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Good practice makes perfect or profit: can we use computing to design more effectively?
G o o d practice makes perfect or profit: can we use computing to design more effectively? Myfanwy M. Trueman University of Bradford Management Centre, Bradford, UK
Design is increasingly recognized as a key factor in global competition. But the success or failure of new products may rest upon better management of activities within the corporate design process rather than original design invention. This paper examines some of the wider issues and major influences within the general practice of design and how information technology can strengthen weak links within the corporate design process. On this basis a theoretical framework is developed which focuses attention on the need to access information for strategic decision-making and effective design management. Keywords: corporate design, management, information technology, global communication, information access, slralegy
'Design - of products, information and environments - is a potent yet poorly understood force in a world which, blanketed by the media and connected through telecommunications, is rapidly moving towards a single market of ideas. Whether viewed as a process for enhancing quality of life, both individual or social, or for promoting corporate success, design takes on a crucial significance in this context' (Forbes 1) Design, management and computing I f design is a strategic weapon in global competition how can it be used to best advantage and what part (if Present Address: 9 Princes Crescent, Skipton, Yorks BD23 1HH
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any) does computing play in this strategy? T h e success or failure of new products may rest upon better management of activities within the corporate design process rather than original design invention. Evidence has shown that as a nation, we in the U K are good at invention 2'3 but poor at management 4'5. This paper argues that more attention should be paid to the use of information technology (IT) for the management of design in order to strengthen weak links within the corporate design process and survive in an increasingly complex world marketplace. A good deal of research has gone into concepts such as the need for a corporate design culture, interdisciplinary teamwork and the need for a 'product champion' in order to develop successful products. However, these approaches focus more on 'good' or 'best practice' within a company, rather than
0142-694X/91/02081-09 © 1991 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
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'effective practice' within the context of consumer demand, competitors, new technological developments and other wider issues of a rapidly changing industrial environment. Products are only successful if they sell. This paper examines some of the wider issues and major influences within the general practice of design. It will look at possible roles for IT in the management of this wider environment, with particular reference to the access of information. For the purposes of this study, design is interpreted as 'planning, decision-making and the management of activities which determine the function and characteristics of a finished product or process' No distinction is made between the design fields of information, environment and product design since this research is concerned with how companies use design, rather than end products. At the same time some of today's complex design projects may well involve expertise from all three fields - underlining the need for a holistic approach towards this issue 6. But towards this end, a brief examination of past practice may serve a useful purpose in identifying some key issues of the present and future. An examination of Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks might suggest that the idea of planning and research in design is not a new concept. Indeed the design activity according to Archer 7 consists of 'planning, invention and knowhow' something which is carried out simultaneously by the designer-craftsman but, he suggests these three activities have become separated and increasingly complex in today's business environment of mass production, factories, assembly lines, rapidly changing technology and materials development. These external influences, coupled with increased global competition may be changing the nature of design practice as we know it today. Although it is acknowledged that there have been a number of 'peaks and troughs' throughout the history of design and production, which may follow a pattern of motivation reflecting the 'spirit of the age' and driven by economics as discussed in Langrish 8. Archer traces current practice back to the Second World War and shows how the 'war effort' concentrated multidisciplinary teams of experts into strategic methodological planning for weapons design and development. This teamwork became known as 'Operations Research' in America and 'Operational Research' in Britain, clearly focusing attention on design as an operational process. The 1960s Design Methods movement and Design Research Society stemmed from this development.
Design policy and design strategy: a shift of emphasis in the 1980s At the Royal College of Art, ten different fields of design research, including methodology, history, philosophy, technology and modelling culminated in the all embracing notion of 'design policy', the theme of a major
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international conference at the College in 1982. Design policy focused attention on the need for considered 'planning, evaluation and management' in design which forms a progressive step from 'planning, invention and knowhow' discussed earlier, and grew out of a need to s u r v i v e in a i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p e t i t i v e b u s i n e s s environment 9. Survival depends on the ability to produce high quality products at a reasonable cost that meet consumer demand 1°. In order to do so companies need to keep abreast of new technological development and materials as well as sophisticated communications and business intelligence systems 1~'12. Failure to do so can mean an inability to compete in the world marketplace. As a result, design policy has led onto the more aggressive notion of 'design strategy' suggesting a proactive approach towards the management of design. Following this shift of emphasis away from the 'operational' this paper considers issues of 'strategy, evaluation and management 13. But in order to make strategic managerial decisions and value judgements, the need for accurate, up to date, relevant information becomes paramount. Consequently this research is focused on corporate design management because it is at this level that information systems and strategic decisions have most impact • Designers can only function .well if effectively managed TM • Decisions at corporate level are well placed to balance external influences (macroenvironment) against internal resources, constraints and expertise of project and product 15 • In order to make accurate, strategic decisions an effective business intelligence or information system is required at corporate level which may to some extent involve I T 14 • If I T is changing the knowledge or power base of companies it may be strategically useful to discover in what manner this is taking place and how this can be accommodated at a corporate level to best advantage 16 • It is at a corporate level (for the most-part) that executive decisions about investment in IT and Cad are made 17. It is recognized that there has been a lot of interest in design management during the late 1970s and 1980s such as Oakley TM and Olins 19. But what exactly is meant by corporate design management? Lawrence and Elliott 2° talk of a traditional conviction of management as cyclic process, consisting of 'planning, implementation and control', but point out that the style and effectiveness of management will be largely affected by the personality of managers rather than the 'working out of some higher administrative dynamic'. Levitt 21 has a more detailed definition of management Management consists of the rational assessment of a situation and the systematic election of goals and purposes (What is to be done?); the systematic development of strategies to achieve those goals; the marshalling of resources; the rational design, organisation, direction and control of activities
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required to attain the selected purpose; and finally, the rewarding of people to do the work2U Management seen in a design context, according to Langdon and Rothwell9 involves product life-cycles, new product development, policy decisions and the study of patterns of product development to provide 'knowledge on which to base future decisionmaking' as well as the 'management and handling of uncertainty'. However, there is a growing belief that design can only be effective in global competitiveness if seen as part of a corporate culture 22'23 and that many people other than designers have a profound influence on design24. Hales25 identifies five levels of design management; macroenvironment (global); microenvironment (industrial); corporate; project and personal. Service et al ~4 see two inter-related levels (i)
(ii)
corporate (managerial) design management, where design is seen as a strategic weapon, 'the mechanism through which technical ability is transferred into competitive advantage by focusing on customer needs' Project or process (task) design management, a 'multiplicity of skills required to develop new products'
The former is concerned with long-term planning, decision making and the broader implications of performance in relation to industrial competitors and the latter focused on short-term administration of specific design projects.
