Groundwater-surface water interaction along river Kali, near Aligarh, India

Journal Pre-proof Groundwater-surface water interaction along river Kali, near Aligarh, India

Haris Hasan Khan, Arina Khan PII:

S2589-7578(20)30001-9

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2019.12.001

Reference:

HYDRES 20

To appear in:

HydroResearch

Received date:

3 September 2019

Revised date:

10 December 2019

Accepted date:

19 December 2019

Please cite this article as: H.H. Khan and A. Khan, Groundwater-surface water interaction along river Kali, near Aligarh, India, HydroResearch(2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.hydres.2019.12.001

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© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

Journal Pre-proof

Groundwater-Surface Water Interaction along river Kali, near Aligarh, India Haris Hasan Khan* Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India – 202002 *[email protected] (ORCID 0000-0003-2318-6744) Arina Khan

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Residential Coaching Academy, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India – 202002

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Abstract

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River Kali, in the western gangetic plains, is posing serious threat to riparian communities by contaminating shallow riparian zone groundwater. To manage

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groundwater contamination, this study attempts to investigate the nature of

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groundwater-river water interaction, during February to April, 2018, along a segment of river Kali near Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh, India. River discharge was measured at

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three locations in two phases. Hydraulic heads in mini-piezometers were observed twice weekly. Forty water samples were analyzed for major ions, nitrate, fluoride, TDS, pH, EC. River discharges and river bank vertical hydraulic gradients reveal that river Kali is losing water to riparian aquifers. Hydro-chemical analysis shows discordance in the pattern of ionic concentrations of river and groundwater, a distinct clustering of river and groundwater for both sampling periods. Ionic concentrations in groundwater with distance from channel indicate potentially clogged riverbed conditions that reduce the interaction of river water with riparian groundwater.

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Journal Pre-proof Keywords: Groundwater-Surface Water Interaction, River Discharge, Major Ions, Minipiezometer, Kali Nadi, Aligarh

Introduction

Surface water, including rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, estuaries etc., interacts

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with groundwater almost everywhere on the earth. This interaction takes place by loss of

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surface water to groundwater, by seepage of groundwater to surface water body, or by

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a combination of both. Development or contamination of surface water or groundwater resource usually affects each other (Winter et al. 1998, Zhu et al. 2019). Therefore a

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critical understanding of the interactions between surface water and groundwater in a

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region is needed for better management and framing sound policies related to water

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scarcity, stream and aquifer contaminations etc.

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Investigations of groundwater surface-water interactions are strongly scale dependant (Larkin & sharp, 1992; Brunke & Gonser 1997; Woessner 2000). Large scale interactions are influenced by the whole catchment or watershed, local-scale interactions within the hyporheic zone are controlled mainly by stream bed properties. Dahl et al (2007) divided the interaction into three levels: sediment scale (<1 m), reach scale (1-1000 m) and catchment scale (>1000 m). The scale boundaries are arbitrary, but they incorporate the hierarchy of groundwater flow systems. Hyporheic processes dominate the sediment scale, while local and regional groundwater flow systems dominate the reach and catchment scales respectively. These interactions are hierarchical and overlapping, thus, the consideration of spatial scale is necessary while investigating the 1|Page

Journal Pre-proof interaction of groundwater and surface water in a region. Reviews on the subject are provided in Winter (1995, 1999), Woessner (2000), Biksey & Gross (2001), Sophocleous (2002), Cavazza & Pagliara (2009), Banzhaf et al (2011), Safeeq and Fares (2016), Toran (In press). Besides, important generalizations are provided in Winter et al (1998), Weight (2008), Environment Agency (2009), Khan & Khan (2019).

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Kali River (East) in the western Gangetic plains of India, like many other rivers in

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the region, is a highly contaminated river due to increasing industrialization,

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urbanization, and chemical based agriculture within its basin (CGWB 1999; CPCB 2012, 2015). The contaminations are sustained by the lack as well as disuse of waste-water

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treatment plants in industrial and municipal waste-water treatment facilities.

