 t of gold occurs above 1.87 million tons of copper. 5.4.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types

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5.4.2.1 Orogenic

This deposit type is exemplified by the Hetai (4D-3) gold deposit situated in the western Guangdong Province. Gold mineralization is controlled by NE-trending ductile shear zones. The

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rock units exposed in the Hetai mining area are predominantly Neoproterozoic metamorphic rocks and Ordovician metasedimentary rocks. There are three types of fluid inclusions related to gold mineralization, including moderate-salinity aqueous, low-salinity H2O–CO2, and CO2-dominated. The homogenization temperatures of the fluid inclusions range from 130 °C to 310 °C, with two peaks of about 245 °C and 170 °C (Zheng, Y. et al., 2014). The Hetai has the δ34S values of -7.6–0.18‰ for pyrite, -2.46–-2.23‰ for chalcopyrite, -9–-7.3‰ for galena, -3–-2.22‰ for pyrrhotite, and -6.1–-4.25‰ for sphalerite (Lu et al., 1990; Chen et al., 1991; Xu and Gao, 1991). In contrast, the Baolun (4D-4) deposit has the higher δ34S values of -2.3–10.3‰ for pyrite (Chen et al., 2001; Shu et al., 2006) (Fig. 17d). The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in Baolun (4D-4) deposits are mainly in the range of 139–374 °C, with salinity of 1.40–11.10 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 17a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) and δD (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from -5.05‰ to 8.9‰ and from -93.7‰ to -30‰ respectively for the Hetai (4D-3) and Baolun, which suggests the participation of 43 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT meteoric water (Fig. 17b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Hetai and Baolun range from 7.80‰ to 19.94‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of the mineral vary from -4.84‰ to -1.89‰ (Fig. 17c). 5.4.2.2 Epithermal

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This type of deposit is introduced by the Zijinshan (4D-1) Cu-Au deposit, which is situated

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approximately 3 km northeast of the Cretaceous Bitian volcanic basin. Late Jurassic granites crop

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out within the mine area, forming a composite stock that consists of three rock types: medium- to coarse-grained cataclastic granite (oldest), medium- to fine-grained biotite granite, fine-grained muscovite granite (youngest). Medium- to fine-grained biotite granite is most widespread in the mine area and is the principal host rock for the Cu-Au orebodies (Fig. 19c). Copper-gold

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mineralization at Zijinshan occurs mainly within hydrothermal breccias and veins. The hydrothermal breccias occur mainly in upper parts of the Zijinshan deposit and typically crop out as

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small, steep ridges on the land surface. The boundary between hydrothermal breccias and wall rock is generally gradual. These breccias consist of angular fragments (usually <5 mm in size) and very fine grained mineralized matrix. The fragments with varied size and orientation comprise the altered

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wallrocks and hydrothermal ores. The mineralized matrix consists dominantly of quartz and alunite

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with minor amounts of sulfides such as pyrite (typically powdery), covellite, enargite, and digenite (So et al., 1998; Cui et al., 2015).

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The ore fluids of the Zijinshan (4D-1) and Chinkuashih (4D-2) deposits show the characteristics of high sulfidation epithermal gold deposits. The fluid inclusion data in the Zijinshan show that the homogenization temperatures vary from 320 °C to 250 °C and from 8 to 4 wt.% NaCl

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eq. for samples with alunite alteration and high sulfidation copper mineralization, from 180 °C to 100 °C and from 2 to 0 wt % NaCl eq. for samples with silicic alteration and gold mineralization (So et al., 1998). The fluid inclusions of the Chinkuashih deposit have homogenization temperatures of 190 °C to 280 °C, and salinity of 0.5–5.0 wt.% NaCl eq. However, there is a sample from this deposit that contains fluid inclusions with high homogenization temperature (307 °C–484 °C) and high salinities (30–51 wt.% NaCl eq.) suggesting that a dense fluid with a probable magmatic derivation was locally involved in the Chinkuashih system (Wang et al., 1999). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in Zijinshan (4D-1) mainly range from -4.6‰ to 10.3‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values from -66.1‰ to -48.9‰, which suggests the participation of meteoric water (Fig. 17b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Zijinshan is 8.02‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of the mineral is -4.9‰ (Fig. 17c). The δ34S in pyrite from Zijinshan range widely from -7.5‰ to 5.1‰ (Zhang et al., 1991) (Fig. 17d). 6. Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts 44 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts are known to have formed by amalgamation of Gondwana-derived continental blocks and arc terranes as a result of oceanic subduction followed by continental collision from Paleozoic to Mesozoic (Deng et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014). The Tibetan orogen consists of the Himalaya, Lhasa, Eastern Qiangtang, and Western Qiangtang blocks,

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and the Songpan-Garzê accretionary complex, which are separated by the Indus-Yarlung Zangbo,

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Bangong-Nujiang, and Jinshajiang suture zones from south to north (Fig. 20) (Yin and Harrison,

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2000; Mo et al., 2008; Hou and Cook, 2009; Liu, H.C. et al., 2015). Besides the Eastern Qiangtang, Western Qiangtang, and Lhasa blocks, the Sanjiang region further occupies the Simao (northern extension of Indochina Block), Baoshan, and Tengchong blocks. The Indus-Yarlung Zangbo suture zone marks the site where the Neo-Tethyan Ocean lithosphere was consumed at a subduction zone

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dipping northward beneath the Lhasa block (Chan et al., 2015; Xu, Z.Q. et al., 2015); the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone is the result of the closure of the Bangong-Nujiang Ocean caused by

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the continental collision of the Lhasa and Qiangtang blocks during the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous; and this suture connects the Shan boundary to the south. The Changning-Mengian suture represents the subduction zone of the trunk of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean. The Jinshajiang

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suture zone marks the site where the Jinshajiang oceanic lithosphere, branch of Paleo-Tethyan

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Ocean, was consumed, which is connecting the Ailaoshan suture. The Garzê-Litang oceanic basin developed along the western margin of the Yangtze Craton in the Permian, and its westward

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subduction resulted in the formation of the Late Triassic Yidun arc. During 55–50 Ma, the arrival of the Indian continent at the trench marked the closure of the Neotethyan ocean and the initial convergence between India and Eurasia (Najman et al., 2010;

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Replumaz et al., 2014). At about 45 Ma, the convergence rate suddenly dropped, indicating the transition from "soft collision" to "hard collision" (Chung et al., 2005). Coeval with this transition, the Neotethyan oceanic slab was considered to have detached from the India continental lithosphere. The potassic intrusive rocks emplaced from 40 Ma to 35 Ma along the Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan suture were considered to be induced by the removal of lower lithospheric mantle (Deng et al., 2015). In the southern Tibet, potassic-ultrapotassic and adakitic magmas with emplacement ages ranging from 25 to 10 Ma are present in the Lhasa Block; they were interpreted to relate to the removal of the lower part of the lithospheric mantle via convective thinning mechanism (Williams et al., 2001). The lithospheric mantle thinning or delamination at depth is considered to induce synchronal extension at shallower levels (Hou and cook, 2009). The removal of the lithospheric mantle has facilitated northward underthrust of the Indian mantle lithosphere starting from ca. 25 Ma (Chung et al., 2005). The India-Eurasia continental collision and underthrusting of the South China plate resulting in the kinking of Sanjiang, expressed by block rotation, extrusion, and shearing in the 45 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT southern Sanjiang particularly along the Ailaoshan shear zone during 32–10 Ma (Deng et al., 2015b). 6.1 Lhasa (5A) 6.1.1 Spatial-temporal distribution

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During the slab subduction of Tethys Ocean, many porphyry Cu-Au deposits were generated

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on the northern and southern margin of Lhasa Block, including the Early Cretaceous Duolong

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(5A-1) and Early Jurassic Xiongcun (5A-3) deposits (Tafti et al., 2009; Li, J.X. et al., 2011). The Duolong Cu-Au deposit, with proven 5.38 Mt Cu resources grading 0.72% Cu and 41 t gold grading 0.23 g/t in the northern Tibet, is mainly hosted in Early Cretaceous granodiorite porphyry and quartz diorite porphyrite. The deposit, formed at ca. 115 Ma determined by Ar-Ar dating of

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hydrothermal alteration K-feldspar and sericite (Li, J.X. et al., 2011), was associated with the southward slab subduction of Bangong-Nujiang Ocean. Recently, more porphyry Cu-Au deposits

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were discovered around the Duolong deposit resulting in the recognition of a large scale Bangongco Cu-Au gold belt. The Xiongcun Cu-Au deposit located in the southern part of Lhasa block is hosted in the quartz diorite porphyries and the felsic tuffs, with the zircon U-Pb ages of ~173 Ma and ~176

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Ma, respectively (Tang et al., 2010). The mineralization took place in the early Jurassic based on the

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molybdenite Re-Os age of 173.2±4.7 Ma for the Xiongcun deposit (Tafti et al., 2009) and was associated with the northward subduction of Indus-Yarlung Zangbo oceanic plate prior to its

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accretion to the southern margin of Eurasia (Tafti et al., 2014). In addition to oceanic subduction-related porphyry gold-as-by-product deposits, many continental collision-related porphyry and skarn gold deposits are discovered in the southern Lhasa.

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In the Gangdese belt of southern Tibet, Miocene magmas are associated with large porphyry deposits and Paleocene-Eocene magmas are less fertile for the formation of such deposits. Wang et al. (2014a, 2014b) proposed that these Miocene magmas were more hydrous and oxidized than earlier Paleocene-Eocene magmas, which may explain the association between magmas and large porphyry deposits. These Miocene potassic to ultrapotassic granites emplaced during crust extensional setting forming the Gangdese porphyry Cu belt in China (Zheng et al., 2004, 2007, 2014; Hou and Cook, 2009; Sun, X. et al., 2013). Most of deposits contain minor gold resources, but the 15.4 Ma Jiama (5A-4) Cu-Mo-Au-Pb-Zn skarn and porphyry deposits have an estimated 150 t Au (Fig. 20a). The Mayum (5A-2) and Bangbu (5A-5) are the typical orogenic gold deposits in Tibet. The Mayum deposit near the Indus-Yarlung Zangbo suture formed at ca. 59 Ma according to the 40

Ar/39Ar age dating on the sericite from the alteration associated with the auriferous quartz veins

(Jiang, S.H. et al., 2009). The Bangbu deposit was formed at ca. 44 Ma (Sun, X.M. et al., 2010). In 46 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the northern part of Himalaya, over 50 gold deposits, consistently enriched in antimony, are scattered within an area dominated by widespread mid-Miocene domes, which are intruded by Miocene leucogranites (Yang, Z.S. et al., 2009). Due to inadequate geological exploration, most gold deposits so far are small, and different genetic models including orogenic, epithermal or

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6.1.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types

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Carlin-like have been proposed for these deposits (Yang, Z.S. et al., 2009; Sun, X.M. et al., 2010).