C o r p o r a t e design management: wider issues and
major influences This research sees corporate design management and computing on four levels. The first is the goal or main objective - to produce high quality products that sell and make a profit; and the other three are concerned with different levels of problem at which that objective can be viewed • macro environment (socio-political, economic, problem level legislative, global, industrial, environmental market) • corporate problem (strategic planning, innovation level and management) • project problem (resources, new technology, level design skills, knowledge and experience) • goal (high quality products that sell) Key issues and major influences at each level have been generated from the research and applications literature. This not only provides a framework for research but also gives some indication of the perceived problem scale. The role of IT may be viewed against this framework, either as a support system for corporate design management as a whole, or as a means of strengthening weak links within the corporate management of design. This
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approach is seen as preferable to exploring the concept of a new 'intelligent design environment' since it allows the option of strategic decisions about strengthening weak links (targeting resources), rather than adopting a totally new system that may be less flexible. In this way it is hoped to build on company strengths and experience rather than introduce (possible) new weaknesses. Examination of the research and applications literature has been backed up by data collected from a 'frequency of occurance' record of topics in the Financial Times 'Management and Innovation' pages (Spring 1990). At macroenvironment (external influences) level, key issues and major influences would appear to be increased global competition: population and demographic issues, health care, global communications, transport, volatile global economy, dwindling world resources, waste and pollution control, new materials and powerful technology, demand for quality products, flexible manufacturing systems; knowledge based systems and database management (Chart A). Key issues at corporate level reflect this to some extent and are concerned with devising an internal company structure and policy in order to respond to increased global competition. They include corporate identity, company restructure, product identity and brand names, corporate commitment towards design, IT and standards; long-term planning; company expansion and diversification; innovation and new product development; new technology investment; staff qualifications and training; interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary teamwork; communications and business intelligence systems. At project level key issues relate to resource management and changes brought about by the introduction of new technology. For the most part they feature matters of changing work methods and skills; new approaches towards design and IT; increasingly complex projects; teamwork; training; evaluating design and IT; quality and quantity vs innovation and automation; information access; developing knowledge based systems; and interfacing knowledge based systems with graphic media at different stages of the design process. Issues at the 'goal for best practice' or product level relate to all three levels of problem since information at all levels should be considered when making decisions about new product development. However, of particular importance is the shift of emphasis from an operational approach to 'strategy, innovation and management'; quality; visual and ergonomic soundness; reliability, durability and ease of use; service; strong supplier, marketing and consumer links; information access and business intelligence systems; proactive approach towards new product development/old product review; strong commitment to design (and marketing, production, costs) at all levels within a company - a corporate design culture. All levels show the importance of communications and up to date information which, to a large part, can influence strategic decisions about the management of change (of environment, markets, technology and materials). They highlight the need for a proactive but flexible
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CHART A. Theoretical framework
Corporate level
Project level
Key issues and major influences generated from research and applications literature
• Corporate identity, company restructure and flexible response to changing global environments
• Use IT for design and to access, and manage information at different stages of design process
Macroenvironmental level
• Product identity, brand names, advertising and marketing in order to establish a high competitive profile
• Changing work methods and skills. Use existing knowledge and skills in new applications presented by new technolgical opportunities
• Increased global competition and opening up of new industrial centres and markets in Europe, the Soviet Union, China and the Pacific Rim • Third world (poor) population explosion coupled with a Western (wealthy) demographic change to an increase in the elderly (consumer) • High technology health care • Communications explosion including satellite, fibre optics, and electronic information systems • Transport design- automobile, aerospace, rail and shipping, advanced systems, communications and control • Western consumers increasing demand for quality rather than quantity are more sophisticated and better informed • Volatile economy, changes in global financial structures, financial management, legislation and security • Dwindling World resources lead to new resource management approach material re-cyling, pollution, waste control and the greening of design • New increasingly powerful information and production technology and new materials development • Technology transfer, flexible manufacturing systems and quality control • Database management and knowledge based systems
• Corporate commitment (shared values) towards design, IT applications and implications. Promotion, consistency of production standards and company image • Longterm planning and return on investment to secure market share and stability rather than short term profitability • Manage company expansion, diversification, consortium and/or joint ventures resulting from company performance and changing markets • Proactive and flexible orientation towards innovation, new product development, new technology, new markets, research and development • Staff qualifications, experience, expertise, training and updating and the learning curve (time spent on learning new systems and practices) • Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary teamwork to cater for increasingly complex design, production and promotional problems • Communications and the development of a business intelligence system based on close links with consumers (need/demand); close links with suppliers to gain information about the latest technological and materials development; close links with the macroenvironment (sociopolitical, industrial, legislative, market, competitor issues); and external consultants
approach towards new product development in order to take advantage of these changes as they occur. At the same time a strong commitment (shared values) towards design and training throughout a company would seem to be a key factor for successful practice. Furthermore, in viewing the scenario or 'framework' as a whole, it would appear that this complex, rapidly changing business environment presents considerable problems in the management and handling of information - there is so much of it! Add to this the enormous complexity and sophistication of some design projects and it may become evident that, in the face of intense and competition, today's industry cannot operate without the aid of IT. Perhaps the key issues to be addressed by corporate design management are as follows
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• New approach to design to take advantage of new technology • Training, updating and evaluating as technology develops • Cope with increasingly complex projects, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary teams of specialists • Balance quantitative vs qualitative; automation and innovation in design • Develop 'core' of design knowledge. Use IKBS to make design decisions • Interface knowledge based systems with graphic and video media
Product levels • Emphasis from 'planning, invention and knowhow' to 'design strategy, evaluation and management' • Product high quality products with efficient after sales service • Use new materials and new production techniques • Develop business intelligence systems and design IKBS systems for informed decisions about new product development and reviews • Proactive approach to new product development; and flexible, company structureto respond to this approach • Strong commitment to design, marketing, production and costs at all levels within a company (corporate design culture)
Q. 1 If design is a strategic weapon in global competition - how can it be used to best advantage and what part (if any) does computing play in this strategy? Q.2 How important is the access of information to successful corporate design management and to what extent can this be assisted by the use of IT? Q.3 What bearing does the access and application of information have on the development of a design solution? To what extent does it assist decisionmaking of this process? Q.4 If IT can assist with design management and problem solving, will this allow more time for 'mainstream design'? Q.5 If IT can assist with the acquisition and management of information, will this lead to better in-
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formed designers and more accurate, appropriate, higher quality designs?