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Contamination levels are so high that riparian groundwater too, is severely affected, and

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many town and village communities living on the banks of Kali are facing epidemic-scale health issues (Karn, 2018). Groundwater contamination is perceived to be arising from

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the seepage of contaminated river water in a riparian zone of several kilometers width along the river especially in the downstream reaches of industrial towns, isolated industrial units and municipal water discharge pipes and drains.

Previous studies on Kali Nadi have focussed on river water quality and groundwater quality separately and have brought to focus the poor state of water quality. Kali Nadi water was analyzed for heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, Pb, Zn, Fe) from different locations along the entire length of river by Ajmal et al (1998), and it was found that most of the samples had heavy metal concentrations far in excess of prescribed WHO drinking water quality limits. Sinha et al (2012) have reported severe 2|Page

Journal Pre-proof contamination of Kali Nadi water based on analysis of TDS, Alkalinity, DO, BOD, COD, F-, Cl-, Fe2+ in samples from Aligarh to Kannauj. Sirohi et al (2014) have reported severe contamination of Kali Nadi water based on analysis of TDS, BOD, COD, Ca++, Mg++, Cl-, SO42- in samples within Meerut District. A report by NEER foundation (Neer Foundation, 2012), a local non-profit organization, revealed poor water quality in the river, based on the analysis of TDS, Pb, and Fe from sixteen samples taken at major locations along the

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entire length of river from Muzaffarnagar to Kannauj. A study by the Central Pollution

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Control Board (CPCB, 2012) on the river water quality in Kali Nadi from Meerut to

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Bulandshahr Districts analyzed river water samples for pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Kjedehal Nitrogen (TKN), Biological Oxygen Demand

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(BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Dissolved Oxygen (DO), and found severe

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water quality degradation. Khan et al (2015 a, b) studied the groundwater system and

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hydro-chemical characteristics of groundwater (TDS, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Cl-, SO4-, HCO3-, NO3-, F- and SiO2) in a large region of the middle Kali river basin. Studies revealed overall

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good water quality in the extended region, however, since no river water and riparian groundwater samples were analyzed, the results were not very significant in the context of the contamination taking place in the riparian aquifer along the Kali river.

None of the previous studies attempted to discuss the nature of groundwaterriver interactions along Kali Nadi, a crucial exercise that must be conducted to facilitate the proposal of a viable water quality management strategy for Kali Nadi. The direction and magnitude of these interactions govern the direction and quantity of contaminants moving into or out of the riparian aquifers. In addition, seasonal variability of these interactions may potentially dilute or concentrate the groundwater and river water. The 3|Page

Journal Pre-proof present study was, thus, undertaken with the objective of identifying the nature of groundwater- stream interactions at the reach scale along a stretch of Kali Nadi near Aligarh town, in western Uttar Pradesh, India. The uniqueness of this study lies in the demonstration of the effectiveness of a combination of techniques to detect the nature

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of groundwater-stream interactions in low discharge alluvial rivers.

Figure 1 - Kali River Basin (shaded) with important towns and outline of the study area.

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Study Area

The Kali Nadi (East) is a tributary of the river Ganges in north India. It originates near Khatoli town in Muzaffarnagar district of Uttar Pradesh, and flows through the districts of Meerut, Hapur, Bulandshahar, Aligarh, Kasganj, Farrukhabad, and merges

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with river Ganges at Kannauj (figure 1). The Kali river (East) studied here is distinct from

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the Kali river (West) that originates at the base of Siwalik Hills and is a part of the

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Yamuna river system. River Kali (East) has a total length of 600 km approximately. Prior to extensive groundwater and industrial development in the region a few decades ago,

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Kali Nadi was a perennial river except for the stretch from Muzaffarnagar to

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Bulandshahar districts (Khan, 1987). At present, with a deep water-table in the region

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(CGWB, 2002), due to decades of groundwater development and overexploitation, Kali Nadi is expected to extend its ephemeral character even in the stretches downstream of

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Bulandshahar district. Assessment of the actual hydrological regime is complicated by the fact that the river channel is always seen to be discharging huge quantities of water, which is actually the industrial & municipal wastewater that is fed into Kali river system mainly from Meerut, Hapur, and Bulandshahar, leading to severe river water and riparian groundwater quality deterioration (CGWB 1999; CPCB 2012, 2015).