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6.1.2.1 Orogenic

The Mayum (5A-2) orogenic gold deposit is located in western Tibet, with estimated resource of >80 t gold. The gold mineralization is hosted by Neoproterozoic-Cambrian schists, and is controlled by nearly parallel E-W trending bedding-concordant fracture zones. The Au orebodies

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are composed of auriferous quartz veins and altered rocks, with the Au grades ranging from 2.23 g/t to 69.56 g/t, and containing <3 vol.% sulfides. Fluid inclusions indicate that the ore fluid was

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CO2-rich, with salinities mainly between 1 and 6 wt.% NaCl eq., and homogenization temperatures from 260 to 280 °C. The δ18O values for quartz from auriferous veins range from 13.7‰ to 16.3‰, and the calculated δ18OH2O values in equilibrium with quartz are from 5.54‰ to 9.48‰ (Fig. 22b).

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It suggests that the ore fluid may be the deep and metamorphic fluids, although a contribution from

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magmatic source cannot be ruled out (Jiang, S.H. et al., 2009). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite in Mayum (5A-2) range from 14.90‰ to 19.30‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite, ankerite and

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magnesite mainly range from -4.5‰ to -3.4‰ (Fig. 22c). The Mayum gold deposit have the δ34S values of -2.5–7.4‰ for pyrite, -4–16.8‰ for galena, -3.9–2.3‰ for stibnite, and -15.9–3.4‰ for chalcopyrite (Fig. 22d; Wen et al., 2006; Jiang, S.H. et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2009; Zhai et al., 2014).

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The lead isotope compositions of sulfides from the gold ore are characterized by highly radiogenic values and very wide ranges of ratios: 18.324 to 20.819 for 207

Pb/204Pb, and 38.401 to 41.204 for

208

206

Pb/204Pb, 15.679 to 15.856 for

Pb/204Pb. These data indicate that lead and sulfur in the

quartz veins have multiple sources, and were derived from the different wallrocks as the fluid flowed through them. The ca. 44 Ma Bangbu deposit (5A-5) is hosted in Late Triassic meta-clastics and controlled by nearly E-W trending brittle-ductile shear zone (Sun et al., 2010c). In this ore deposit, the homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions are in the range of 163.6–270.4 °C, with salinity of 4.34–9.34 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 22a). The δ18OH2O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids mainly range from 2. 8‰ to 13.7‰ and the fluid δD (SMOW) values mainly range from -120‰ to -36.7‰ (Fig. 22b). The Bangbu (5A-5) gold deposit has the δ34S values of 2.8–6.5‰ in pyrite (Wei et al., 2010) (Fig. 22d). 6.1.2.2 Porphyry 47 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT This type of deposit is represented by the Xiongcun (5A-3) deposit, which is located ~260 km southwest of Lhasa city. Host rocks of the deposit are intensely altered, and protolith texture and composition are commonly obscured. The Xiongcun deposit is centered on a distinct quartz diorite porphyry intrusion of Middle Jurassic age which intruded the older, widespread hornblende diorite

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porphyry intrusions and mafic tuff units. Alteration, vein types, and mineralization in the deposit are

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zoned around the central quartz diorite porphyry intrusion (Fig. 20d). The alteration zones include

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early biotite-rich K silicate alteration, quartz-sericite-pyrite, sodic alteration. Mineralization at Xiongcun forms a vertical profile that comprises four distinct mineralized zones (Tafti et al., 2014). Fluid inclusions of Xiongcun deposit contain significant Na+, K+, Ca2+, and CO2 and N2, with lesser CH4, C2H2 and C2H4 (Xu, W.Y. et al., 2009). The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in

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orogenic deposits are mainly in the range of 121–382 °C, with salinity of 1.23–36.61 wt.% NaCl eq. for Xiongcun (Fig. 22a). The δ34S values of Xiongcun gold deposit is -2.92–2.7‰ for pyrite,

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-3.1–-1.5‰ for pyrrhotite, -3.5–-0.8‰ for sphalerite, and -1.7–-1.1‰ for chalcopyrite (Xu et al., 2006; Ding et al., 2006; Huang et al., 2011; Lang et al., 2012) (Fig. 22d).

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6.2 Garzê-Litang (5B)

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The Garzê-Litang suture zone extends from Yushu in the north, to Garzê, Litang and Muli in the south. It forms a reverse "S" shape and projects in the N direction with 700 km long and 10–15

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km wide. Many gold deposits occur in the Garzê-Litang suture, including the Gala (5B-1) large gold deposit and some smaller ones (Fig. 20). Several orogenic Au deposits, such as Gala, Xionglongxi (5B-2), Ajialongwa (5B-3),and Suoluogou, occur within the Garzê–Litang suture zone. It was also debated that these ore deposits belong to the Carlin-like based on the involvement of

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connate fluid (Zhang, Y et al., 2012). The Gala gold deposit is hosted in the Upper Triassic low-grade metamorphic turbidites and controlled by the NW-trending shear zones which extend over 50 km long and 3–8 km wide. Four gold-bearing alteration zones have been discovered and the orebodies are present mainly along the NW-trending shear zones. The zircon fission-track ages of the deposits vary from 120 Ma to 80Ma (Huan et al., 2011). 6.3 Ailaoshan (5C) 6.3.1 Spatial-temporal distribution The Ailaoshan tectonic zone comprises the Ailaoshan suture resulted from the closure of Ailaoshan Paleotethyan ocean and the Ailaoshan shear zone in response to the India-Eurasia continent collision (Wang et al., 2014). An Eocene–Oligocene potassic–ultrapotassic magmatic belt, associated with several important porphyry–skarn ore deposits, extended from the Ailaoshan to Jinshajiang suture across the Eastern Qiangtang Block, Simao Block, and South China block (Deng et al., 2014a) (Fig. 20). The ore deposits related to the potassic and ultrapotassic intrusive felsic 48 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT rocks, including Beiya, Machangqing (5C-2), Habo (5C-5), etc, in the Ailaoshan domain formed in a limited time around 35 Ma (Lu et al., 2012; Liu, H.C. et al., 2015). The Ailaoshan orogenic gold belt, associated with Ailaoshan shear zone mainly contains five orogenic gold deposit including Laowangzhai (5C-3), Donggualin (5C-3), Jinchang (5C-4), Chang’an (5C-8), and Daping (5C-7)

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deposits; with over thirty smaller ones (Fig. 20) (Zhang, J. et al., 2014). The Ar-Ar dating of

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ore-bearing lamprophyre and hydrothermal alteration minerals indicates that the gold mineralization

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in the Ailaoshan gold belt mainly took place at ca. 32–26 Ma, although there is one outlier at ca. 62 Ma in the Jinchang deposit accoridng to the Ar-Ar dating of fuchsite (Table 1). 6.3.2 Geological and isotopic systematics of different genetic types 6.3.2.1 Orogenic

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The gold deposits in the Ailaoshan belt are represented by the Zhenyuan, Jinchang and Daping ore deposits. The Zhenyuan (5C-3) gold deposit with >50 t gold reserve, consisting of the

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Donggualin and Laowangzhai orebody clusters (Deng et al., 2015c). The Donggualin (5C-3) orebodies are controlled by the NW-striking shear faults, whereas most orebodies in the Laowangzhai are dominated by NE- and ENE-striking transcompressional faults (Deng et al.,

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2015c). The control of the shear zones on mineralization favors the interpretation that the Ar-Ar

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isochron age ~27 Ma of phlogopite in the mineralized lamprophyre represents the mineralization age. The rock types in the ore deposit including Paleozoic slate, metasandstone, limestone,

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Cenozoic lamprophyre, and Permian meta-mafic to ultramafic units, which were all mineralized by the infiltration of ore-bearing fluids into extensional fractures. The 208

206

Pb/204Pb,

207

Pb/204Pb, and

Pb/204Pb values of hydrothermal pyrite from Zhenyuan are close to those of the lower crust. Fluid

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inclusions from the auriferous quartz veins are dominantly NaCl–H2O and H2O–CO2 with high CO2 content (Liang et al., 2011). Microthermometric measurements show that the ore fluid is characterized by low salinity (6–8 wt.% NaCl eq.) and moderate to low temperature (110–250 °C), which is different from the high temperature and salinity of primary magmatic hydrothermal ore deposits (Fig. 22a). The δ18OH2O (relative to SMOW) values of the ore fluids range from 1.6‰ to 11.77‰. The fluid δD (SMOW) values show a range of -105.1‰ to -50.3‰ (Liang et al., 2011). In the δ18OH2O vs. δD diagram, the field of Zhenyuan extends from the range of metamorphic fluids to connate fluid (Fig. 22b).. Pyrite δ34S values show a wide range with a peak near 0‰. The He-Ar isotopic data further suggest that the ore fluid had input of mantle volatiles. The mineral assemblages and enrichment of elements in the ores, high CO2 content in fluid inclusions, significant involvement of metamorphic fluid, and large contribution of lower crust to metals are compatible with the characteristics of orogenic gold deposits. Therefore the Zhenyan ore system can be categorized as orogenic. The Zhenyuan ore deposit is considered to be an orogenic type, formed 49 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT in a continental collision setting. The regional shearing associated with the continental collision drove the release of gold-charged metamorphic fluids and formation of the Zhenyuan ore deposit. The Daping (5C-7) ore deposit, another shear zone-controlled one in the southern part of the low-grade metamorphic unit of the Ailaoshan shear zone, formed at ~33 Ma according to the

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phlogopite Ar–Ar inverse isochron age. The metallogenesis is contemporary to the initial shearing