T h e role of IT: a strategic resource for the 1990s Information technology is no longer restricted to automating back-office functions. It is creating new manufacturing methodologies that outstrip the old, it is generating entirely new classes of products and services, it is bringing new levels of international cooperation to nationwide and worldwide organisations, and it is opening up important new ways of buying and selling. For these reasons, top executives must view information technology as a strategic resource for the 1990s rather than a support mechanism 12 Information Technology (IT) has now become a generic term which covers the whole spectrum of computing. In fact the British Computer Society (BCS) in the 1989 Computer Users Yearbook, see seven 'streams' of work in the information technology industry: consultancy, development (of any kind of IT system), operations (of any kind of I T system), quality assurance, data management, education training and user support. At the same time it stresses that any form of classification is difficult because 'the industry is constantly growing and changing' and there are many applications which are situation specific. A measure for the growth of this industry may be gauged from the scale of world trade - about $150 bn according to the Economist World Atlas 1989, second only to the motor industry. A U K indication of scale is demonstrated by the number of professional bodies and trade associations which have a direct interest in computing. The 1989 Yearbook lists 146 organizations and 245 computer journals - over 138 of which serve the interest of specialist user groups, but only seven relate to design and five to management. However, this does not give a clear picture of the extent to which I T is used in design or management since a number of journals may run occasional or regular features in both areas, and the user groups are classified according to specialized hardware they use rather than the software - which in some cases may be design or management packages. On the other hand 27 U K journals are devoted to advanced communications and/or information systems reflecting the scale of telecommunications as an industry ($50 bn of world trade). But journals only represent one source of information. In order to use I T effectively it may be necessary to make reference to all seven 'streams' of expertise outlined by the BCS. At the same time, careful consideration should be given to the needs, priorities and requirements from I T before making an investment. 26
IT investment: priorities and problems Investment in new technology and computing represents an expensive undertaking in terms of initial cost, staff training, supervision, maintenance, updates, replacement and so on. This is no point in making an investment unless it provides some benefits. Consequently much
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research has gone into the benefits or return on investment (ROI) as well as the drawbacks of introducing and developing information technology. Early research rested on the notion of adding 'computing' to every process within an organization. This has been largely successful in clearly defined areas such as accounts, databases and wordprocessing. It has also worked well in highly specialized areas of analysis, manufacturing and production, for example as discussed in Lansdown and Maver 27 and Farrar 2s. Much less clear are applications in 'fuzzy' areas such as planning, decisionmaking, management, creativity, innovation and design. But recently it is this area which has received more attention in the research world since some would argue that it is at this stage that considerable benefits can be made 29'3°. But before examining current research it may be worth looking at some of the factors in a historical context since I T in management and in design, has grown out of a web of complexity. Although I T in general office practice is well advanced, there have always been problems of which system to buy, how much to invest, replacing obsolescent technology, staff training and updating. As discussed in Peltu 31 these problems have often been exacerbated by management who do not have a background in technology and are under extreme pressure to invest. They may make the wrong decisions through not taking professional advice and not sufficiently analysing company I T requirements. On a larger scale, and where computer manufacturing and production systems are concerned, it has become customary for managers to rely o n the expertise of a systems manager or other computer specialist, so that the manager has often become distanced from this process. In addition there may be resentment, fear or some misunderstanding from company personnel who have not been fully consulted. They will also be aware that the 'cost' of introducing I T is often offset by accompanying redundancies 32. On the other hand if a company does not invest it may well loose competitive advantage. Also, knowing 'when' to invest is also difficult since the technology is rapidly changing. Conversely, a timely appropriate investment, if managed correctly will not only boost profits but also corporate morale. This scenario is further complicated by the fact that, rather than simply assisting and improving traditional business practice, the introduction and development of I T and computing can change the whole nature of the business. This, suggests Kaye 33 can leave managers in a predicament, especially if they are in habit of delegating responsibility. In fact as he points out the balance of power can shift so that whoever controls the technology, controls the company. This situation is exacerbated if the key 'computer person' leaves, taking vital knowledge and information with him, and there is no suitable replacement (described by Ingham 34 as the 'sole repository of information' syndrome). Furthermore Senker and Simmonds 35 in a survey for the EITB, find that 'many companies are wasting their investments because senior managers making Cad purchasing decisions have an insufficient understanding of how to implement it.' These findings are reinforced by a survey of Cadcam
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CHART B Corporate design activities which may be supported by IT • accounts (finance, records, store information) • handle large amounts of information • communications (electronic mail, wordprocessing, fax) • project management • estimates, costing, specifications, reports • decision aids (IKBS, expert system, prompt, memory aid) • conceptual design aid, idea catalyst • prototype, product development • display, presentation of product, prototype • prototype, product engineering, 2D/ 3D modelling
• prototype, product manufactureCNC/CADCAM/CIM
• 'state of the art' methods and knowhow
• quality control, analysis, testing
• visual imagery: graphics, photographs, film, transparencies, video etc
• accuracy aid (detailing, checking) • technique aid (animation, special effects, drafting, painting, image generation) • interactive aid (edit, amend, manipulate) • database, library of images - can relate to any of above
Information likely to be required in corporate design practice • catalogues of parts, materials, performance standards and design codes • examples of similar products (successful and unsuccessful)
users by McLintock 36 which found that over half the company representatives consulted did not consider that their senior executives had a good understanding of the impact of Cadcam on their business or the design cycle. In short there is no 'easy route' to an integrated I T investment, no 'off-the-shell" package that is universally applicable since there are so many variables and most companies are situation specific.
