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Green certificates and carbon trading in the Netherlands
15 Environment
(pollution, health protection,
safety)
Liquefied-pressure gases (LPG) are transported and stored in the liquid phase in closed tanks under sufficiently high pressure. In the case of an accident, an abrupt tank unsealing may release enormous quantity of evaporating gas and energy that has a destructive effect on the tank and its surroundings. In this paper, experiments with explosions of small LPG tanks are described. The data acquisition equipment applied in the tests provided a chance to learn dynamics of the process and determine hazard factors. The tests enabled a determination of temperature and pressure at which tanks containing LPG disrupt. The results enable a reconstruction of consecutive phases of the explosion and identification of hazards resulting from damage of the tanks. An explanation of the tank unsealing process with fluid parameters above critical point is given.
Field measurement on transient carbon monoxide levels in vehicular tunnels
03/01476
Chow, W. K. and Chan, M. Y. Building cmd Environment, 2003, 38, (2), 221 236. Carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NO,v) produced from internal combustion engines would be accumulated to harmful levels in vehicular tunnels if the design and operation of ventilation system are unsatisfactory. There are 11 vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong with an average of over 650000 vehicles crossing the tunnels daily. To have a preliminary understanding on the background pollutant levels and identifying the further areas to improve the ventilation provisions, a field study on air quality in those tunnels was carried out. CO levels measured in each tunnel are presented in this paper. Results revealed that the demand control ventilation rates derived from CO and NO, are different. Which one is more important is to be decided by the tunnel management. Air quality was assessed by the temperature difference between the ambient and inside the vehicular tunnels. This is because hot gases emitted would be trapped inside the tunnel due to poor ventilation, and so measurement on the temperature difference would give an indication of air quality. A simple model based on pressure balancing is used to calculate the CO levels for justifying the measured values. The levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO,) were derived from the equation suggested by the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) of the local government. The levels are compared with the internationally recommended standards.
03/01477
Fuel adulteration issues in Greece
Kalligeros, S. c/ al. Energy, 2003, 28, (l), 15-26. The fuel adulteration problem is associated with environmental pollution, problems with engine performance, and tax losses. Here, results are presented of a survey in leaded gasoline and automotive diesel, obtained from service stations representative of all the oil companies operating in Greece. For this purpose, 165 samples of gasoline and 420 samples of automotive diesel were collected from various parts of the country during the years 1998,1999, and 2000. The gasoline samples were subsequently analysed for their key properties and for any adulteration with cheaper unleaded gasoline. Octane number, benzene, olefins, and total aromatics were determined with the mid-IR method, and the sulfur content with a UVF elemental analyser. The analysis of the automotive diesel samples concerned some key properties such as the cetane index, density, sulfur content, and the distillation properties of the fuel. The results indicate that there is a large fluctuation of fuel properties among the oil marketers. Examination of the quinizarin content (the tracer of unleaded gasoline) has shown that 11 leaded gasoline samples (8.8%) were mixed with unleaded gasoline, 5 leaded gasoline samples (4%) were mixed with aromatic solvents, whereas about 28% of the automotive diesel samples suffered from some degree of adulteration, mainly with cheaper heating fuel; and one automotive diesel sample was adulterated with a lighter fraction. Fuel misuse is a common problem not only for European countries but for practically every nation in the world. The European Union recently expressed its concern on this issue, mandating that by the year 2002 all the member states will promote the development of a uniform system for fuel quality monitoring.
Gaseous contaminant emissions as affected by burning scrap tires in cement manufecturlng
pollutant concentrations (l-h, 24-h, annual concentratmns) in ambient air at ground level using the USEPA IX-ST:! software program. When tyres were used, the following was observed: a 12-24% increase in particulate matter (considering the concentration variation depending on the average used [l-h, 24-h, annual basis]): 31-529 in CO, 22-34% in SO2, 39-520/o in HCI, 12-27% in Fe, -3 to 8% in Al, 30-376 in Zn, and 27&886% in Pb; a decrease of 8-13% in NO,, Y-13% in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 6-7% in naphthalene, 32-39s~ in chlorobenzene, and 32-45% in dioxins and furans. Results showed maximum ground-level concentrations were well within environmental standards (for operation with coal only and for operating with a combination of coal and tyres).