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along Ailaoshan (Sun et al., 2009; Fig. 25e). Ore minerals in this deposit include scheelite, pyrite,

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chalcopyrite, galena, bornite, and sphalerite, which is much different from those in the Zhenyuan. Fluid inclusions from the auriferous quartz show homogenization temperatures of 299–424 °C with a peak at 320–380 °C. Compared to the Zhenyuan ore deposit, the ore fluids in Daping have higher temperature and greater depth of 5.1–12.9 km. The δD values of ore fluid are higher than those in

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the Zhenyuan, suggesting a more significant contribution from the metamorphic fluid in the Daping. The ore fluid of the Daping deposit is a near critical CO2–H2O–NaCl system with high-CO2 content

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(CO2≥H2O) and low to moderate salinity formed in a ductile–brittle transition zone (Sun et al., 2009). Noble gases isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions in Daping scheelites are 0.706–1.018 R/Ra for 3He/4He, 1801.8–2663.8 for Ne/22Ne, 0.394–0.692 for

134

Ar/36Ar, 9.600–11.56 for

Xe/132Xe, and 0.301–0.462 for

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20

40

136

20

Ne/22Ne, 0.028–0.0467 for

Xe/132Xe, respectively, which were

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interpreted that ore fluids and materials of the Daping mine derived mainly from the transitional zone between the lower crust and upper mantle (Sun et al., 2009). In the Jinchang deposit, the

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orebodies occur mostly as lenticular and stratabound veins, mainly in the contact zones between highly silicified and carbonatized ultramafic rocks and volcano-sedimentary sequences. In summary, the δ18O (SMOW) values of the ore fluids in the orogenic deposits mainly range

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from 0.09‰ to 13.565‰ with a minimum -3.59‰ and the fluid δDH2O ‰ (SMOW) values mainly range from -115‰ to -49.73‰ for the five deposits including Daduhe (5D-1), Laowangzhai (5C-3), Jinchang (5C-4) etc (Fig. 22b). The δ18O (SMOW) values of calcite and ankerite range from 10.19‰ to 21.20‰ and their δ13C (PDB) values mainly range from -5.5‰ to 1.76‰ for three deposits including Laowangzhai, Daping (5C-7), and Chang’an (5C-8) (Fig. 22c). The δ34S values are -6.52–15.41‰ for pyrite in Laowangzhai (Zhang et al., 2010; Deng et al., 2015c), -4.7–-2.6‰ for pyrite in Jinchang (Zhang et al., 1987), -2.8–15.8‰ for pyrite and -0.8–6.55‰ for galena in Daping (Ge et al., 2007; Shi et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2011), and -13–3.57‰ for pyrite in Chang’an (Ying et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2010; Li et al., 2011) (Fig. 22d). 6.3.2.2 Porphyry This porphyry type deposit is exemplified by the Beiya (5C-1) ore deposit, the largest known skarn Au deposit in China, which is located in the northwestern Yangtze Craton but traditionally divided into Sanjiang belt. The deposit is hosted by a porphyritic monzogranitic stock that is 50 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT cross-cut by a porphyritic granite and later lamprophyre dikes (Fig. 20b). Gold within the deposit is generally hosted by voluminous massive iron oxide and sulfide bodies, locally termed Fe–Au orebodies (Liu et al., 2012). It was suggested that the primary sulfide and magnetite were weathered to form the geothite and hematite in the Fe-Au orebodies (Deng et al., 2015b). These Fe–Au

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orebodies are generally located along the margins of the porphyritic monzogranite and within the

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peripheral Triassic carbonates, with lesser amounts of mineralization that penetrates into the

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monzogranite. The porphyritic granite within the study area has undergone K-feldspar, pyrite, carbonate, sericite, and chlorite alteration, and contains both disseminated and veinlet sulfides, including pyrite, chalcopyrite, and galena, among others. The ore deposit has undergone severe weathering and denudation, which has generated laterite-type orebodies (Deng et al., 2015b). The

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ore fluids are NaCl-H2O types, with homogenization temperature and salinity in the range of 132–550 °C and 1.9–61.1 wt.% NaCl eq, respectively (Xiao, X.N. et al., 2009a). The δ18O (SMOW)

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values of calcite in Beiya mainly range from 11.57‰ to 15.86‰ with a maximum 28.39‰ and the δ13C (PDB) values of calcite mainly range from -8.13‰ to 0.72‰ (Fig. 22c). 6.4 Daduhe-Jinpingshan (5D)

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Many orogenic gold deposits, like, Daduhe (5D-1), Shimian (5D-2), and Jinpingshan (5D-3),

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in the western margin of South China block are associated with the regional Cenozoic strike-slip fault as a result of the India-Eurasia collision. The Daduhe gold deposit located at both sides of

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Daduhe River and consists of over 36 gold districts, the lithostratigraphic units of which consist of metamorphosed bimodal volcanic rocks of the Archean to Early Proterozoic Kangding complex, Proterozoic tonalite, granite and dioritoids, and Cenozoic mafic dikes. The orebodies are mainly

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quartz vein contained along the N-S trending steep brittle faults. The Daduhe gold deposit has the δ34S values of 0.7–4.2 for pyrite (Li et al., 2004). Fluid inclusions of pyrite in Daduhe have 3He/4He ratios of 0.16 to 0.86 Ra, and their 40Ar/36Ar ratios range from 298 to 3288, which were interpreted as a result of mixing of mantle- and crust- originated fluids (Li et al., 2007a). The Ar-Ar dating of muscovite from auriferous veins show the mineralization age of Daduhe ore deposit is 32–25 Ma (Ying and Luo, 2007). The host rocks of Shimian gold deposit are mainly the Devonian carbonate rocks and Cenozoic granites, with minor Proterozoic granitoid complex. The host rocks of Jinpingshan goldfield are mainly the Late Proterozoic crystalline limestone and dolomitized limestone and the Ar-Ar dating of sericite from auriferous veins shows the mineralization age is about 23 Ma (Li, G.M. et al., 2005). The gold mineralization along this belt is coeval with the shearing along Ailaoshan to the west. 7. Discussion 7.1 Tectonic mechanism for gold mineralization 51 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 7.1.1 Orogenic The orogenic gold deposits occur in the Tianshan-Altay (1A), Xiaoqinling (2C), West Qinling (3A), Qilian (3B), Tibet (5A), Sanjiang (5C) and Daduhe-Jinpingshan (5D), with formation ages ranging from Paleozoic to Cenozoic showing peaks at ~220 Ma and ~30 Ma (Fig. 25a). The

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homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions for the orogenic gold deposits is generally in the

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range of 100–400 °C, and the salinity falls in the range of 1–15 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 23a). The D-O

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isotopes are different for the various ore clusters. Such as, the fluid δ18OH2O (SMOW) and δD (SMOW) values are in the range of 4.6–12.4‰ and -104.2–-61.9‰ respectively for the Altay-Junggar (1A); and those are 1.2–5‰ and -72–-45‰ for the Central Tianshan (1A), 7.1–15.4‰ and -89–-56‰ for the South Tianshan accretionary complex (1A), 1.4–15.8‰ and

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-96–-53.4‰ for the West Qinling (3A), 2.8–13.7‰ and -120–-36.7‰ for the Tibet (5A) (Fig. 23c, d, e). The involvement of meteoric water or connate water cannot explain this difference. We

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consider the variation in the regional lithologies in the source area has affected the isotopic compositions of the fluid. The δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values of carbonate minerals in all the orogenic ore deposits differs from each other. For instance, the δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB)

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values are in the range of 3.6–12.9‰ and -4–-3.2‰ respectively for the northern margin of NCC

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(3A); those are 10.2–19.7‰ and -7.8–2.3‰ for the West Qinling (4A), 3.1–10.5‰ and -2.3–1.2‰ for the North Qilian (4B). In contrast, the δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values are in the range of

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14.9–19.3‰ and -4.5–-3.4‰ for the Tibet (5A) (Fig. 24a). The δ34S (CDT) values of pyrite range largely from -18.4‰ to 27‰ and concentrate from -13‰ to 19.5‰ for orogenic gold deposits in China (Fig. 24e).

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Gold deposits such as Baguamiao (3A-4), Huachanggou, and Liziyuan in West Qinling (3A) are typical orogenic gold deposits with formation age of Late Triassic (with age peak at ~220 Ma). The ore fluids were mainly metamorphic fluids and syn-orogeny tectonics created fluid-migrating channels for precipitation (Fig. 28d) (Liu et al., 2015b). In the Xiaoqinling, the formation of the Triassic orogenic ore deposit was suggested to have been induced by the lithospheric extension after the collision between NCC and the South China block (Fig. 25b) (Li et al., 2012b). The Cenozoic orogenic ore deposits in the Tibet to Sanjiang orogenic belts were formed in the background of continental collision. In the Tibet, the Mayum (5A-2) with a formation age of 59.3 Ma was developed during the transition from slab subduction of Neo-Tethyan Ocean (Jiang, S.H. et al., 2009) to the Indian-Eurasian continental collision. The Bangbu (5A-5) orogenic ore deposit formed in the transitional period from soft collision to hard collision. The occurrences of Au-Sb is mainly developed due to the crust extension as a result of lithospheric mantle removal starting from ca. 25 Ma (Yang, Z.S. et al., 2009). For the Ailaoshan belt, the removal of lower lithospheric mantle with 52 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the following underthrust of the South China plate (Fig. 25c) caused crust compression and shearing along Ailaoshan (Deng et al., 2015b). The compression might have induced an increase in rock pressure and upgrade of crustal metamorphism, releasing Au-charged metamorphic fluid. The ore fluids were possibly expelled from the first-order Ailaoshan shear zones due to the outward

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7.1.2 Jiaodong-type

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decrease in pressure and precipitated in subsidiary shear zone.