IT in design: an information support system If I T is, according to Kaye, shifting the basis of 'corporate competitive power' it is also, in it's capacity as a catalyst, altering the whole process of planning and design. Not only has I T forced companies to question procedures and processes, it has also sometimes eliminated activities, or introduced new processes and specialisms. Hence it would seem that an examination and review of current work practice (what are we trying to do?), is as important as knowledge and understanding of the role and implications of I T (how are we going to do it?). Lansdown 37 suggests that computing can be used in four ways: as a tool, a media, a catalyst for ideas and a 'smart apprentice' or expert system. Although he acknowledges that many people regard it as only a tool, thereby limiting their perception of the technology and its potential. Similarly, there is a widely held belief that computing in design is synonymous with computer image generation, perhaps encouraged by the impressive visual impact of 'super realistic' images created by 'state of the art' 3D modelling systems. But if it is the case that, as Gorb 4 and Pilditch 3s argue, we in the U K are good at design but poor at management, surely more attention should be paid to the use of IT as a design support system
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• knowledge of production constraints, maintenance and testing • knowledge of the industry, suppliers and production output levels • knowledge of production techniques • new technologies, innovation lead time • macroenvironmental awareness (global, regional socio-politics, economics, legislation) • consumer, customer demand characteristics
to strengthen weak areas in organization, management and decisionmaking? Furthermore, Rzevski 39 concludes that only by the use of IT can designers handle the large amounts of information that they require in practice. Higgins 15 points out that managers too face problems of handling vast amounts of information and abstracting what is timely, accurate and relevant. This not only raises issues about the nature and format of information required, but also of resources (What kind of I T equipment is suitable and available?), and work methods (What is company policy and practice? How do designers design?). This paper does not attempt to provide or analyse lists of equipment and peripherals, nor does it consider in detail, how designers design - although it acknowledges that all designers work in different ways 4° and that there is no 'one best way' to organize new product development. 41 This may, in part be due to the U K design education system which has until recently focused on originality and aesthetics (perfection?) rather than business management. These factors may contribute towards U K strengths in invention and creativity but can present problems for organization and management. Instead, this paper suggests activities within the corporate design process which may be supported by I T and outlines some categories of information likely to be necessary in order to make decisions about design and new product development. (Chart B). Major influences and key issues at corporate design level have already been cited. But for company policy and practice, the following design activities may be likely candidates for IT support: handling financial accounts and large amounts of information (graphic, numeric, textual); estimates and costing; a conceptual aid to design or catalyst for ideas; to communicate; to manage projects; a decision and memory aid; writing reports (wordprocessor) and control quality, analysis and testing. IT
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can also be used as an accuracy aid for detailing and as a technique aid (e.g. special effects, image generation, drafting). Purcell 3° sees I T as a support system in the form of a database of images and information that can (theoretically) be used at any stage in the design process. But three factors should be considered: • design is an iterative rather than sequential process 29 • I T can change the nature of design activities - some may disappear or become deskilled and new activities and skills can emerge 4z • there may be a combination of different activities, requiring different types of information at any one point in the design process 7 Information, about external (macroenvironment) and internal company issues, is seen as the key to making corporate design decisions and the setting up of some kind business intelligence system is almost certain to involve IT. However, Lera et a143 and Macmillan 44 point out that accessing and using the latest information about technological developments, materials, regulations and so on, requires as much a positive approach on the part of the manager or designer as the use of appropriate information gathering equipment. The kind of information likely to be required includes catalogues of materials, parts, codes and standards; examples of competitors products; production techniques; 'state of the art' methods and 'knowhow'; new technological developments; macroenvironment issues such as political, sociological, economic and legal constraints; and most importantly, knowledge of consumer demand characteristics. Information can be weighted by offsetting the key issues and major influences discussed earlier.
CONCLUSIONS This paper has attempted to develop a theoretical framework as a basis for research generated from the research and applications literatures of design, management and information technology. It has addressed major issues such as the shift of emphasis from design operations to design strategy; external influences on corporate design management; the role of I T in design and the importance of accessing information in order to make strategic design decisions. The following point summarize these issues. Good design makes perfect or profit? If good design practice is to produce high quality products that sell and make a profit, there should be a strategic review or 'rational assessment' at corporate level in order to identify weak links as well as strengths, and establish goals and purposes within the corporate design process. This review should be set against a framework that balances issues at macroenvironment level (external influences) with internal resources at corporate, project and product level. If design is seen in this wider context, supported by strategic links with supplies, market and consumer demand rather than as a separate identity, driven by the U K notion of perfection (in isolation), it is much more
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likely to be successful in terms of standards and profitability. Can computing be used to design more effectively? Computing can be used to design more effectively if (scarce) resources are targeted into strengthening weak links in the corporate design process - rather than attempt to apply new technology across the board or concentrate solely on computer image generation and/or production. This approach allows more flexibility since companies are not tied to a technological investment from one point in time. It also means that they are more likely (financially) to be able to update technology that is focused in one or two key areas, rather than replace an all-embracing system every 3/5 years. What are we trying to do and how are we going to do it? One of the main findings is that there is no 'easy route' to investing in IT. No one 'off-the-shell', package can cure all ills and overcome bad company practice. A careful review and questioning of strengths and weaknesses of procedures and processes is necessary in order to identify requirements from IT. This is no easy matter and needs a considerable commitment from top management if it is to succeed. Conversely a lack of commitment can result in a loss of power since whoever controls I T controls the power of a company. Furthermore, an inappropriate investment is not only wasteful of resources, but is likely to mean the loss of competitive edge. Information access - the key to successful design practice? One key issue that may also be a weak link for successful practice; is the access, control and management of information at all levels of the corporate design process. Companies must operate at a disadvantage if not fully appraised if information relating to new product development and old product review. In order to make decisions and handle uncertainty in a rapidly changing global environment, the access of up to date, appropriate information has become increasingly important at macroenvironment, corporate, project and product level. This reinforces the need for some kind of business intelligence system which is likely to involve I T since the scale and complexity of information available today is only accessible and manageable with the aid of new information technology. What kind of information is required and by whom? Information is required at all levels and stages of the corporate design process, but will be available in different forms: textual, alphanumeric, graphic and so on. It is important not only to identify the form in which it would be most appropriate, but also how it is to be accessed, and who is likely to need this information, before investing in IT. How do industries differ in I T requirements? Each industry will have a different I T emphasis, particularly in areas of production and manufacture. But there are strategic design problems at corporate level that will be similar in all industries. At the same time the complexity of many design projects is likely to involve multi-disciplinary teams of specialists from a number of different industries (environment, product and information design). This
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reinforces the need for standards, common terminology and a holistic approach towards design. Longterm investment vs short term profit The human factor in design is becoming increasingly important and shared values of a corporate design culture may mean the difference between success and failure in corporate design practice. This demonstrates the value of a long term investment policy of education, training and updating. In order to promote shared values, company personnel will need to build up a knowledge base of I T and the ability to evaluate and manage I T systems. But to do this they will require an understanding of the wider implications at design macroenvironment level. Corporate design decisions Decisions about IT should be made at a corporate level since the implications of its introduction and use are far reaching. Similarly, shared values are important since many people other than the designer will have an influence upon design. However, the constant nature of change at macroenvironment level necessitates a constant process of review if effective design practice is to be sustained for any length of time. With support from IT, a strong system of communications and a well structured framework for reference, good practice can make perfect and profit.