This study is conducted along a 12 Km stretch of Kali Nadi in Aligarh district of Uttar Pradesh, as shown in Figure 2. The climate of the area is characterized by moderate subtropical monsoon type withhot and dry summers and cool winters, and a distinct wet period from July to September. The average annual rainfall is about 1000 mm, most of 5|Page

Journal Pre-proof which is received during the monsoons. The dominant land use is agriculture and there is

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no effective forest cover. The soils are loam to silty loam.

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Hydrogeology

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Figure 2 - Study area with water sampling, river gauging and minipiezometer locations

The study area is underlain by quaternary fluvial sediments consisting of sand, clay and calcite concretions locally known as ‘kankar’. These alluvial sediments are unconformably underlain by the Vindhyan group of rocks. The thickness of alluvial deposits in the region is approximately 380 meters (Kumar & Bhargawa, 2002). A three layer aquifer system exists in the area. The uppermost aquifer extends from surface to 70 meters below ground level (figure 3) and constitutes the most potential aquifer in the area. This aquifer is composed of fine to medium grained sands. Kankar is associated with clay lenses as well as sand. Groundwateroccurs under unconfinedconditions and forms 6|Page

Journal Pre-proof the main source of water supply to open wells, hand pumps & shallow tubewells in the region. All ground water development activities are concentrated in this fresh water aquifer,hence it is overstressed.Depth to water table in this aquifer ranges from approximately 6-7 meters bgl near river Kali and increases withlateral distance from the river to values of around 10-12 meters bgl. The middle aquifer, containing brackish water, is separated from the overlying shallow aquifer by thick calcareous clay of 7-8 meters

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thickness (figure 3). The aquifer material is generally medium sand. Deep aquifer (not

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shown in figure 3), containing brackish to saline water, extends from about 130 mbgl

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downwards, and is regionally extensive and in confined state.

Figure 3 - Hydrogeological Section across Kali River along line X-Y (indicated in figure 2)

Methodology

Stream Discharge Measurement

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Stream discharge was measured at three locations (R1, R2, & R3), shown in figure 2, along a 12 kilometres stretch of river Kali using the velocity-area gauging method. A distance of 10 m was paced along the stream bank at the gauging site. A float was released in the middle of the stream above the first marking and the time of travel from the first to the second marking was recorded. This yields an average velocity for the

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centre of the stream. About five to six velocity readings were obtained at each site and

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all the observations were averaged to reduce observational errors and a final value of

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mean flow velocity was obtained. This estimated velocity was multiplied by a correction factor of 0.75 or 0.80 to account for friction along the bed and banks of the channel

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(Weight, 2008). The correction factor is applied according to the uniformity of the profile

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across the stream. For banks with higher friction factors, such as vegetation, a correction

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factor of 0.75 was applied; where banks had no vegetation, a correction factor of 0.8 was

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applied.

Where,

V = mean flow velocity d = distance travelled by float t = average time taken by float to travel distance‘d’ C = correction factor

The cross-sectional area is estimated by measuring several depths across the stream at the gauging site. Streamwidth was measured using tape and then divided into

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Journal Pre-proof several sections,each few meters wide. Water depth was observed at the centre of each section. The area of the stream cross section was calculated as:

Where, A = cross sectional areaof flow W = width of the section

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D = water depth of section

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n = number of sections

Discharge of the river at the gauging site was calculated as the product of the

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mean flow velocity and the cross sectional area of flow. The discharge values were

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obtained in cubic meters per second (m3/s).

Where,

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Q = discharge of the river V = mean flow velocity A = cross sectional area of river flow

Water Sampling

Thirty-two groundwater and eight river water samples were collected along the length of the selected stretch of Kali Nadi, and from tube-wells and hand-pumps along a two kilometre wide zone along the river stretch. Sampling was divided into two phases with a gap of around 50 days. Initially fifteen samples (n=15) (twelve groundwater and 9|Page

Journal Pre-proof three river-water) were collected and analysed during the last week of February 2018. This was followed by another sampling campaign in the third week of April 2018 when twenty five (n=25) samples (twenty groundwater and five river-water) were collected and analysed.