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The Jiaodong-type gold deposits were stemmed from the study on the gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula (Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Groves and Santosh, 2015a, b; Deng et al., 2015a), which were originally considered to be orogenic gold deposit for several decades (Goldfarb et al., 2001, 2007). In this paper, we define the Cretaceous gold deposits from Northeast China (1A),

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northern margin of the NCC (2A), Jiaodong Peninsula (2B) and Xiaoqingling (2C) as Jiaodong-type gold deposits based on comprehensive summaries of their geological, alteration patterns, fluid

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inclusions, material sources, and geodynamic setting etc. (Goldfarb et al., 2007; Deng et al., 2015a). This group of Jiaodong-type gold deposits was mostly related to the development of metamorphic core complex and controlled by NE- to NNE-striking faults. The ore-forming age is

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dominantly in the range of 140 Ma to 110 Ma and clusters at 120 Ma (Fig. 26a), during which the

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geodynamic setting was dominated by the decratonization and the subduction of Pacific plate (Fig. 26b, d). The homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions, that is featured by the high

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abundance of CO2, are in the range of 110–410 °C, concentrating in 250–350 °C, with a low to moderate salinity of 0.8–12.7 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 23a). For the Jiaodong-type, the D-O isotopes are indistinguishable from those for the orogenic gold deposit. For instance, the δ18OH2O (SMOW) and

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δD ‰ (SMOW) values are -1.7–8.2‰ and -101.9–-62‰ for the northern margin of the NCC (2A), 0.1–8.9‰ and -106.5–-48‰ for the Jiaodong Peninsula (2B), 0.9–7.9‰ and -90–-37.3‰ for the Xiaoqinling (2C), respectively (Fig. 23f). The δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values of the carbonate minerals are in the range of 7.3–15.6‰ and -4.3–-3.2‰ separately for the northern margin of NCC; and those are 6.5–14.1‰ and -6.6–-3‰ separately for the Jiaodong Peninsula, 7.9–11.9‰ and -7.5–-3.2‰ for the Xiaoqinling and Xiong’ershan (Fig. 24b). The δ34S (CDT) values of pyrite range from -14‰ to 13‰ and concentrate from -4‰ to 13‰ for Jiaodong-type gold deposits in China (Fig. 24e). Basically, the isotopes in the Jiaodong, Xiaoqinling, and the northern margin of the NCC are comparable; this supports the explanation that the ore fluid and metal for the Jiaodong-type were most likely derived from the deep. The ore-forming materials (fluid and metals sources) show both mantle and crust fingerprints in isotopes compositions and are recently considered to be mostly from the subducting Pacific slab and overlying metasomatized mantle. 53 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT These differences between the Jiaodong gold deposits and typical orogenic gold deposits include the following aspects. 1) The host rocks of typical orogenic gold deposit mainly are deformed metamorphic rocks of different ages and that of Jiaodong-type gold deposits are mostly granite intrusions. 2) The hydrothermal fluids and metal are generally related with the metamorphic

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rocks in the accretionary orogens; however, the rocks of the Jiaodong gold province were

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metamorphosed about two billion years before Jiaodong gold deposition. Under such conditions,

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most volatiles and gold would have been lost from the metamorphosed country rocks. 3) Most researchers suggested the Jiaodong-type was formed during the transition from compression to extension during collisional orogenic process or extension as a consequence of the westward subduction of the Pacific plate; in contrast, the orogenic deposits were traditionally considered to

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form in the compressional setting during accretionary orogenesis (Deng et al., 2003a; Chen et al., 2004a; Li and Santosh, 2014). It is worthy to note that the gold mineralization contemporaneous to

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the Jiaodong-type deposits in NCC occurred in the Northeast China and West Qinling, and this mineralization has been categorized into the type of orogenic in this paper. To our current understanding, the Jiaodong-type displayed more direct contribution from mantle in the background

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of decratonization besides the oceanic slab subduction, in contrast, the oceanic slab subduction

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might be the main drive for the formation of the orogenic. The genetic relationship and distinction

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between these two types formed in Early Cretaceous need more study. The geodynamics of Jiaodong-type gold metallogeny in eastern China have been debated for several decades. It has been considered that the large-scale gold mineralization was related to the collision between North China Plate and Yangtze Plate during the Triassic and its subsequent

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extension (Chen et al., 2005; Song et al., 2012). For example, Chen et al. (2005) suggested that large-scale gold metallogenesis can be related to three important stages in the geodynamic evolution of a collisional orogen (compression–crustal thickening–uplift, lithospheric delamination and transition to extension, and a final extension phase). The most important metallogenic phase occurred at the transition from collisional compression to extension tectonics. In recent years, the majority of the scholars ascribed the gold mineralization to the slab subduction of the Pacific plates and the decrationization in the NCC. A series of ore genetic scenarios have been used to classify the gold mineralization largely based on the geodynamic mechanism. 1) The large-scale Jiaodong-type gold mineralization is related to the drifting direction of the Pacific plate which is controlled by the Ontong Java plume head in the South Pacific (Goldfarb et al., 2007; Sun, W.D. et al., 2013; Fig. 26c). At 125–122 Ma, the Ontong Java plume head in the South Pacific formed the largest igneous province so far recognized on the Earth (Larson, 1997; Phinney et al., 1999). This event led to a major change in drifting direction of the Pacific plate by 80° at 125–122 Ma (Sun et al., 2007), changing from 54 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT southwestward to northwestward drifting (Koppers et al., 2001, 2003, Wang, Y.J. et al., 2011). Consequently, the tectonic regime changed from extension to compressive/transpressive in eastern China, causing deformation, thickening, and metamorphism of the overriding plate, especially along weak crustal belts, which resulted in the world-class mineralization. 2) The gold mineralizations in

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eastern China are controlled by the deep process associated with the slab subduction of Paleo-Pacific

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plate (Li et al., 2012a; Guo et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2013; Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014; Deng et al.,

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2015a). Li et al. (2012) suggested that while the deep Pacific oceanic subduction triggered unsteady mantle flow, dehydration of the subducted slab have weakened the upper mantle and consequently lowered its solidus and viscosity, significantly facilitating erosion of the lithospheric root. Rising of asthenosphere coupled with destruction of the lithosphere has generated voluminous mafic and felsic

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magmas that provided sufficient fluids, sulfur and, by inference, other ore components to form the giant gold provinces (Fig. 26e). The interaction between the Izanagi slab and asthenosphere was

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emphasized by Zhao et al. 2009 and Pirajno and Zhou, 2015 (Fig. 26d). Before 135 Ma, dehydration of a flat subduction slab from the Izanagi plate, resulting in partial melting of metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) with partial melting of the lower crust, asthenospheric

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mantle impinged the slab at the 610-km discontinuity. After 135 Ma, asthenospheric mantle

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upwelling broke through the stagnant slab, causing the partial melting of the upper crust and formation of intracontinental rift basins. Goldfarb and Santosh (2014) and Deng et al. (2015a)

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suggested that the ore fluids were mostly produced directly by the metamorphism of oceanic lithosphere and overlying sediment on the subducting paleo-Pacific slab, or by devolatilization of an enriched mantle wedge above the slab (Fig. 26g). 3) The gold deposits were formed during

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lithospheric thinning (Yang et al., 2005; Mao et al., 2008). The removal of lithospheric mantle and the upwelling of new asthenospheric mantle induced partial melting and dehydration of the lithospheric mantle and lower crust due to an increase of temperature (Fig. 26f). The fluids derived from the lower crust were mixed with magmatic and meteoric waters, and resulted in the deposition of gold and associated metals. Mao et al. (2008) suggested that gold mineralization took place during the strong lithospheric thinning and their ore-forming materials probably derived from mantle fluids, which ascended together with lamprophyre and diabase dykes, and interacted with crustal fluids and host rocks. Yang et al. (2013) pointed out that a combination of delamination, mantle upwelling, Pacific subduction-related metasomatic enrichment and recycling of ancient components facilitated the gold metallogeny in Jiaodong area. Based on the coeval production of the OIB-like and arc-like mafic dike with the Jiaodong gold province at ~120 Ma, it was also suggested that the lithospheric delamination was the cause for the metallogenesis (Ma et al., 2014). 4) It was speculated that lower mantle flow arising from the periphery of the stagnant slabs triggered heat and material transfer that led to 55 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT large-scale magmatism, fluid flux and mineralization (Khomich et al., 2014; Fig. 26h). 5) Two successive, but distinct gold-forming tectonic episodes in northwestern Jiaodong on the crust scale were proposed by Yang, L.Q. et al. (2014). The first event reactivated the detachment fault along the edge of the Linglong granite between 134 and 126 Ma, and then a second reactivated the shears along

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the margins of the Guojialing granite (Fig. 26i). In a recent study evaluating the various types of gold

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deposits, Groves and Santosh (2015b) argued that the genesis of orogenic gold deposits involving

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metamorphic fluids is debatable. They suggested subducted oceanic slab with overlying sulfide-rich sedimentary package or mantle wedge as the potential source. They applied this view in holistic model where they considered the Jiaodong deposits as the key to understand orogenic gold provinces with gold derived from late-orogenic metamorphic devolatilization of stalled subduction slabs and

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oceanic sediments.

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7.1.3 Porphyry-skarn

The porphyry gold deposits are distributed in the Tianshan-Altay (1A), Northeast China (1B) and Tibet (5A), with formation ages ranging from ~510 Ma to ~20 Ma (Fig. 27a). The skarn gold

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deposits are distributed in Northeast China (1B) and the Middle-lower reaches of Yangtze River

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(4B), with formation ages roughly ranging from 150 Ma to 110 Ma (Fig. 1b). Actually the porphyry and skarn mineralization are often associated in one ore deposit in these ore belts. The

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homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in porphyry gold deposits vary greatly from 120 to 600 °C in all the ore stages, and the salinity changes widely within 2–82 wt.% NaCl eq. The homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions in skarn gold deposits are in the range of 122–695 °C, with salinity of 2–53 wt.% NaCl eq. (Fig. 23b). The fluids δ18OH2O (SMOW) and δD