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31 PeRu, M Using Computers - A Managers Guide, National Computing Centre, Manchester (1981)
38 Pilditch, J, How Britain can compete through marketing, Marketing, December 1987
32 Cooley, M J E The Designer in the 1980's - the deskiller deskilled, Design Studies, Vol 1 No 4 (April 1980)
39 Rzevski, G, Impact of Information Technology in design methods. In 'Design and Information Technology', Proc. of the International Conference on Design Policy. (R Langdnn and G Mallen eds), The Design Council (1984)
33 Kaye, D, The art of getting I T right, Sunday Times, 17 September 1989 34 Ingham, P, Computer Aided Design in Further Education, DES Further Education Unit, London (1983) 35 Senker, P and Simmonds, P, Making more of Cad, A report for the Engineering Industry Training Board carried out by the Science Policy Research Unit at Sussex University. EITB (November 1989)
36 McLintock, P M, Systems that fail to deliver: an independent survey of engineering companies. CADCAM International (May 1990) 37 Lansdown, R J Looking inw the Future: an introduction w expert systems. In: 'CAD in FE Art and Design' Conference Proceedings (ed M M Trueman) Manchester Polytechnic, October 1985
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Lawson, B, How Designers Think, Architectural Press, London (1980) reprint 1986 41 Francis A and Winstanley D, Managing new product development: some alternative ways to organise the work of technical specialists. Journal of Marketing Management, Vol 4 No 2 (1988) 42 Manske, F and Wolfe, H, Design work in change: social conditions and results of Cad use in mechanical engineering. IEEE Tram EngManagement, Vol 36 No 4 (November 1989) 43 Lera, S, Cooper, I and Powell, J A, Information and Designers, Design Studies, Vol 5 No 2 (1984) MacMillan, S, Information for Designers, Knowledge is Power Seminar. Chartered Society of Designers/Design Research Society, London, 8 November 1989
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Design is increasingly recognized as a key factor in global competition. But the success or failure of new products may rest upon better management of activities within the corporate design process rather than original design invention. This paper examines some of the wider issues and major influences within the general practice of design and how information technology can strengthen weak links within the corporate design process. On this basis a theoretical framework is developed which focuses attention on the need to access information for strategic decision-making and effective design management. Keywords: corporate design, management, information technology, global communication, information access, slralegy
'Design - of products, information and environments - is a potent yet poorly understood force in a world which, blanketed by the media and connected through telecommunications, is rapidly moving towards a single market of ideas. Whether viewed as a process for enhancing quality of life, both individual or social, or for promoting corporate success, design takes on a crucial significance in this context' (Forbes 1) Design, management and computing I f design is a strategic weapon in global competition how can it be used to best advantage and what part (if Present Address: 9 Princes Crescent, Skipton, Yorks BD23 1HH
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any) does computing play in this strategy? T h e success or failure of new products may rest upon better management of activities within the corporate design process rather than original design invention. Evidence has shown that as a nation, we in the U K are good at invention 2'3 but poor at management 4'5. This paper argues that more attention should be paid to the use of information technology (IT) for the management of design in order to strengthen weak links within the corporate design process and survive in an increasingly complex world marketplace. A good deal of research has gone into concepts such as the need for a corporate design culture, interdisciplinary teamwork and the need for a 'product champion' in order to develop successful products. However, these approaches focus more on 'good' or 'best practice' within a company, rather than
0142-694X/91/02081-09 © 1991 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
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'effective practice' within the context of consumer demand, competitors, new technological developments and other wider issues of a rapidly changing industrial environment. Products are only successful if they sell. This paper examines some of the wider issues and major influences within the general practice of design. It will look at possible roles for IT in the management of this wider environment, with particular reference to the access of information. For the purposes of this study, design is interpreted as 'planning, decision-making and the management of activities which determine the function and characteristics of a finished product or process' No distinction is made between the design fields of information, environment and product design since this research is concerned with how companies use design, rather than end products. At the same time some of today's complex design projects may well involve expertise from all three fields - underlining the need for a holistic approach towards this issue 6. But towards this end, a brief examination of past practice may serve a useful purpose in identifying some key issues of the present and future. An examination of Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks might suggest that the idea of planning and research in design is not a new concept. Indeed the design activity according to Archer 7 consists of 'planning, invention and knowhow' something which is carried out simultaneously by the designer-craftsman but, he suggests these three activities have become separated and increasingly complex in today's business environment of mass production, factories, assembly lines, rapidly changing technology and materials development. These external influences, coupled with increased global competition may be changing the nature of design practice as we know it today. Although it is acknowledged that there have been a number of 'peaks and troughs' throughout the history of design and production, which may follow a pattern of motivation reflecting the 'spirit of the age' and driven by economics as discussed in Langrish 8. Archer traces current practice back to the Second World War and shows how the 'war effort' concentrated multidisciplinary teams of experts into strategic methodological planning for weapons design and development. This teamwork became known as 'Operations Research' in America and 'Operational Research' in Britain, clearly focusing attention on design as an operational process. The 1960s Design Methods movement and Design Research Society stemmed from this development.
Design policy and design strategy: a shift of emphasis in the 1980s At the Royal College of Art, ten different fields of design research, including methodology, history, philosophy, technology and modelling culminated in the all embracing notion of 'design policy', the theme of a major
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international conference at the College in 1982. Design policy focused attention on the need for considered 'planning, evaluation and management' in design which forms a progressive step from 'planning, invention and knowhow' discussed earlier, and grew out of a need to s u r v i v e in a i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p e t i t i v e b u s i n e s s environment 9. Survival depends on the ability to produce high quality products at a reasonable cost that meet consumer demand 1°. In order to do so companies need to keep abreast of new technological development and materials as well as sophisticated communications and business intelligence systems 1~'12. Failure to do so can mean an inability to compete in the world marketplace. As a result, design policy has led onto the more aggressive notion of 'design strategy' suggesting a proactive approach towards the management of design. Following this shift of emphasis away from the 'operational' this paper considers issues of 'strategy, evaluation and management 13. But in order to make strategic managerial decisions and value judgements, the need for accurate, up to date, relevant information becomes paramount. Consequently this research is focused on corporate design management because it is at this level that information systems and strategic decisions have most impact • Designers can only function .well if effectively managed TM • Decisions at corporate level are well placed to balance external influences (macroenvironment) against internal resources, constraints and expertise of project and product 15 • In order to make accurate, strategic decisions an effective business intelligence or information system is required at corporate level which may to some extent involve I T 14 • If I T is changing the knowledge or power base of companies it may be strategically useful to discover in what manner this is taking place and how this can be accommodated at a corporate level to best advantage 16 • It is at a corporate level (for the most-part) that executive decisions about investment in IT and Cad are made 17. It is recognized that there has been a lot of interest in design management during the late 1970s and 1980s such as Oakley TM and Olins 19. But what exactly is meant by corporate design management? Lawrence and Elliott 2° talk of a traditional conviction of management as cyclic process, consisting of 'planning, implementation and control', but point out that the style and effectiveness of management will be largely affected by the personality of managers rather than the 'working out of some higher administrative dynamic'. Levitt 21 has a more detailed definition of management Management consists of the rational assessment of a situation and the systematic election of goals and purposes (What is to be done?); the systematic development of strategies to achieve those goals; the marshalling of resources; the rational design, organisation, direction and control of activities
DESIGN STUDIES
required to attain the selected purpose; and finally, the rewarding of people to do the work2U Management seen in a design context, according to Langdon and Rothwell9 involves product life-cycles, new product development, policy decisions and the study of patterns of product development to provide 'knowledge on which to base future decisionmaking' as well as the 'management and handling of uncertainty'. However, there is a growing belief that design can only be effective in global competitiveness if seen as part of a corporate culture 22'23 and that many people other than designers have a profound influence on design24. Hales25 identifies five levels of design management; macroenvironment (global); microenvironment (industrial); corporate; project and personal. Service et al ~4 see two inter-related levels (i)
(ii)
corporate (managerial) design management, where design is seen as a strategic weapon, 'the mechanism through which technical ability is transferred into competitive advantage by focusing on customer needs' Project or process (task) design management, a 'multiplicity of skills required to develop new products'
The former is concerned with long-term planning, decision making and the broader implications of performance in relation to industrial competitors and the latter focused on short-term administration of specific design projects.