For water samples collected from tube wells, it was ensured that the tube well

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was already pumping so there is no need to purge the well. Where tube-wells were not

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operating before hand, water sample was collected after ten minutes of starting the

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pump. Hand pumps were also purged by removing two to three well volumes of water. Water samples were collected in plastic bottles that were rinsed two to three times with

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the water that was to be stored in the bottle. The bottles were filled with water leaving

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no air space, in order to avoid any reactions with the air that would be present in the

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bottle. The bottles were then sealed to prevent any leakage. Each container was clearly marked with the sample code and date and time of sampling. Sample location was

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measured using a handled Garmin GPS receiver. Electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the samples were measured during sampling.

Water Quality Analysis

The water samples were analysed for physical and chemical parameters, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, major cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+), and major anions (Cl-, SO4-, HCO3-) in the Geochemistry Laboratory of Aligarh Muslim University. Additionally, Nitrate (NO3-), and Fluoride (F-) were also

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Journal Pre-proof analysed. The chemical analysis was carried out as per the standard procedures (APHA, 1995).

Calcium (Ca2+) & Magnesium (Mg2+) were determined by titrating against EDTA (Ethylene Di-amine Tetra Acetic acid). Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) were analysed using EEL Flame Photometer. Calibration was done using a series of standard solutions

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(of known concentrations) prepared using NaCl and KCl salts. This method is based on

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the principle that a light is produced due to excitation of electrons when sample is

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sprayed into flame. The intensity of this characteristic radiation is proportional to the concentration of sodium and can be read at 389 nm by using suitable filter concentration

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of sodium. However, at higher concentration it has got a tendency to level off. Values are

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read off a predefined graph that is prepared by plotting the absorbance values obtained

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from flame photometer against the concentrations of known samples.

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Chloride (Cl¯) was determined by adding potassium chromate solution to the sample and titrating against AgNO₃. Bicarbonate (HCO₃-) was estimated by titrating the water samples with strong HCl using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Sulphate (SO42-), Nitrate (NO3-), and Fluoride (F-) were determined using Ultraviolet Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1800) by analyzing the absorbance at 420, 410, and 570 nm respectively. Calibration was done using a series of standard solutions (of known concentrations) prepared using KNO3, NaF, Na2SO4 salts. The absorbance values were used to read off concentration on a pre-established graph of absorbance versus concentration prepared from standard solutions.

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Journal Pre-proof The accuracy of the major ion analysis was checked by including two spike samples, of known concentrations. Five duplicate samples were included for the laboratory analysis to ensure better precision. Analysis results from the spike and duplicate samples revealed acceptable precision and accuracy of the water quality sampling and analysis techniques used in the study. Charge balance error analysis was undertaken to assess the validity of analysis. The difference between the total positive

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charges and the total negative charges in each sample was calculated. It was found that

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most of the samples had charge balance error of less than ±5%. Two samples with large

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error were discarded.

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River Mass Balance

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Results and Discussion

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River mass balance has been used successfully by many investigators to identify the direction and magnitude of the interactions between river water and adjacent groundwater (e.g. Arnold et al, 2016). River discharge was measured at three locations along the Kali Nadi (Figures 2 & 4) on 19th February, and 24th March, 2018. There are only two tributary confluences with the main stream; one small drainage entering from the right bank between R1 and R2, while another small drainage entering from the right bank between R2 and R3. The drainage between R2 and R3 has been dry throughout the investigation period and was, hence, not considered. Drainage between R1 and R2 has discharged some water intermittently. Substantial effluent inputs were derived from a distillery on the left bank of the river between R2 and R3, which were considered in the 12 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof investigations. Evaporative losses were not considered as the length of stream considered is not very large. Hence, the river mass balance included only inflows from tributaries and artificial inputs from the distillery. The deficits, in this situation can be safely attributed to river losses to the underlying aquifer. Discharge values are provided in table 1.