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(SMOW) values are in the range of 3.2–3.8‰ and -98.2–-74.8‰ respectively for the West Junggar (1A); those are -5.4–-2‰ and -63–-45‰ for the Central Tianshan (1A), -1.2–10.1‰ and -99–-38‰ for the Northeast China (1B), 6.9–10.7‰ and -69–-62‰ for skarn gold deposits in Yangtze River (4B) (Fig. 23g). The δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values of the hydrothermal carbonate minerals are 6.2–15.3‰ and -6.2–-0.7‰ respectively for the Central Tianshan, 11.6–15.9‰ and -8.1–0.7‰ for the Sanjiang, 12.3–12.9‰ and -5.2–-3.6‰ for skarn gold deposits in the Yangtze River (Fig. 24c). The δ34S (CDT) values of pyrite range from -3.3‰ to 3.2‰ concentrating in -0.2‰ to 2‰ for porphyry gold deposits in China. The δ34S (CDT) values of pyrite range from -2‰ to 8‰ for skarn gold deposits in China (Fig. 24e). The ore-forming porphyry intrusive rocks in the Middle-lower reaches of Yangtze River (4B) are the high-K calc-alkaline to calc-alkaline series, with the majority possess adakitic geochemical signature. The ore-bearing porphyries with adakitic signature may have originated from by the partial melting of the thickened lower crust perhaps caused by the delamination of enriched 56 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT lithospheric mantle (Zhou, et al., 2015; Fig. 27e). The Cenozoic porphyry gold or gold-rich ore deposits related to the potassic intrusive rocks are outstanding in the Tibet-Sanjiang orogenic belt, which has experienced Indian-Eurasia continental collision and consequent intracontinental magmatism and large-scale shearing. It was previously considered that the movement of the

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Ailaoshan–Red River shear zone and the resultant tectonic decompression caused the production of

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the potassic magmatic rocks (Fig. 27b). Based on the recent extensive geochronological data

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constraining the ductile shearing (started from 32 Ma) and the emplacement of potassic rocks (~35 Ma), it has been recognized that the ductile shearing postdated the magmatism (Deng et al., 2015b). Therefore, it is proposed that the mechanism of removal of lower lithospheric mantle as the trigger to the magmatism (Fig. 27c). The asthenosphere upwelling after the removal is an efficient

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mechanism to trigger the partial melting of the enriched lithospheric mantle and the juvenile crust formed at ~840 Ma. The melting of the juvenile crust formed the metal-carrying potassic magma.

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This is the case for the Miocene Gangdese gold-rich porphyry deposits which were related to the melting of juvenile crust formed during the Paleocene-Eocene slab subduction (Fig. 27e). For the geodynamic process of the porphyry-skarn deposits in the Middle and Lower reaches of Yangtze

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River (Fig. 27d), enriched lithospheric mantle delamination led to the asthenospheric upwelling,

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leading to partial melting of the enriched lithospheric mantle and generating mafic magmas. These mafic magmas may have ascended through the thickened lower crust and caused partial melting

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there, forming deep magma chambers. Continued magma mixing in the deep magma chambers may have created resultant magmas with adakitic signature and considerable metals, causing the porphyry-skarn gold mineralization from 145 Ma to 120 Ma (Zhou et al., 2015). The Fig. 27f shows

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an integrated model to evaluate the genesis of the porphyry gold mineralization in the central NCC. The asthenospheric upwelling during Mesozoic led to inhomogeneous lithospheric thinning with the heat and fluid input from underplated mafic magmas, which resulted in extensive melting of the basement rocks in the lower and middle crust. Mantle-derived mafic magmas intruded the felsic magma chambers resulting in various degrees of magma mixing. The metals were considered to derive from both mantle and crustal sources (Li, Q. et al., 2015). All the geodynamic models for the porphyry-skarn ore deposit with different spatial-temporal coordinates from the intracontinental setting all provoke the formation of the juvenile crust as a result of the previous orogenesis. 7.1.4 Carlin-like The Carlin-like gold deposits are distributed in the West Qinling (3A) and Youjiang basin (4A), with formation ages ranging from ~220 Ma to ~130 Ma (Fig. 28a). The ore fluid inclusion data of Carlin-like deposits in China have many similar features to that of Carlin deposits in Nevada. They are characterized by low- to moderate-homogenization temperatures (100°–380 °C, mostly 57 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT <300 °C), low-to high-salinity (1–21 wt % NaCl eq., mostly <9 wt.% NaCl eq.) (Fig. 23b), aqueous fluids as the main type of the fluid inclusions with little CO2, similar to those of the ore fluids from the Nevada Carlin deposits: low- to moderate-temperature (180°–240 °C), low-salinity (~2–3 wt.% NaCl equiv) aqueous fluids that contained <4 mol% CO2 and <0.4 mol% CH4 (Cline et al., 2005).

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There is no fluid inclusion, mineralogical, or textural evidence for fluid boiling or immiscibility for

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the Chinese Carlin-like gold deposits. The fluids δ18OH2O (SMOW) and δD (SMOW) values are in the range of 1.04–15.5‰ and -102.6–-70.6‰ respectively for the West Qinling (3A), and they are

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-5.4–16.3‰ and -92.4–-53.4‰ for the Youjiang basin (4A) (Fig. 23h). The δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values of the carbonate minerals are 8–21‰ and -2.8–6.1‰ respectively for the West Qinling, and 13.9–17.6‰ and -8.5–-2.7‰ for the Youjiang basin (Fig. 24d). The δ34S (CDT) values

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of pyrite range from -16.5‰ to 28‰ and concentrate within -9‰ to 15‰ for the Carlin-like type gold deposits in China (Fig. 24e).

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The Carlin-like ore deposits in the West Qinling (3A) and Youjiang basin (4A) show evident involvement of meteoric water, as is different from that of the orogenic and Jiaodong-type; and those in the two regions are further different from each other in the D-O isotopic compositions to

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some extent. The orogenic and Carlin-like ore deposits in West Qinling formed synchronously and

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were differentiated into distinct tectonic settings during the continental collision between the South China block and the NCC (Fig. 28d). The formation of the Carlin-like ore deposits in the Youjiang

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basin, western South China Block, was suggested to be related to the intracontinental extension associated with subduction of the Tethyan slab. The main metallogenesis occurred at ~200 Ma in response to the distant slab subduction of the Mesotethyan (Fig. 28b) and ~120 Ma (Fig. 28c)

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resulted from the arc-back extension and Neotethyan ocean crusts respectively (Deng et al., 2015b). In this setting, the metamorphic rocks and organic-rich sedimentary rocks experienced reactivation, releasing metal-charged metallogenic and connate fluid respectively. The different fluids mixed to different degree in various local geological condition, forming a series of Carlin-like ore deposits characterized by the involvement of multi-sourced fluids. In the Youjiang basin, the Carlin-like gold deposits and paleo-oil reservoirs are commonly localized either at the margin of the basin or in the intrabasinal paleohighs near subbasin-bounding syndepositional faults. Both compaction-driven and topographically/tectonically driven fluid flows are the likely mechanisms in the Youjiang basin. Gold precipitation may have occurred when the upward migrating ore fluids encountered suitable geochemical barriers, by processes such as decrease in temperature and pressure or mixing with another type of fluid, like the meteoric water. The hydrocarbons contained in the auriferous fluid were accumulated in appropriate stratigraphic, lithologic, and structural traps, forming paleo-oil reservoirs nearby the gold deposits (Fig. 28e; Gu et al., 2012). 58 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 7.1.5 Epithermal The epithermal gold deposits are distributed in the Tianshan-Altay (1A), Northeast China (1B), Xiaoqinling (2C) and Southeast coast (4D), with formation ages ranging from ~360 Ma to ~1 Ma (Fig. 29). Most epithermal gold deposits in China belong to the low sulfidation type, except the

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Zijinshan (4D-1) and Chinkuashih (4D-2) deposits that fall into high sulfidation type. Most of the

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low sulfidation gold deposits in China are also associated with calc-alkaline andesite to dacitic such as Axi (1A-15) and Shiyingtan (1A-19) deposits in the Tianshan-Altay gold province as well as the

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Zhengguang (1B-4) and Pangkaimeng (1B-2) deposits in the Greater Xing’an Range. A few low sulfidation gold deposits in China are associated with calc-alkaline rhyolite (Dong’an, 1B-6; Zhang et al., 2010), tholeiitic basalts (Hatu, 1A-4; Wang, J. et al., 2004), and alkaline intrusive complexes

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(Guilaizhuang; Mao et al., 2003a). In China, the low sulfidation deposits mainly have sulfide-poor adularia-quartz vein orebodies, with minor breccia and disseminated orebodies. However, breccias

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are abundant in many places and commonly host the ores for the high sulfidation type deposits (e.g., Zijinshan (4D-1) and Qiyugou (2C-10) deposits). Metallic minerals in the high sulfidation deposits are sulfide-rich assemblages such as high sulfidation-state minerals including enargite, luzonite, and

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covellite, as well as chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite, tennantite-tetrahedrite, tellurides (Simmons et

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al., 2005).

The fluid inclusion data of the low sulfidation epithermal gold deposits suggest that ore

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deposition took place at temperatures between 100 °C and 400 °C. The salinity of the ore fluids is 1–19 wt % NaCl eq., the majority of which is <10 wt % NaCl eq. (Fig. 23a) (Table 1). The fluids δ18OH2O (SMOW) and δD (SMOW) values are in the range of -1.8–0.4‰ and -116–-98‰ for the

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North Tianshan (1A); those are 1.1–8.3‰ and -83.6–-60.1‰ for the Xiong’ershan (2B); -4.6–10.3‰ and -66.1–-48.9‰ for the Southeast coast (4D) (Fig. 23g). The δ18O (SMOW) and δ13C (PDB) values are in the range of -1.9–-1‰ and -7.9–-7‰ for the Northeast China (1B) respectively; those are -4.9‰ and 8‰ for the Southeast coast (Fig. 24c). The δ34S (CDT) values of pyrite range from -18.5‰ to 5‰ and concentrate from -4.5‰ to 5‰ for epithermal type gold deposits in China (Fig. 24e). The ore fluids of most of the low sulfidation epithermal gold deposits are predominantly meteoric water with an obvious oxygen isotopic shift, except those from the Qiyugou (2C-10) deposit which plot in the fields of magmatic water (Fig. 12c). The ore fluids of the Qiyugou deposit may have formed by mixing meteoric water with a compelling magmatic water (Chen, Y.J. et al., 2009; Fan et al., 2011), which is similar to the situation in the low-sulfidation Au-Ag deposits in the South Apuseni Mountains district, Romania (Alderton and Fallick, 2000; Wallier et al., 2006). Clearly, the involvement of magmatic and meteoric water vary significantly in this type of deposits. 59 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The published data about the various isotopic systematics allow us to summarize the reference range in isotopes for the various genetic types in different ore clusters. The S isotopes in the porphyry gold deposit cluster slightly greater than zero, those in the skarn show more positive in the concentrated range; in contrast, the S isotopes in the orogenic, Jiaodong-type, and epithermal show

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much wider concentrated range which varies from negative to positive (Fig. 24e). It is further noted

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that the isotopic range, especially for the fluid D-O isotopes (Fig. 23) and carbonate mineral C-O

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systems (Fig. 24), are usually overlapping and indistinguishable for the different genetic types, and that the various ore clusters with the same genetic type can also be differentiated to some extent. This is because the isotopic compositions can be differentiated due to distinct sources, and altered amidst the complex evolution of the fluid, such as water-rock reaction, fluid mixing, and metal

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precipitation, occurred under different temperatures. We can conclude that the isotopic compositions are not solely indicative of the genetic type of ore deposit. The genetic type should be

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identified based on a comprehensive analysis on the geological occurrence, ore structure and mineral assemblage, petrography and compositions of fluid inclusion, fluid salinity and temperature, and isotopic compositions.