C o r p o r a t e design management: wider issues and
major influences This research sees corporate design management and computing on four levels. The first is the goal or main objective - to produce high quality products that sell and make a profit; and the other three are concerned with different levels of problem at which that objective can be viewed • macro environment (socio-political, economic, problem level legislative, global, industrial, environmental market) • corporate problem (strategic planning, innovation level and management) • project problem (resources, new technology, level design skills, knowledge and experience) • goal (high quality products that sell) Key issues and major influences at each level have been generated from the research and applications literature. This not only provides a framework for research but also gives some indication of the perceived problem scale. The role of IT may be viewed against this framework, either as a support system for corporate design management as a whole, or as a means of strengthening weak links within the corporate management of design. This
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approach is seen as preferable to exploring the concept of a new 'intelligent design environment' since it allows the option of strategic decisions about strengthening weak links (targeting resources), rather than adopting a totally new system that may be less flexible. In this way it is hoped to build on company strengths and experience rather than introduce (possible) new weaknesses. Examination of the research and applications literature has been backed up by data collected from a 'frequency of occurance' record of topics in the Financial Times 'Management and Innovation' pages (Spring 1990). At macroenvironment (external influences) level, key issues and major influences would appear to be increased global competition: population and demographic issues, health care, global communications, transport, volatile global economy, dwindling world resources, waste and pollution control, new materials and powerful technology, demand for quality products, flexible manufacturing systems; knowledge based systems and database management (Chart A). Key issues at corporate level reflect this to some extent and are concerned with devising an internal company structure and policy in order to respond to increased global competition. They include corporate identity, company restructure, product identity and brand names, corporate commitment towards design, IT and standards; long-term planning; company expansion and diversification; innovation and new product development; new technology investment; staff qualifications and training; interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary teamwork; communications and business intelligence systems. At project level key issues relate to resource management and changes brought about by the introduction of new technology. For the most part they feature matters of changing work methods and skills; new approaches towards design and IT; increasingly complex projects; teamwork; training; evaluating design and IT; quality and quantity vs innovation and automation; information access; developing knowledge based systems; and interfacing knowledge based systems with graphic media at different stages of the design process. Issues at the 'goal for best practice' or product level relate to all three levels of problem since information at all levels should be considered when making decisions about new product development. However, of particular importance is the shift of emphasis from an operational approach to 'strategy, innovation and management'; quality; visual and ergonomic soundness; reliability, durability and ease of use; service; strong supplier, marketing and consumer links; information access and business intelligence systems; proactive approach towards new product development/old product review; strong commitment to design (and marketing, production, costs) at all levels within a company - a corporate design culture. All levels show the importance of communications and up to date information which, to a large part, can influence strategic decisions about the management of change (of environment, markets, technology and materials). They highlight the need for a proactive but flexible
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CHART A. Theoretical framework
Corporate level
Project level
Key issues and major influences generated from research and applications literature
• Corporate identity, company restructure and flexible response to changing global environments
• Use IT for design and to access, and manage information at different stages of design process
Macroenvironmental level
• Product identity, brand names, advertising and marketing in order to establish a high competitive profile
• Changing work methods and skills. Use existing knowledge and skills in new applications presented by new technolgical opportunities
• Increased global competition and opening up of new industrial centres and markets in Europe, the Soviet Union, China and the Pacific Rim • Third world (poor) population explosion coupled with a Western (wealthy) demographic change to an increase in the elderly (consumer) • High technology health care • Communications explosion including satellite, fibre optics, and electronic information systems • Transport design- automobile, aerospace, rail and shipping, advanced systems, communications and control • Western consumers increasing demand for quality rather than quantity are more sophisticated and better informed • Volatile economy, changes in global financial structures, financial management, legislation and security • Dwindling World resources lead to new resource management approach material re-cyling, pollution, waste control and the greening of design • New increasingly powerful information and production technology and new materials development • Technology transfer, flexible manufacturing systems and quality control • Database management and knowledge based systems
• Corporate commitment (shared values) towards design, IT applications and implications. Promotion, consistency of production standards and company image • Longterm planning and return on investment to secure market share and stability rather than short term profitability • Manage company expansion, diversification, consortium and/or joint ventures resulting from company performance and changing markets • Proactive and flexible orientation towards innovation, new product development, new technology, new markets, research and development • Staff qualifications, experience, expertise, training and updating and the learning curve (time spent on learning new systems and practices) • Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary teamwork to cater for increasingly complex design, production and promotional problems • Communications and the development of a business intelligence system based on close links with consumers (need/demand); close links with suppliers to gain information about the latest technological and materials development; close links with the macroenvironment (sociopolitical, industrial, legislative, market, competitor issues); and external consultants
approach towards new product development in order to take advantage of these changes as they occur. At the same time a strong commitment (shared values) towards design and training throughout a company would seem to be a key factor for successful practice. Furthermore, in viewing the scenario or 'framework' as a whole, it would appear that this complex, rapidly changing business environment presents considerable problems in the management and handling of information - there is so much of it! Add to this the enormous complexity and sophistication of some design projects and it may become evident that, in the face of intense and competition, today's industry cannot operate without the aid of IT. Perhaps the key issues to be addressed by corporate design management are as follows
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• New approach to design to take advantage of new technology • Training, updating and evaluating as technology develops • Cope with increasingly complex projects, multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary teams of specialists • Balance quantitative vs qualitative; automation and innovation in design • Develop 'core' of design knowledge. Use IKBS to make design decisions • Interface knowledge based systems with graphic and video media
Product levels • Emphasis from 'planning, invention and knowhow' to 'design strategy, evaluation and management' • Product high quality products with efficient after sales service • Use new materials and new production techniques • Develop business intelligence systems and design IKBS systems for informed decisions about new product development and reviews • Proactive approach to new product development; and flexible, company structureto respond to this approach • Strong commitment to design, marketing, production and costs at all levels within a company (corporate design culture)
Q. 1 If design is a strategic weapon in global competition - how can it be used to best advantage and what part (if any) does computing play in this strategy? Q.2 How important is the access of information to successful corporate design management and to what extent can this be assisted by the use of IT? Q.3 What bearing does the access and application of information have on the development of a design solution? To what extent does it assist decisionmaking of this process? Q.4 If IT can assist with design management and problem solving, will this allow more time for 'mainstream design'? Q.5 If IT can assist with the acquisition and management of information, will this lead to better in-
DESIGN STUDIES
formed designers and more accurate, appropriate, higher quality designs?