4.476

March 24, 2018

4.259

R3 4.660

4.075

4.648

4.105

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Feb 19, 2018

R2

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R1

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Date

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Table 1 Observed Discharge (m3/s) in the selected stretch of Kali Nadi

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The discharge values of 19th February indicate an overall decrease in discharge

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from R1 to R2, and then an increase from R2 to R3. The increase in discharge from R2 to R3 is attributed to the discharge of industrial effluents from a beer distillery midway

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between R2 and R3 on the left bank of Kali Nadi (Figure 2). The effluent discharge from the distillery was measured to be approximately 1.4 m3/s. Subtracting this value from the discharge at R3 on 19th February 2018, the corrected discharge value (for 19th February 2018) at R3 is obtained to be approximately 3.24 m3/s. The 19th February 2018 discharge from R1 to R2 shows an overall decrease, however, the effective decrease along this stretch would be greater than the observed decrease, since the drainage entering Kali Nadi from the right bank upstream of R2 drains approximately 0.24 m3/s of discharge into the Kali channel. This drainage line usually carries some surplus irrigation water, and the discharge varies from day to day, based on the varying abstractions by farmers for irrigating adjacent agricultural fields. Thus, it can be clearly observed that for all 13 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof discharge measurements on 19th February 2018, a distinct decrease of discharge is obtained with downstream distance along the 12 Km stretch of the Kali Nadi.

The discharge values of 24th March 2018, also exhibit a similar downstream trend. The discharge from R1 to R2 shows a decrease of about 0.184 m3/s of discharge, which, after deducting the 0.36 m3/s of measured discharge from the irrigation ditch on the right

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bank of Kali Nadi, reduces to a value less than the actual at R2. From R2 to R3, discharge

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shows an overall increase, which is again attributed to the discharge of industrial effluents from the distillery. Adjusting the discharge of effluents from distillery, the

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corrected discharge at R3 reduces to 3.248 m3/s. Thus, the selected stretch of Kali Nadi

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depicts an overall loosing pattern on both the dates, i.e., 19th February, and 24th March

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2018. It must be mentioned here that Kali Nadi frequently receives water along its course

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from the upper Ganges canal (CPCB 2012) and smaller drainage ditches in order to dilute and mobilize the sewage and industrial wastes being dumped into the river by several

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towns upstream of the study area.

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Figure 4 Channel profiles and photographs of discharge measurement sites along the selected stretch of Kali

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Nadi; site locations are indicated in Figure 2

Hydraulic Measurements

Apart from the mass balance of the river, the investigations also included the establishment of two mini-piezometers at right bank of river between R2 and R3. The mini-piezometers were installed to depths of 5 and 10 feet below the ground level, at the same location (figure 5a). PVC pipes of 2 inch diameter were used for casing. The lower most foot length of the pipes was perforated to function as the well screen in both the mini-piezometers. Since the mini-piezometers are placed at the same location, they essentially capture the vertical hydraulic gradient close to the channel from depths of 5 to 10 feet. Measurements of hydraulic heads in mini-piezometers near surface water

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Journal Pre-proof bodies to characterize the relationship between surface and groundwater is very common (e.g. Allen et al, 2010). Weekly monitoring of water levels in the minipiezometers (figure 5b) revealed consistently higher hydraulic head in the shallow minipiezometer and lower hydraulic head in the deep mini-piezometers. This implies a downward hydraulic gradient and consistent seepage of river water into the groundwater throughout the period of investigation. The peak in river stage as well as

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piezometric heads in the middle of the hydrographs is related to rainfall events that

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occurred during few days in early march. The figure 5b also reveals an overall increase in

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the head difference with time during the period of investigation, implying an increase in the vertical hydraulic gradient and consequently the magnitude of seepage during this

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period. The enhanced seepage during this period could be related to enhanced

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groundwater abstractions in the adjacent riparian aquifers as well as general declining

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water tables as the dry season progresses.

Figure 5 – a) Schematic section showing the disposition of piezometers on the bank of Kali Nadi; b) Changes in hydraulic heads and river stage during the period of investigation.

Hydro-Chemical Measurements

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Journal Pre-proof Major ions, especially Chloride, were selected in this study because major ions act as environmental tracers to characterize the mixing of river and groundwater (Crandall et al, 1999; Baskaran et al, 2009; Brindha et al, 2014; Arnold et al, 2016). Moreover, analysis of major ions is widely available, so that these can be utilized in rapid and low cost stream-aquifer investigations.