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7.2 Gold mineralization and tectonic evolution

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The pre-Cenozoic gold mineralization in terms of tectonic evolution is summarized in Fig. 29 and that in the Cenozoic is shown in Fig. 21. It is summarized that the gold mineralization was

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dominantly generated in four tectonic settings. The first is the accretionary orogenesis, including the slab subduction and subsequent block amalgamation and arc terrane accretion, as well as post-collision extension, which is the engine for the mineralization in Tianshan-Altay (1A), West

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Qinling (3A), Xiaoqinling (2C), northern margin of NCC (2A), Jiangnan orogenic belt (4C), and Southeast coast (4D). The second is called intracontinental extension, which occurred in accreted terranes and sutures, such as Northeast China (2B), Garzê-Litang (5B), and in stable craton margin, like Youjiang basin (4A) and Middle and Lower Yangtze River (4B) flanking the Yangtze craton. The intracontinental extension was most likely driven by a slab subduction, although it is far from the subduction zone. The third is the decratonization, as occurred in the northern margin of NCC (2A), Jiaodong (2B), and Xiaoqinling (2C). Decratonization promotes mantle magma and ore fluids to penetrate more easily into the craton crust causing intensive metal precipitation. The last is the continental collision responsible for the Cenozoic porphyry, skarn, orogenic and epithermal gold deposits (Fig. 29). The lack of precise dating data, particularly for Carlin-like deposits in West Qinling (3A) and Youjiang basin (4A), orogenic ones in Tianshan-Altay (1A), West Qinling (3A), North Qilian (3B), and East Kunlun (3C), as well as some epithermal ones, compromises our understanding to the 60 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT geodynamics for the mineralization. Despite this, according to the present data, the paleogeographic scenario for the important gold metallogenic epochs was constructed (Fig. 30). It is evident that the main episodes for the gold metallogenesis in China are clustered at ~310 Ma, ~220 Ma, ~120 Ma, and ~30–15 Ma.

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(1) Neoproterozoic (660–560 Ma)

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It is not quite clear for the tectonic setting of the orogenic gold mineralization (660–560 Ma;

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Table 1) of Woxi (4C-1) and Jinshan (4C-2) deposit in the eastern part of the Jiangnan orogenic belt. However, considering the post-orogenic stage of the Jiangnan orogenic belt existed at ca. 760 Ma (Zhou et al., 2008), the gold mineralization in the Woxi and Jinshan was supposed to be formed in

(2) Ordovician to Devonian (425–370 Ma)

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the post-collision extension.

In the Northeast China, the Duobaoshan (1B-3; Greater Xing’an Range) porphyry gold deposit

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formed at ~485 Ma, as a result a slab subduction. The gold mineralization from Late-Silurian to Devonian was mainly distributed in the Qilian orogenic belt, especially the northern margin of Qaidam Craton (Fig. 29). After the collision orogen at 425–400 Ma, the UHP metamorphic rocks

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were exhumed into the Qaidam block together with the gold mineralization in the North Qilian,

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such as the Hanshan deposit (3B-1, with an age of 372±8 Ma) (Xiao, W.J. et al., 2009b; Song et al., 2013) (Fig. 15b).

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(3) Late Devonian to Carboniferous (363–310 Ma) The Late Devonian to Carboniferous gold mineralization includes arc-related epithermal gold deposits and gold-rich porphyry Cu deposits in the Tianshan-Altay (1A), which was associated with

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subduction of Turkestan Ocean (Goldfarb et al., 2014). These arc-related deposits mainly occur along the margins of the closing ocean basins, such as, the Buerkesidai (1A-2) in Altay, the Hatu (1A-4) and Baogutu (1A-5) gold districts in West Junggar Arc, the Axi (1A-15), and Shiyingtan (1A-19) in the Central Tianshan Arc (Fig. 30b). (4) Permian (290–246 Ma) The Permian is most important mineralization episode in the Tianshan-Altay with the formation of orogenic gold deposits, such as the Erqis gold belt in Altay formed at 293–275 Ma, the Karamai gold belt in East Junggar formed at 269–260 Ma, and the Kanggurtag gold belt in Central Tianshan formed at 261–246 Ma. These metallogenic events of orogenic gold deposits show younger southward, suggesting that the termination of accretionary orogeny took place along the suture zone younger southward. The Bilihe (2A-3) gold-rich porphyry deposit formed in 273 Ma in the eastern part of Central Asian orogenic belt (Ge et al., 2009; Qing et al., 2011). (5) Triassic (240–190 Ma) 61 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The orogenic gold-forming events during Triassic took place in the South Tianshan (1A), along the northern margin of the NCC (2A), East Kunlun (i.e., Wulonggou (3C-1) and Dachang (3C-2)), West Qinling (i.e., Yangshan (3A-17), Baguamiao (3A-4), and Liba (3A-2)), Xiaoqinling (i.e., Dahu (2C-4), Shanggong (2C-8)), Youjiang basin (i.e., Lannigou (4A-4), Jinya (4A-5)). During this

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period, The Sibumasu and Qiangtang blocks collided to the Indochina and South China

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amalgamated block. Simultaneously, the collision between the NCC and South China block was

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nearly complete with the exhumation of ultra-high pressure metamorphism along the Qinling-Dabie suture zone. By Late Triassic, the NCC and the South China, Sibumasu, Indochina, Simao blocks, and others, had coalesced to form proto-East and Southeast Asia (Fig. 30c). The orogenic Sawaya'erdun (1A-13) gold deposit formed at 213–206 Ma indicates that the final termination of

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the Central Asian orogenic belt in Xinjiang may have taken place in the South Tianshan accretionary complex in the Middle Triassic, which is also confirmed by Xiao, W.J. et al. (2009b).

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The Triassic gold mineralization in the northern margin of the NCC extended from the Hadamengou (2A-1) in the east to the Jiapigou (2A-11) in the west. The orogenic Wulonggou (3C-1) and Dachang (3C-2) gold deposits in the East Kunlun formed at 236.5 Ma and 218.6 Ma, respectively,

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possibly corresponding to the closure of the Paleo-Tethys ocean system. The Late Triassic orogenic

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gold mineralization may be associated with the collision between the NCC and the Yangtze Craton. In contrast, part of gold mineralization in the Youjiang basin was considered to be caused by the

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distant slab subduction of the Meso-Tethyan ocean (Fig. 28b). (6) Early-Middle Jurassic (190–167 Ma) The Jurassic gold mineralization took place in the northern margin of the NCC (2A), West

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Qinling (3A) and Youjiang basin (4A). The gold deposits in the northern margin of the NCC including Yuerya (2A-8), Jinchangyu (2A-7), Xiaotongjiapuzi (2A-12) formed at 192–167 Ma, which are considered to associate with the post-orogeny extension. Another Jurassic gold-rich porphyry copper mineralization took place in the southern Tibet which was associated with the slab subduction of Indus-Yarlung Zangbo Ocean. (7) Early Cretaceous (140–94 Ma) The Lhasa block collided to Eurasia in latest Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous times. In the eastern China, it is dominantly controlled by the westward subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate (Fig. 30d). In response to this double-side subduction, diverse gold mineralization occurred extensively. In eastern China, many arc-related mineral deposits formed in the Early Cretaceous during the subduction of the Pacific ocean, such as the epithermal and porphyry gold deposits in the Xing’an -Mongolia and the southeast China. Another Early Cretaceous gold-rich porphyry copper mineralization in the northern Tibet was associated with the subduction of Bangong-Nujiang 62 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT oceanic crust. In response to the westward and eastward slab subduction, the Carlin-like and porphyry-skarn gold deposits were produced in the Youjiang basin (4A) and Middle-Lower Yangtze River (4B) respectively. The extensive Early Cretaceous Jiaodong-type gold mineralization took place in the Jiaodong

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(2B), Xiaoqinling (2C), northern margin (2A) of the NCC. It is related the decratonization of the

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NCC during the subduction of the Pacific (Izanagi) plate (Deng et al., 2015a). At the same time,

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orogenic gold deposits occurred in the Northeast China (1B), Garzê-Litang (5B) , and West Qinling (3A) in an intracontinental extension setting. The formation of this kind of gold deposit was caused by the reactivation of the orogenic belt, such as Erguna gold belt in Northeast China (1B). (8) Cenozoic (65–0 Ma)

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The Cenozoic gold mineralization in western China was associated with the normal collision in Tibet and the oblique collision in Sanjiang between the India and Eurasia continents. The initial

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collision resulted in the formations of the Mayum (5A-2) and Jinchang (5D-7) ore deposits in the Tibetan and Sanjiang orogenic belts separately. In Tibet, the Bangbu (5A-5) orogenic ore deposit formed in the period of transition from soft collision to hard collision (Fig. 30e). The occurrences of

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Au-Sb is mainly attributed to the crust extension as a result of lithospheric mantle removal starting

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from ca. 25 Ma (Yang, Z.S. et al., 2009). In Sanjiang, the lithospheric mantle removal is suggested to have occurred at ca. 36 Ma inducing the melting of juvenile crust formed around 840 Ma and the

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resultant formation of the porphyry-related skarn. The shear movement starting from 32 Ma and reaching the climax at 27 Ma along the Ailaoshan in Sanjiang and the concomitant shears in the western Yangtze craton causing the production of ca. 32–27 Ma Daping (5C-7) and Zhenyuan (5C-3)

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ore deposits in the Ailaoshan, and the ca. 32–20 Ma orogenic gold deposits in the Daduhe-Jinpingshan belt. In addition, the Cenozoic epithermal gold mineralization (i.e., Chinkuashih (4D-2) took place in the continental arc of Taiwan. Due to the multi-stage lithospheric reactivation in one tectonic unit, the gold mineralization with different tectonic setting, formation ages and genetic types were juxtaposed within the unit. Like in the northern margin of the NCC (2A), three pulses of orogenic and Jiaodong-type gold mineralization occurred at 240–204 Ma, 192–167 Ma, and 127–117 Ma, corresponding to the post-collisional stage, post-orogenic stage, and lithospheric thinning processes, respectively. For the Xiaoqinling (2C) and West Qinling (3A), the Triassic orogenic and the Early Cretaceous Jiaodong-type or orogenic ore deposits co-existed. 8. Conclusions From a synthesis of the salient characteristics of gold metallogeny in China, we arrive at the following conclusions. 63 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (1) The gold deposits in China can be mainly classified into porphyry-skarn, orogenic, Jiaodong-type, Carlin-like, epithermal gold deposits defined by the different geological features, fluid types, isotopic compositions, metal sources, and tectonic settings. (2) The isotopic compositions for the ore fluid and mineral, especially for the fluid D-O

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isotopes and carbonate mineral C-O systems, are largely overlapping for the different genetic types.