T h e role of IT: a strategic resource for the 1990s Information technology is no longer restricted to automating back-office functions. It is creating new manufacturing methodologies that outstrip the old, it is generating entirely new classes of products and services, it is bringing new levels of international cooperation to nationwide and worldwide organisations, and it is opening up important new ways of buying and selling. For these reasons, top executives must view information technology as a strategic resource for the 1990s rather than a support mechanism 12 Information Technology (IT) has now become a generic term which covers the whole spectrum of computing. In fact the British Computer Society (BCS) in the 1989 Computer Users Yearbook, see seven 'streams' of work in the information technology industry: consultancy, development (of any kind of IT system), operations (of any kind of I T system), quality assurance, data management, education training and user support. At the same time it stresses that any form of classification is difficult because 'the industry is constantly growing and changing' and there are many applications which are situation specific. A measure for the growth of this industry may be gauged from the scale of world trade - about $150 bn according to the Economist World Atlas 1989, second only to the motor industry. A U K indication of scale is demonstrated by the number of professional bodies and trade associations which have a direct interest in computing. The 1989 Yearbook lists 146 organizations and 245 computer journals - over 138 of which serve the interest of specialist user groups, but only seven relate to design and five to management. However, this does not give a clear picture of the extent to which I T is used in design or management since a number of journals may run occasional or regular features in both areas, and the user groups are classified according to specialized hardware they use rather than the software - which in some cases may be design or management packages. On the other hand 27 U K journals are devoted to advanced communications and/or information systems reflecting the scale of telecommunications as an industry ($50 bn of world trade). But journals only represent one source of information. In order to use I T effectively it may be necessary to make reference to all seven 'streams' of expertise outlined by the BCS. At the same time, careful consideration should be given to the needs, priorities and requirements from I T before making an investment. 26
IT investment: priorities and problems Investment in new technology and computing represents an expensive undertaking in terms of initial cost, staff training, supervision, maintenance, updates, replacement and so on. This is no point in making an investment unless it provides some benefits. Consequently much
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research has gone into the benefits or return on investment (ROI) as well as the drawbacks of introducing and developing information technology. Early research rested on the notion of adding 'computing' to every process within an organization. This has been largely successful in clearly defined areas such as accounts, databases and wordprocessing. It has also worked well in highly specialized areas of analysis, manufacturing and production, for example as discussed in Lansdown and Maver 27 and Farrar 2s. Much less clear are applications in 'fuzzy' areas such as planning, decisionmaking, management, creativity, innovation and design. But recently it is this area which has received more attention in the research world since some would argue that it is at this stage that considerable benefits can be made 29'3°. But before examining current research it may be worth looking at some of the factors in a historical context since I T in management and in design, has grown out of a web of complexity. Although I T in general office practice is well advanced, there have always been problems of which system to buy, how much to invest, replacing obsolescent technology, staff training and updating. As discussed in Peltu 31 these problems have often been exacerbated by management who do not have a background in technology and are under extreme pressure to invest. They may make the wrong decisions through not taking professional advice and not sufficiently analysing company I T requirements. On a larger scale, and where computer manufacturing and production systems are concerned, it has become customary for managers to rely o n the expertise of a systems manager or other computer specialist, so that the manager has often become distanced from this process. In addition there may be resentment, fear or some misunderstanding from company personnel who have not been fully consulted. They will also be aware that the 'cost' of introducing I T is often offset by accompanying redundancies 32. On the other hand if a company does not invest it may well loose competitive advantage. Also, knowing 'when' to invest is also difficult since the technology is rapidly changing. Conversely, a timely appropriate investment, if managed correctly will not only boost profits but also corporate morale. This scenario is further complicated by the fact that, rather than simply assisting and improving traditional business practice, the introduction and development of I T and computing can change the whole nature of the business. This, suggests Kaye 33 can leave managers in a predicament, especially if they are in habit of delegating responsibility. In fact as he points out the balance of power can shift so that whoever controls the technology, controls the company. This situation is exacerbated if the key 'computer person' leaves, taking vital knowledge and information with him, and there is no suitable replacement (described by Ingham 34 as the 'sole repository of information' syndrome). Furthermore Senker and Simmonds 35 in a survey for the EITB, find that 'many companies are wasting their investments because senior managers making Cad purchasing decisions have an insufficient understanding of how to implement it.' These findings are reinforced by a survey of Cadcam
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CHART B Corporate design activities which may be supported by IT • accounts (finance, records, store information) • handle large amounts of information • communications (electronic mail, wordprocessing, fax) • project management • estimates, costing, specifications, reports • decision aids (IKBS, expert system, prompt, memory aid) • conceptual design aid, idea catalyst • prototype, product development • display, presentation of product, prototype • prototype, product engineering, 2D/ 3D modelling
• prototype, product manufactureCNC/CADCAM/CIM
• 'state of the art' methods and knowhow
• quality control, analysis, testing
• visual imagery: graphics, photographs, film, transparencies, video etc
• accuracy aid (detailing, checking) • technique aid (animation, special effects, drafting, painting, image generation) • interactive aid (edit, amend, manipulate) • database, library of images - can relate to any of above
Information likely to be required in corporate design practice • catalogues of parts, materials, performance standards and design codes • examples of similar products (successful and unsuccessful)
users by McLintock 36 which found that over half the company representatives consulted did not consider that their senior executives had a good understanding of the impact of Cadcam on their business or the design cycle. In short there is no 'easy route' to an integrated I T investment, no 'off-the-shell" package that is universally applicable since there are so many variables and most companies are situation specific.