03/01479 Gasification - opportunity for design of environmentally compatible processes in the chemical and cellulose industries. Schingnitz, M. Chemie Ingrnieuv Technik, 2002. 74. (7). 976~984. (In German) A review on in-flow gasification for environmentally compatible utilization of residual and waste materials. Reactors with cooling shield, cooling wall, or for the gasification of salt-containing materials are described. Three examples of technical processes arc given. Chlorinated hydrocarbons arising as by-products of vinyl chloride manufacturing are converted into HCl, which is recirculated Lo the oxychlorination. Mixtures of amines and nitriles from the caprolactam production are gasified to yield 99% elemental N and 1% NH3 and HCN. The black liquor from the cellulose industry is also regenerated by gasification. Gasification processes allow to immobilize hardly volatile heavy metals in the melting granulate and to convert volatile ones into sulfides. Dioxins and furans are decomposed at 1200-1500” (no de-novo synthesis in reducing atmosphere). The ash is melted in the gasification process and is discharged as elution-resistant granulate.
03/01480 Green certificates and carbon trading in the Netherlands
Boots, M. Energy Policy, 2003, 31, (I), 43-50. The combination of trading schemes for green certificates and for carbon, as they are implemented and planned in the Netherlands, imply a complete separation of green certificates and CO2 markets. This means that the costs of COz reduction will be reflected in the spot price of electricity and that the price of green certificates only reflects the additional cost of RE development. However, since the green certificate scheme is already implemented, while the carbon trading scheme is not, it is unclear if currently the green certificate value includes the CO2 reduction value of RE production. It is important that buyers and sellers in the market for green certificates agree on what they are trading, therefore this issue should be clarified. 03/01481
Health and environmental impacts of energy
systems
Rabl, A. rt al. Interncrtiond Journal of Glohol Energv I.w~a.s.2002, 18. (2/3/4), 113-I50. The assessment of health and environmental impacts of energy production has undergone a major evolution in recent years, reflecting progress in the underlying scientific domains. This paper reviews these developments and draws conclusions. The generalizability of the results to other sites and variations in emissions is discussed. Expressed in monetary terms as cost per kWh, the impacts of electricity from fossil fuels are not negligible: even for new power plants they are in the range of 10 to 100% of the market price of electricity, being about two to four times higher for coal than for gas. The damage costs of nuclear are much smaller, a few percent of the market price of electricity even at zero discount rate, assuming normal functioning in a stable mature society. Not surprisingly, the damage costs of renewable energies are, in most cases, very small. In view of the controversies surrounding far future impacts, some comparisons of physical impacts are also presented, for example showing that the increase in radiation dose from an all-nuclear scenario would be small relative to natural background.
03iO1476
Carrasco, F. ef al. Journal of Environmental Quality, 2002, 31, (5), 1484.1490. The environmental impact (gaseous emissions) of using scrap tyres as a fuel substitute at a cement plant producing 1 million tons of cement/ year was assessed. Using a combination of tyres and coal vs coal only caused variations in the pollutant emission rate. Results showed a 37% increase in the rate of CO emissions, a 24% increase in SO2, an 11% decrease for NO,, and a 48% increase for HCI when tyres were included. The rate of metal emissions increased 61% for Fe, 33% for Al, 487% for Zn, 127% for Pb, 339% for Cr, 100% for Mn, 74% for Cu, and decreased 22% for Hg. Organic compound emission rates decreased by 14% for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 8% for naphthalene, 37% for chlorobenzene, and 45% for dioxins and furans. A Gaussian model of atmospheric dispersion calculated average
258
Fuel and Energy Abstmcts
July 2003
03/01482 International greenhouse gas trading programs: a discussion of measurement and accounting Issues
Vine, E. cr al. Energy Policy, 2003, 31, (3), 21 l-224. There is general scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that this results from human activities, primarily burning fossil fuels. There is also a growing international consensus that the most cost-effective way to slow global warming is to establish international climate change trading programs that let institutions sell greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions in an international trading program. A well designed international GHG trading program could save billions or tens of billions of dollars and could result in a more rapid transfer of cleaner, more modern energy generating, transmitting and using technologies to developing nations. Establishing an international GHG trading program will require the development of international consensus rules on how to value and credit investments, for example in
(pollution, health protection,
safety)
Liquefied-pressure gases (LPG) are transported and stored in the liquid phase in closed tanks under sufficiently high pressure. In the case of an accident, an abrupt tank unsealing may release enormous quantity of evaporating gas and energy that has a destructive effect on the tank and its surroundings. In this paper, experiments with explosions of small LPG tanks are described. The data acquisition equipment applied in the tests provided a chance to learn dynamics of the process and determine hazard factors. The tests enabled a determination of temperature and pressure at which tanks containing LPG disrupt. The results enable a reconstruction of consecutive phases of the explosion and identification of hazards resulting from damage of the tanks. An explanation of the tank unsealing process with fluid parameters above critical point is given.