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are inevitably altered amidst the complex evolution of the fluid.

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The isotopes are not indicative of the genetic type of gold deposit by themselves, due to that they

(3) The orogenic gold deposits were formed within or adjacent to the orogenic belts through Permo-Triassic slab-subduction in the Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun and Central Asian orogenic belts, and within Eocene-Miocene continental collisional orogenic belt in the Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic

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belts. The tectonic regime transitions, including from slab subduction to block amalgamation, from continental soft collision to hard collision, from intracontinental compression to shearing or

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extension, etc., played an important role in the production of the orogenic gold deposits. (4) The Jiaodong-type gold deposits developed in Jiaodong, northern margin, and Xiaoqinling of the NCC were formed at ~120 Ma. And they were genetic linked with the regional

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contribution to ore fluid and metals.

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decratonization and distant subduction of Pacific oceanic plate, resulting in significant mantle

(5) The intrusions associated with the porphyry and skarn gold deposit in the northern margin

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of South China block and Tibet-Sanjiang orogenic belt within intracontinental environment, showing adakitic feature, were derived from thickened juvenile crust formed in the previous orogenesis.

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(6) The Cenozoic metallogenesis related to the continental collision in Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts are prominent, causing the formation of diverse genetic types, including porphyry-skarn, orogenic, and epithermal. They formed basically throughout the continental collision, as responses to the enormous crust compression from mid-Paleocene to mid-Eocene, lithospheric mantle removal and crustal extension at ~35 Ma and ~15 Ma, block extrusion and large-scale shearing from 32 Ma to 27 Ma. (7) The Cretaceous is the climax of gold metallogeny and is associated with the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific and Neo-Tethyan oceanic plates to the east and west respectively. The subduction to the east generated the Jiaodong-type ore deposits in the NCC, the skarn mineralization in the north margin (Middle to Lower reaches of Yangtze River), and epithermal system in the southeastern margin of South China Block. The subduction to the west produced the Carlin-like gold deposits in western South China Block.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Acknowledgment: We thank the reviewers for constructive comments. This research was jointly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41230311, 41172295, 40872068), the National Basic Research Program (Nos. 2015CB452606, 2009CB421008), and the National Science and Technology Support Program (Grant No. 2011BAB04B09).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure captions

Fig. 1 (a) Distribution of major continental blocks and oceanic plates around China; Fig. 1a is based on Google Earth. (b) Space-time distribution of investigated gold deposits in mainland of China.

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The tectonic of China was revised from Zheng et al., 2013, Deng et al., 2014a, and Xiao et al.,

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2014a. (c) Temporal distribution of the gold deposit in related ore belt in China. Metallogenic ages,

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data sources, and deposit numbers are listed in Supplementary Table 1.

Fig. 2 (a) Simplified geological map of the Xinjiang region showing location of the gold deposits (modified after Yang, F.Q. et al., 2009; Pirajno et al., 2011). The symbol color for the genetic type

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in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. Intrusion ages are from Charvet et al., 2011 and Pirajno et al., 2011. (b) Cross section of the Axi gold deposit (modified after Zhao et al., 2014); (c)

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Detailed geology of the main orebodies at the Duolanasayi deposit (modified after Rui et al., 2002).

Fig. 3 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the gold deposits in

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Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Data are from Supplementary Table 1. The fields of porphyry, skarn,

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epithermal and lode Au are from Wilkinson (2001) (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the gold deposits in Central Asian orogenic belt. Data are from Supplementary Table 2. The data of local

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meteoric water are from Hu et al.(2002). Fields for magmatic and metamorphic waters are from Taylor (1997), field for oroganic water is from Sheppard (1986). (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in Central Asian orogenic belt. Data are from Supplementary Table 3. Fields for

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sedimentary carbonate and sedimentary oroganic carbon are from Hoefs (2009). field for mantle is from Ray et al. (1999). (d) Distribution of δ34S (‰) for the gold deposits in Central Asian orogenic belt. Data are from Supplementary Table 4. The ranges of major sulfur reservoirs are from Hoefs (2009).

Fig. 4 Schematic map-view illustrating the late Carboniferous to Early Permian paleogeography of the Tianshan-Altay with associated gold deposits (Base map was modified after Xiao et al., 2014a).

Fig. 5 (a) Simplified geological map of the Northeast China showing location of the gold deposits (modified after Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Xu, B. et al., 2015). The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. Intrusions ages are from Wu et al., 2011. (b) Cross section of the Duobaoshan gold deposit (modified after Seltmann et al., 2014); (c) Cross section of the Tuanjiegou gold deposit (modified after Sun, J.G. et al., 2013). 101 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Fig. 6 Simplfied geological map of the North China Craton showing location of gold deposits, intrusions and metamorphic core complex (modified after Li et al., 2012b; Zhang, S.H. et al., 2014).

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The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c.

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Fig. 7 (a) Simplified geological map of the northern margin of North China Craton showing

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location of the gold deposits (modified after Hart et al., 2002). Intrusion ages are from Wu et al., 2005. (b) Cross section of the Dongping gold deposit (modified after Bao et al., 2014); (c) Cross section of the Hougou gold deposit (modified after Cook et al., 2009)

Fig. 8 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the gold depositsfor the

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northern margin of North China Craton. Data are from Supplementary Table 1. (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the gold deposits in the northern margin of North China Craton. Data are from

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Supplementary Table 2. (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in the northern margin of North China Craton. Data are from Supplementary Table 3. (d) Distribution of δ34S(‰) for the gold

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deposits in the northern margin of North China Craton. Data are from Supplementary Table 4.

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Fig. 9 (a) Simplified geological map of the Jiaodong Peninsula showing location of the gold deposits (modified after Yang, L.Q. et al., 2009). Intrusion ages are from Yang et al., 2015b. (b)

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Cross section of the Xincheng gold deposit (modified after Wang, Z.L. et al., 2015); (c) Cross section of the Pengjiakuang gold deposit (modified after Li, J.W. et al., 2006); (d) Geological map

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of -175 m level in the Dayingezhuang gold deposit (modified after Deng et al., 2009a).

Fig. 10 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula. Data are from Supplementary Table 1. (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula. Data are from Supplementary Table 2. (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula. Data are from Supplementary Table 3. (d) Distribution of δ34S(‰) for the gold deposits in the Jiaodong Peninsula. Data are from Supplementary Table 4.

Fig. 11 Simplified geological map of the Xiaoqinling and Xiong’ershan region showing location of the gold deposits (modified after Mao et al., 2002a). Intrusion ages are from Mao et al., 2002a. (b) Cross section of the Dongchuang gold deposit (modified after Mao et al., 2002a); (c) Cross section of the Dahu gold deposit (modified after Jian et al., 2015).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Fig. 12 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the gold deposits in Xiaoqinling (including Xiong’ershan). Data are from Supplementary Table 1. (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the gold deposits in Xiaoqinling. Data are from Supplementary Table 2. (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in Xiaoqinling. Data are from Supplementary Table 3. (d)

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Distribution of δ34S(‰) for the gold deposits in Xiaoqinling. Data are from Supplementary Table 4.

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Fig. 13 (a) Simplified geological map of the West Qinling with distribution of the gold deposits (modified after Chen et al., 2004b). The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. Intrusion ages are from Wu et al., 2014. (b) Cross section of the Zhaishang gold deposit (modified after Liu et al., 2015a); (c) Cross section of the Baguamiao gold

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deposit (modified after Mao et al., 2002b); (d) Cross section of the Dashui gold deposit (modified after Mao et al., 2002b). (e) Cross section of the Qiongmo gold deposit (modified after Liu et al.,

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2000).

Fig. 14 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the gold deposits in the

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Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun. Data are from Supplementary Table 1. (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the

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gold deposits in Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt. Data are from Supplementary Table 2. (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt. Data are from

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Supplementary Table 3. (d) Distribution of δ34S(‰) for the gold deposits in Qinling-Qilian-Kunlun orogenic belt. Data are from Supplementary Table 4.

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Fig. 15 (a) Schematic map showing major tectonic units in Northwest China (modified after Song et al., 2013); (b) Simplified geological map of the Qilian orogenic belt showing location of the gold deposits (modified after Song et al., 2013); (c) Simplified geological map of the Kunlun orogenic belt showing location of the gold deposits (modified after Dai et al., 2013). The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. Intrusion ages are from Dai et al., 2013. Fig. 16 (a) Distribution of Carlin-like gold deposits in the southwest Yangtze Craton (modified after Jia and Hu, 2001); The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. (b) Generalized geological and paleo-geographic model for sediment-hosted micro-disseminated gold deposit in the Youjiang basin (modified after Liu, J.M. et al., 2002); (c) Cross section of the Lannigou gold deposit (modified after Chen et al., 2015); (d) Cross section of the Zimudang gold deposit (modified after Peters et al., 2007); (e) Cross section of the Shuiyindong gold deposit (modified after Peng et al., 2014). 103 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Fig. 17 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluids for the gold deposit in South China Block. Data are from Supplementary Table 1. (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the gold deposits in South China Block. Data are from Supplementary Table 2. (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in South China Block. Data are from Supplementary Table 3. (d) Distribution of

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δ34S (‰) for the gold deposits in South China Block. Data are from Supplementary Table 4.