IT in design: an information support system If I T is, according to Kaye, shifting the basis of 'corporate competitive power' it is also, in it's capacity as a catalyst, altering the whole process of planning and design. Not only has I T forced companies to question procedures and processes, it has also sometimes eliminated activities, or introduced new processes and specialisms. Hence it would seem that an examination and review of current work practice (what are we trying to do?), is as important as knowledge and understanding of the role and implications of I T (how are we going to do it?). Lansdown 37 suggests that computing can be used in four ways: as a tool, a media, a catalyst for ideas and a 'smart apprentice' or expert system. Although he acknowledges that many people regard it as only a tool, thereby limiting their perception of the technology and its potential. Similarly, there is a widely held belief that computing in design is synonymous with computer image generation, perhaps encouraged by the impressive visual impact of 'super realistic' images created by 'state of the art' 3D modelling systems. But if it is the case that, as Gorb 4 and Pilditch 3s argue, we in the U K are good at design but poor at management, surely more attention should be paid to the use of IT as a design support system
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• knowledge of production constraints, maintenance and testing • knowledge of the industry, suppliers and production output levels • knowledge of production techniques • new technologies, innovation lead time • macroenvironmental awareness (global, regional socio-politics, economics, legislation) • consumer, customer demand characteristics
to strengthen weak areas in organization, management and decisionmaking? Furthermore, Rzevski 39 concludes that only by the use of IT can designers handle the large amounts of information that they require in practice. Higgins 15 points out that managers too face problems of handling vast amounts of information and abstracting what is timely, accurate and relevant. This not only raises issues about the nature and format of information required, but also of resources (What kind of I T equipment is suitable and available?), and work methods (What is company policy and practice? How do designers design?). This paper does not attempt to provide or analyse lists of equipment and peripherals, nor does it consider in detail, how designers design - although it acknowledges that all designers work in different ways 4° and that there is no 'one best way' to organize new product development. 41 This may, in part be due to the U K design education system which has until recently focused on originality and aesthetics (perfection?) rather than business management. These factors may contribute towards U K strengths in invention and creativity but can present problems for organization and management. Instead, this paper suggests activities within the corporate design process which may be supported by I T and outlines some categories of information likely to be necessary in order to make decisions about design and new product development. (Chart B). Major influences and key issues at corporate design level have already been cited. But for company policy and practice, the following design activities may be likely candidates for IT support: handling financial accounts and large amounts of information (graphic, numeric, textual); estimates and costing; a conceptual aid to design or catalyst for ideas; to communicate; to manage projects; a decision and memory aid; writing reports (wordprocessor) and control quality, analysis and testing. IT
DESIGN STUDIES
can also be used as an accuracy aid for detailing and as a technique aid (e.g. special effects, image generation, drafting). Purcell 3° sees I T as a support system in the form of a database of images and information that can (theoretically) be used at any stage in the design process. But three factors should be considered: • design is an iterative rather than sequential process 29 • I T can change the nature of design activities - some may disappear or become deskilled and new activities and skills can emerge 4z • there may be a combination of different activities, requiring different types of information at any one point in the design process 7 Information, about external (macroenvironment) and internal company issues, is seen as the key to making corporate design decisions and the setting up of some kind business intelligence system is almost certain to involve IT. However, Lera et a143 and Macmillan 44 point out that accessing and using the latest information about technological developments, materials, regulations and so on, requires as much a positive approach on the part of the manager or designer as the use of appropriate information gathering equipment. The kind of information likely to be required includes catalogues of materials, parts, codes and standards; examples of competitors products; production techniques; 'state of the art' methods and 'knowhow'; new technological developments; macroenvironment issues such as political, sociological, economic and legal constraints; and most importantly, knowledge of consumer demand characteristics. Information can be weighted by offsetting the key issues and major influences discussed earlier.
CONCLUSIONS This paper has attempted to develop a theoretical framework as a basis for research generated from the research and applications literatures of design, management and information technology. It has addressed major issues such as the shift of emphasis from design operations to design strategy; external influences on corporate design management; the role of I T in design and the importance of accessing information in order to make strategic design decisions. The following point summarize these issues. Good design makes perfect or profit? If good design practice is to produce high quality products that sell and make a profit, there should be a strategic review or 'rational assessment' at corporate level in order to identify weak links as well as strengths, and establish goals and purposes within the corporate design process. This review should be set against a framework that balances issues at macroenvironment level (external influences) with internal resources at corporate, project and product level. If design is seen in this wider context, supported by strategic links with supplies, market and consumer demand rather than as a separate identity, driven by the U K notion of perfection (in isolation), it is much more
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likely to be successful in terms of standards and profitability. Can computing be used to design more effectively? Computing can be used to design more effectively if (scarce) resources are targeted into strengthening weak links in the corporate design process - rather than attempt to apply new technology across the board or concentrate solely on computer image generation and/or production. This approach allows more flexibility since companies are not tied to a technological investment from one point in time. It also means that they are more likely (financially) to be able to update technology that is focused in one or two key areas, rather than replace an all-embracing system every 3/5 years. What are we trying to do and how are we going to do it? One of the main findings is that there is no 'easy route' to investing in IT. No one 'off-the-shell', package can cure all ills and overcome bad company practice. A careful review and questioning of strengths and weaknesses of procedures and processes is necessary in order to identify requirements from IT. This is no easy matter and needs a considerable commitment from top management if it is to succeed. Conversely a lack of commitment can result in a loss of power since whoever controls I T controls the power of a company. Furthermore, an inappropriate investment is not only wasteful of resources, but is likely to mean the loss of competitive edge. Information access - the key to successful design practice? One key issue that may also be a weak link for successful practice; is the access, control and management of information at all levels of the corporate design process. Companies must operate at a disadvantage if not fully appraised if information relating to new product development and old product review. In order to make decisions and handle uncertainty in a rapidly changing global environment, the access of up to date, appropriate information has become increasingly important at macroenvironment, corporate, project and product level. This reinforces the need for some kind of business intelligence system which is likely to involve I T since the scale and complexity of information available today is only accessible and manageable with the aid of new information technology. What kind of information is required and by whom? Information is required at all levels and stages of the corporate design process, but will be available in different forms: textual, alphanumeric, graphic and so on. It is important not only to identify the form in which it would be most appropriate, but also how it is to be accessed, and who is likely to need this information, before investing in IT. How do industries differ in I T requirements? Each industry will have a different I T emphasis, particularly in areas of production and manufacture. But there are strategic design problems at corporate level that will be similar in all industries. At the same time the complexity of many design projects is likely to involve multi-disciplinary teams of specialists from a number of different industries (environment, product and information design). This
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reinforces the need for standards, common terminology and a holistic approach towards design. Longterm investment vs short term profit The human factor in design is becoming increasingly important and shared values of a corporate design culture may mean the difference between success and failure in corporate design practice. This demonstrates the value of a long term investment policy of education, training and updating. In order to promote shared values, company personnel will need to build up a knowledge base of I T and the ability to evaluate and manage I T systems. But to do this they will require an understanding of the wider implications at design macroenvironment level. Corporate design decisions Decisions about IT should be made at a corporate level since the implications of its introduction and use are far reaching. Similarly, shared values are important since many people other than the designer will have an influence upon design. However, the constant nature of change at macroenvironment level necessitates a constant process of review if effective design practice is to be sustained for any length of time. With support from IT, a strong system of communications and a well structured framework for reference, good practice can make perfect and profit.
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