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Mean, standard deviation, and range of major ion concentrations in the

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groundwater and river water samples is provided in table 2. An analysis of the water

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quality data of groundwater and river water (Figure 6) reveals that most of the cations and anions are showing higher average concentration in the river water as compared to

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the groundwater. Calcium, Sodium, and Potasssium ions are showing markedly high

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average concentration in Kali Nadi water samples; similarly, Chloride & Bicarbonate also

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show a distinctly higher average concentration in river water. It is also evident that the average values of total dissolved solids (TDS) and hardness of river water is greater than

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that of groundwater. Magnesium & Sulphate show lower average concentration in the river water as compared to the groundwater, however, the difference is quite small as compared to other ions.

A comparison of ionic concentrations in groundwater and river water (table 2) with respect to BIS (2012) and WHO (2017) drinking water quality specifications shows that most of the parameters in the groundwater are within acceptable limits, except F-. In the river water, however, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, and F- exceed the permissible limits.

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Journal Pre-proof The concentration of major ions is not found to be conformable in groundwater and surface water samples. The cationic trend in groundwater is Ca2+> Mg2+> K+> Na+, while in river water the trend is Ca2+> K+> Na+> Mg2+; and the anionic trend in groundwater is HCO3-> SO42->Cl-, while in surface water it is HCO3->Cl-> SO42-. Comparison of patterns of major ion concentrations in groundwater and river water has been used extensively for the investigation of groundwater and river water interaction (e.g. Kumar

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et al, 2009; Brindha et al, 2014 & 2015). Kumar et al (2009) have shown that a similarity in

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major ion trends between river water and groundwater is indicative of groundwater

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seepage to the river as baseflow. In the case of Kali Nadi, absence of such conformity is indicative of an absence of baseflow to river, and, thus, a possibility of the seepage of

Groundwater

River Water

BIS (2012) Acceptabl e Limit

BIS (2012) Permissibl e Limit in the absence of alternate source

WH O Limi t

808-996

500

2000

600

75

200

100

30

100

150

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Paramete

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river water into riparian aquifers.

February (n = 12)

SD TDS

Ca2+

Mg2+

Na+

K+

Range

HCO3-

Mean ±

Rang

February (n = 3)

Mean ±

SD

e

SD

Range

April (n = 5)Mean ±

Range

SD

401.27 ±

291.6 –

491.5 ±

315.2

852.80 ±

781.60-

873.28 ±

99.81

552.4

103.38

- 698

67.56

916.00

87.32

32.06 -

33.43 ±

11.2 –

111.16 ±

91.38-

75.67±

56.11-

11.08

67.33

15.10

70.5

17.59

125.05

15.14

94.59

34.68 ±

5.8 –

40.46 ±

17.5 –

21.44 ±

8.77-

31.38 ±

18.52-

1126

58.48

12.37

66.3

15.68

38.98

9.18

41.91

12.50 ±

9.0 –

15.43 ±

4 - 38

55.00 ±

51-61

36±

22-65

---

---

200

2.37

17.0

8.05

17.33 ±

7.5 - 30

18.60 ±

12 -

32.50 ±

60-77

---

---

200

9.45

55

2.50

250

1000

250

---

---

---

46.76 ±

7.13 Cl-

April (n = 20)

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Mean ±

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r

5.29

18.76 30-35

65.20 ± 7.19

25.09 ±

5.68 –

35.78±

14.2 -

206.37 ±

173.24-

131.78±

102.24-

12.81

53.96

15.29

71

47.89

261.28

38.24

190.28

324.17 ±

110 -

361.5±

270 -

560.00 ±

480-620

502±

400-560

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SO42-

F-

NO3-

92.68

430

77.55

570

72.11

65.73

35.55 ±

5.7 –

31.87±

7.5 –

11.28 ±

10.36-

30.14 ±

25.6-

18.47

77.1

16.95

66.9

0.79

11.77

3.38

3122

1.03 ±

0.28 –

0.27 ±

00 –

1.25 ±

1.12-1.5

1.35 ±

1.18-

0.42

1.54

0.25

0.84

0.22

0.24

1.75

1.76 ±

00 –

2.03 ±

00 –

0.89 ±

2.41 ±

0.047-

5.02

17.59

2.60

10.3

0.49

1.85

4.6

0.35-1.3

200

400

200

1

1.5

0.5

45

45

50

Table 2 Comparative statistical summary of hydrochemical parameters of groundwater and river water. BIS