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Fig. 18 (a) Simplified geological map of Middle and Lower Yangtze River showing the distribution of the major ore belt (modified after Deng et al., 2011b). The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. Intrusion ages are from Zhao, Y.M. et al., 1999; Mao et al., 2011 and Xie et al., 2011. (b) Cross section of the Jilongshan gold deposit (modified

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after Zhao, Y.M. et al., 1999); (c) Geological model for the Huangshilao stratabound gold deposit and Jilongshan contact skarn gold deposit; (d) Geological map of the Tongguanshan orefield,

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Tongling ore cluster (modified after Li et al., 2013).

Fig. 19 (a) Simplified geological map of South China block showing location of gold deposits in

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Jiangnan orogenic belt and Southeast coast; The symbol color for the genetic type in the age

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histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. (b) Cross section of the Jinshan gold deposit in Jiangnan orogenic belt (modified after Zhao et al., 2013); (c) Cross section of the Zijinshan gold deposit in

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Southeast coast (modified after geological report of Zijinshan gold mine, 2000); (d) Cross section of the Woxi gold deposit in Jiangnan orogenic belt (modified after Zhu and Peng, 2015).

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Fig. 20 Simplified geological map of Sanjiang-Tibet showing the distribution of significant ore belt (modified after Deng et al., 2014a). Abbreviation: AKMS, Anyimaqin-Kunlun-Muztagh suture; JS: Jinshajiang suture; BNS, Bangong-Nujiang suture. ITS, Indus-Tsangpo suture; SBS, Shan boundary suture; CMS, Changning-Menglian suture zone; ASS, Ailaoshan suture; ARSZ, Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone. The symbol color for the genetic type in the age histogram is the same as that in Fig. 1c. (b) Cross section of the Beiya gold deposit (modified after He et al., 2013); (c) Drill section in the Donggualin cluster of the Zhenyuan gold deposit ( modified after Deng et al., 2015c); (d) Cross section of the Xiongcun gold deposit (modified after Tafti et al., 2014).

Fig. 21 Temporal framework of the tectonic evolution of the Tibet (a) and Sanjiang (b) and its control in the distribution of various types of ore deposits (modified after Chung et al., 2005; Hou and Cook, 2009; Deng et al., 2014b).

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Fig. 22 (a) Homogenization temperature-salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the gold deposits in Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts. (b) δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the gold deposits in Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts. Data are from Supplementary Table 2. (c) δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) for the gold deposits in Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts. Data are from Supplementary Table 3. (d)

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Distribution of δ34S(‰) for the gold deposits in Tibet and Sanjiang orogenic belts. Data are from

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Supplementary Table 4.

Fig. 23 (a) and (b) Homogenization temperature vs. salinity diagram of the ore fluid for the different types of gold deposits in China. (c)-(h) Diagram of the concentrated areas of δD (‰) vs. δ18Owater (‰) for the different genetic types of gold deposits in China. The primary plots are shown in the

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Supplemetary Figs. 1 and 2.

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Fig. 24 Diagram of the concentrated areas of δ13C(‰) vs. δ18O(‰) and ranges of δ34S (‰) values for the different genetic types of gold deposits in China. The primary plots are shown in the

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Supplemetary Figs. 3 and 4.

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Fig. 25 (a) Distribution of formation ages of orogenic gold deposit in China; (b) Cartoon illustrating the extension after continental collision in responsible to the gold mineralization in Xiaoqinling

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(after Li et al., 2012); (c) The underthrust of the lithospheric of South China block underneath the Simao block produced the gold mineralization along Ailaoshan (after Deng et al., 2014a); (d) for the gold-antimony mineralization in Tibet (after Zhai, W. et al., 2014). See text for detailed information;

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(e) The mantle upwelling caused the regional metamorphism and correspondent formation of Daping gold deposit, Sanjiang (after Sun et al., 2009).

Fig. 26 (a) Distribution of formation ages of the Jiaodong-type gold deposits in China. (b) The Cretaceous Pacific superplume event may have generated a strong far-field push toward the east Asian continental margin, resulting in subduction of the Izanagi plate and causing rifting and magmatism accompanied by a variety of mineral systems (modified after Pirajno and Zhou, 2015); (c) The change of drifting direction of the Pacific plate which is considered to control the Cretaceous mineralization in Eastern China (modified after Sun, W.D. et al., 2013); (d) A two-stage model of the interaction between the Izanagi slab and asthenospheric (modified after Zhao et al., 2009; Pirajno and Zhou, 2015). See text for details; (e) Geodynamic control on the thinning/destruction of the eastern NCC assiociated with the slab subduction and the resultant magmatism and gold mineralization (modified after Li et al., 2012b); (f) Thinning of lithosphere in 105 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the NCC considered to be responsible for gold mineralization (modified after Yang et al., 2003); (g) Formation of the Jiaodong-type gold deposits associated with the dehydration of subducted oceanic lithosphere and overlying sediment, or by devolatilization of an enriched mantle wedge above the slab (modified after Goldfarb and Santosh, 2014); (h) Genetic model between the mantle structure

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and the Jiaodong gold province (modified after Vadim et al., 2014); (i) Link between the crustal

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extension expressed by the metamorphic core complex and the gold mineralization in Jiaodong

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(modified after Yang, LQ. et al., 2014).

Fig. 27 (a) Distribution of formation ages of the porphyry gold deposits in China. (b) Production of potassic intrusion associated with the shearing along Ailaoshan belt (modified after Deng et al.,

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2014a); (c) Removal of lithospheric mantle and magmas production along Ailaoshan (modified after Deng et al., 2014b); (d) Cartoon illustrating the formation and melting of the juvenile crust

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magmatism in the Gangdese continental arc (modified after Wang et al., 2014a), MASH means the process of melting, assimilation, storage, and homogenization, SCLM represents subcontinental lithospheric mantle; (e) Delamination of lithospheric mantle and the melting of juvenile crust for the

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metal-carrying magmatic rocks in the Middle and Lower Yangtze River metallogenic belt (modified

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after Zhou et al., 2015). (f) Tectonic model showing the deep processes of the genesis of the Cretaceous porphyry systems and their relation to mineralization in the central NCC (Li, Q. et al.,

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2015).

Fig. 28 (a) Distribution of formation ages of the Carlin-like gold deposits in China. (b) and (c)

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Models showing crustal extension at 200 Ma and 120 Ma related to the distant slab subduction of the Meso-Tethyan and Neo-Tethyan oceans respectively proposed in this paper. (d) Model showing gold deposit in the West Qinling formed in a syn-collision setting (modified after Liu et al., 2014); (e) Schematic presentation a genetic model for gold mineralization and hydrocarbon accumulation in the Youjiang basin (modified after Gu et al., 2012).

Fig. 29 Tectonic evolution of the main tectonic units in China and its control in the distribution of various types of ore deposits. The tectonic evolution for each unit are mainly from Yang, F.Q. et al., 2009; Xiao et al., 2014a (1A, Tianshan-Altay); Zhou and Wilde, 2013 (1B, Northeast China); Zhang, S.H. et al., 2014 (2A, northern margin of NCC); Deng et al., 2009a (2B, Jiaodong); Chen, Y.J. et al., 2009 (2C, Xiaoqinling); Wu et al., 2014 (3A, West Qinling); Song et al., 2013 (3B, North Qilian); Wang et al., 2004 (3C, East Kunlun); Hu et al., 2002, 2007 (4A, Youjiang basin); Xie et al., 2011 (4B Middle and Lower Yangtze River); Zhu et al., 2011 (5A, Lhasa); Deng et al., 2014a (5B106 / 140

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Garzê-Litang , 5C-Sanjiang, and 5D-Daduhe-Jinpingshan).

Fig. 30 (a) Temporal distribution of the gold deposit in China. Data sources, deposit numbers and ages are listed in Supplementary Table 1. Figures (b), (c), (d), and (e) show the important

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tectonometallogenic epochs, illustrating block amalgamation and intracontinental deformation of

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China and their control on the distribution of various types of ore deposits. The paleographic

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et al. (2014), Tang et al. (2015), and Zaw et al. (2014).

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evolution is from Dong et al. (2011), Metcalfe (2011); Wilhem et al. (2012), Cocks et al. (2013), Lai

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Biographical Notes

Jun Deng is a professor at the China University of Geosciences Beijing (China). He received his

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B.Sc. (1981) and M.Sc. (1989) from the China University of Geosciences Beijing (Wuhan), a Ph.D. (1992) from Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. His research fields include tectonic

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evolution and metallogeny, as well as the gold resource prospect. He has published over 100 research papers and edited several journal special issues. Since 2009, he organized two National Key Basic Research Development Programs as the chief scientist funded by the Ministry of

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Sciences and Technology, China. These two multi-disciplinary programs contribute to the topic

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"Accretionary and continent-collisional orogenesis and the associated diverse mineralization in the

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Tethyan orogenic belt, SW China".

Qingfei Wang is a professor at the China University of Geosciences Beijing (China). He graduated with a B.Sc. (2000) from China University of Geosciences Wuhan (China), and received his Ph.D. (2005) from China University of Geosciences Beijing (China). His research fields include Tethys evolution, gold metallogenesis, as well as tonnage-grade modelling for ore deposit. He has published over 100 research papers. He is a recipient of the New Century Excellent Talents Supporting Plan award from the Ministry of Education and the Golden Hammer for Youth award from the Chinese Geological Association.

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Graphical abstract

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Highlights Tectonic regime transformation controls the production of orogenic gold deposits. Intracontinental porphyry-skarn gold deposit were associated with juvenile crust. The double-side slab subduction caused extensive Cretaceous gold metallogeny. Jiaodong-type gold deposit genetic link with decratonization and distant slab. Continental collision caused porphyry-skarn and orogenic gold deposits.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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