Field measurement on transient carbon monoxide levels in vehicular tunnels
03/01476
Chow, W. K. and Chan, M. Y. Building cmd Environment, 2003, 38, (2), 221 236. Carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NO,v) produced from internal combustion engines would be accumulated to harmful levels in vehicular tunnels if the design and operation of ventilation system are unsatisfactory. There are 11 vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong with an average of over 650000 vehicles crossing the tunnels daily. To have a preliminary understanding on the background pollutant levels and identifying the further areas to improve the ventilation provisions, a field study on air quality in those tunnels was carried out. CO levels measured in each tunnel are presented in this paper. Results revealed that the demand control ventilation rates derived from CO and NO, are different. Which one is more important is to be decided by the tunnel management. Air quality was assessed by the temperature difference between the ambient and inside the vehicular tunnels. This is because hot gases emitted would be trapped inside the tunnel due to poor ventilation, and so measurement on the temperature difference would give an indication of air quality. A simple model based on pressure balancing is used to calculate the CO levels for justifying the measured values. The levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO,) were derived from the equation suggested by the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) of the local government. The levels are compared with the internationally recommended standards.
03/01477
Fuel adulteration issues in Greece
Kalligeros, S. c/ al. Energy, 2003, 28, (l), 15-26. The fuel adulteration problem is associated with environmental pollution, problems with engine performance, and tax losses. Here, results are presented of a survey in leaded gasoline and automotive diesel, obtained from service stations representative of all the oil companies operating in Greece. For this purpose, 165 samples of gasoline and 420 samples of automotive diesel were collected from various parts of the country during the years 1998,1999, and 2000. The gasoline samples were subsequently analysed for their key properties and for any adulteration with cheaper unleaded gasoline. Octane number, benzene, olefins, and total aromatics were determined with the mid-IR method, and the sulfur content with a UVF elemental analyser. The analysis of the automotive diesel samples concerned some key properties such as the cetane index, density, sulfur content, and the distillation properties of the fuel. The results indicate that there is a large fluctuation of fuel properties among the oil marketers. Examination of the quinizarin content (the tracer of unleaded gasoline) has shown that 11 leaded gasoline samples (8.8%) were mixed with unleaded gasoline, 5 leaded gasoline samples (4%) were mixed with aromatic solvents, whereas about 28% of the automotive diesel samples suffered from some degree of adulteration, mainly with cheaper heating fuel; and one automotive diesel sample was adulterated with a lighter fraction. Fuel misuse is a common problem not only for European countries but for practically every nation in the world. The European Union recently expressed its concern on this issue, mandating that by the year 2002 all the member states will promote the development of a uniform system for fuel quality monitoring.
Gaseous contaminant emissions as affected by burning scrap tires in cement manufecturlng
pollutant concentrations (l-h, 24-h, annual concentratmns) in ambient air at ground level using the USEPA IX-ST:! software program. When tyres were used, the following was observed: a 12-24% increase in particulate matter (considering the concentration variation depending on the average used [l-h, 24-h, annual basis]): 31-529 in CO, 22-34% in SO2, 39-520/o in HCI, 12-27% in Fe, -3 to 8% in Al, 30-376 in Zn, and 27&886% in Pb; a decrease of 8-13% in NO,, Y-13% in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 6-7% in naphthalene, 32-39s~ in chlorobenzene, and 32-45% in dioxins and furans. Results showed maximum ground-level concentrations were well within environmental standards (for operation with coal only and for operating with a combination of coal and tyres).