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(2012) and WHO (2017) drinking water quality standards are provided for reference. (All values are in mg/L)

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Figure 6 Comparison of ionic concentrations in the groundwater and Kali Nadi water samples

The geographic distribution of dominant anions in groundwater is a function of the direction and distance of the groundwater flow (Chebotarev 1955). Thus, the dominant anion in groundwater in recharge areas is bicarbonate followed by bicarbonate-sulphate dominance, sulphate-chloride dominance, and finally chloride dominance in the discharge areas.

In the groundwater around the selected stretch of river Kali, the dominant anion is bicarbonate (HCO3-), while sulphate (SO42-) and chloride (Cl-) concentrations are far

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Journal Pre-proof below the bicarbonate concentration, indicating that infiltration losses through bed and banks of Kali Nadi are recharging groundwater in the region.

An analysis of the hydro-chemical clustering of groundwater and river water during the two sampling periods, i.e. February and April, 2018, was done by plotting the samples on a piper plot, prepared using Aquachem, for the two sampling periods (figure

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Figure 7 Hydro-chemical clustering and groundwater-surface waterinteractions

The plots reveal that during the time frame of this study, which is just about 50 days, no significant change in hydro-chemical facies is observed in the groundwater and river water samples. However, it is observed that the relative position of groundwater and river water clusters on the piper plot is slightly changed, although not significantly. The clusters appear to be relatively closer for the April 2018 dataset as compared to the February 2018 dataset. This implies an increase in the mixing of groundwater and river water over the time span of this study. This could possibly be a result of enhanced induced recharge from Kali Nadi during the pre-monsoon, especially when irrigation needs of the agricultural fields is being met by excessive pumping from tube-wells in the 20 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof region, leading to fall in an already deep water table and promoting induced recharge from Kali Nadi. However, since the time interval between the two sampling phases in not long enough, the results may not be significant. A longer time interval needs to be considered for such a distinction to be detected in hydro-chemical facies and clustering

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of groundwater and river water.

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Journal Pre-proof Figure 8 Plots of major ion concentrations vs distance from river channel

As discussed above (figure 6), TDS, and most of the cations and anions exhibit a higher average concentration in river water as compared to groundwater. If the river is losing water to underlying aquifer by induced recharge, it can be expected that the concentration of major ions will exhibit a decrease with increasing lateral distance from the river channel, at least in the riparian zone along the river. With this presumption, a

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distance to river channel grid was prepared in a geographical information system, SAGA

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GIS (Conrad et al, 2015), using proximity analysis tools. The value of distance from river

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channel for each groundwater sampling location was extracted automatically using the

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distance grid and vector GIS tools. Concentration of major ions in groundwater was plotted against the lateral distance from the river channel (figure 8). From the graphs, it

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can be seen that sodium and magnesium concentrations show a marked decrease away

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from the river channel; potassium shows a slight decrease with increasing distance from the channel, while calcium shows a slight increase in concentration with distance from

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the river. Bicarbonate exhibits a decreasing trend with increasing distance from the river channel; however, chloride and sulphate do not exhibit any trend with increasing distance from the river channel. TDS in groundwater exhibits a slight decreasing trend with increasing distance river channel. Nitrate and Fluoride exhibit a significant scatter in the concentration values; however, fluoride shows a significant decreasing trend away from the river.

The concentration of chloride, a conservative ion used as a tracer in investigating the mixing of waters from different sources (Baskaran et al, 2009), does not give a convincing proof of significant seepage of river water into the ground. Here, it must be 23 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof pointed out that river water Cl- is far greater in concentration as compared to groundwater Cl-; however, in groundwater, the concentration (with lateral distance from well) is almost uniform (fig 8). If the river was losing enough water to ground, a marked decreasing concentration trend away from the river could be expected. The absence of a marked decrease in Cl- concentration with lateral distance from the river could be due to low connectivity between river and aquifer. The low connectivity is expected due to the

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‘colmation’ of river bed, which refers to the process of choking of river bed sediments by

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sedimentary (Schalchli, 1992) and biological (Treese et al., 2009) processes. In rivers that

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experience annual floods, flood flows selectively entrain the finer particles (Simpson & Meixner, 2012), thereby eroding the colmated layer, and rejuvenating the connection

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between river and groundwater. However, Kali Nadi is no longer experiencing floods due

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to already low groundwater table in the region (CGWB 2002), and colmation is expected

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to have reduced the hydraulic conductivity of bed and bank sediment. In fact, slug test tests conducted in the mini-piezometer pair revealed very low hydraulic conductivity of

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the bank sediments.