03/01479 Gasification - opportunity for design of environmentally compatible processes in the chemical and cellulose industries. Schingnitz, M. Chemie Ingrnieuv Technik, 2002. 74. (7). 976~984. (In German) A review on in-flow gasification for environmentally compatible utilization of residual and waste materials. Reactors with cooling shield, cooling wall, or for the gasification of salt-containing materials are described. Three examples of technical processes arc given. Chlorinated hydrocarbons arising as by-products of vinyl chloride manufacturing are converted into HCl, which is recirculated Lo the oxychlorination. Mixtures of amines and nitriles from the caprolactam production are gasified to yield 99% elemental N and 1% NH3 and HCN. The black liquor from the cellulose industry is also regenerated by gasification. Gasification processes allow to immobilize hardly volatile heavy metals in the melting granulate and to convert volatile ones into sulfides. Dioxins and furans are decomposed at 1200-1500” (no de-novo synthesis in reducing atmosphere). The ash is melted in the gasification process and is discharged as elution-resistant granulate.
03/01480 Green certificates and carbon trading in the Netherlands
Boots, M. Energy Policy, 2003, 31, (I), 43-50. The combination of trading schemes for green certificates and for carbon, as they are implemented and planned in the Netherlands, imply a complete separation of green certificates and CO2 markets. This means that the costs of COz reduction will be reflected in the spot price of electricity and that the price of green certificates only reflects the additional cost of RE development. However, since the green certificate scheme is already implemented, while the carbon trading scheme is not, it is unclear if currently the green certificate value includes the CO2 reduction value of RE production. It is important that buyers and sellers in the market for green certificates agree on what they are trading, therefore this issue should be clarified. 03/01481
Health and environmental impacts of energy
systems
Rabl, A. rt al. Interncrtiond Journal of Glohol Energv I.w~a.s.2002, 18. (2/3/4), 113-I50. The assessment of health and environmental impacts of energy production has undergone a major evolution in recent years, reflecting progress in the underlying scientific domains. This paper reviews these developments and draws conclusions. The generalizability of the results to other sites and variations in emissions is discussed. Expressed in monetary terms as cost per kWh, the impacts of electricity from fossil fuels are not negligible: even for new power plants they are in the range of 10 to 100% of the market price of electricity, being about two to four times higher for coal than for gas. The damage costs of nuclear are much smaller, a few percent of the market price of electricity even at zero discount rate, assuming normal functioning in a stable mature society. Not surprisingly, the damage costs of renewable energies are, in most cases, very small. In view of the controversies surrounding far future impacts, some comparisons of physical impacts are also presented, for example showing that the increase in radiation dose from an all-nuclear scenario would be small relative to natural background.
03iO1476
Carrasco, F. ef al. Journal of Environmental Quality, 2002, 31, (5), 1484.1490. The environmental impact (gaseous emissions) of using scrap tyres as a fuel substitute at a cement plant producing 1 million tons of cement/ year was assessed. Using a combination of tyres and coal vs coal only caused variations in the pollutant emission rate. Results showed a 37% increase in the rate of CO emissions, a 24% increase in SO2, an 11% decrease for NO,, and a 48% increase for HCI when tyres were included. The rate of metal emissions increased 61% for Fe, 33% for Al, 487% for Zn, 127% for Pb, 339% for Cr, 100% for Mn, 74% for Cu, and decreased 22% for Hg. Organic compound emission rates decreased by 14% for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 8% for naphthalene, 37% for chlorobenzene, and 45% for dioxins and furans. A Gaussian model of atmospheric dispersion calculated average
258
Fuel and Energy Abstmcts
July 2003
03/01482 International greenhouse gas trading programs: a discussion of measurement and accounting Issues
Vine, E. cr al. Energy Policy, 2003, 31, (3), 21 l-224. There is general scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that this results from human activities, primarily burning fossil fuels. There is also a growing international consensus that the most cost-effective way to slow global warming is to establish international climate change trading programs that let institutions sell greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions in an international trading program. A well designed international GHG trading program could save billions or tens of billions of dollars and could result in a more rapid transfer of cleaner, more modern energy generating, transmitting and using technologies to developing nations. Establishing an international GHG trading program will require the development of international consensus rules on how to value and credit investments, for example in