Nevertheless, the presence of low conductivity river sediment can only reduce the magnitude of flux; it does not affect the direction of flux. The direction of flux, which is evident from mini-piezometer and river mass balance approaches, is from the river into the groundwater.

Specific Conductance/TDS is reported to be particularly useful in investigations of groundwater/surface-water interactions (Weight, 2008 and Gammons et al, 2007). If a given reach of a stream is gaining flow from discharge of shallow groundwater, then it 24 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof will usually show a change (gradual increase) in specific conductance/TDS with downstream distance over a given reach, since the influent groundwater almost always has a different (usually higher) specific conductance/TDS value than that of the stream. In contrast, if the specific conductance/TDS of a stream is invariant or erratic with downstream distance over a given reach, it is likely that the river is not receiving influent groundwater or is losing water to the subsurface. Plotting the TDS values of river

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samples versus downstream distance (figure 9) reveals that TDS values are erratic with

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downstream distance. This is a possible indication of absence of baseflow and presence

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of river bed recharge of adjacent aquifers, along the selected stretch of Kali Nadi.

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Figure 9 Variation of TDS with downstream distance in Kali Nadi

Based on an analysis of river mass balance and vertical hydraulic gradient in a piezometer pair on the bank of river Kali, it is evident that seepage of contaminated river water into the adjacent groundwater system is indeed occurring, however, the comparison of ionic concentrations of river water and groundwater are suggestive of very limited seepage of river water through possibly clogged river bed and bank sediments. A possible model of stream-aquifer interaction along the studied segment of Kali Nadi that has emerged from this study is one of a losing river wherein mixing of river and groundwater is limited by the low connectivity between the two systems. The present study is preliminary in nature and further investigative work regarding the spatio25 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof temporal variability of river bed clogging, and the degree of riverine contaminant ingress into the adjacent riparian aquifers is required in the region. Nevertheless, the results are quite significant form the viewpoint of management of groundwater well field contamination in the vicinity of Kali Nadi, a problem that has already taken its toll on the health and lives of many upstream communities, and continues to do so.

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Conclusions

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Investigation of river mass balance, vertical hydraulic gradients, and ionic concentrations of groundwater and river water samples along a 12 km stretch of river Kali

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near Aligarh city in India were conducted to assess the status of groundwater – surface

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water interactions. An evaluation of the direction and magnitude of these interactions is

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critical for effective management of groundwater contamination problems arising from the presence of excessively high contaminant loads in the Kali Nadi. River discharge

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measurements at three locations clearly indicate that the river is losing water to the underlying aquifer by seepage and induced recharge. Hydraulic measurements in a pair of mini-piezometers reveal a consistently losing regime for the period of investigation. Hydro-chemical analysis revealed that major ion concentrations tend to be higher in river water samples as compared to groundwater samples, and the concentration trend of major cations and anions in groundwater and river water is not conformable. Moreover, the cumulative concentration of most ions, especially Chloride, does not exhibit a significant decreasing trend with increasing lateral distance from the river channel. Ionic concentrations indicate possible clogging of river bed and bank sediments; however, this does not imply absence of seepage from the riverbed. The study indicates a losing 26 | P a g e

Journal Pre-proof regime in the studied stretch of Kali Nadi where mixing of river and groundwater is limited by the low connectivity between the two systems. The results are quite significant for the management and protection of groundwater quality in the riparian aquifers along kali nadi.

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Funding: This study did not receive funds from any agency.

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Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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doi:10.3390/w11030539

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Journal Pre-proof Authors Contributions Haris Hasan Khan: Conceptualization, Investigation, Analysis, Software, manuscript writing

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Arina Khan: Literature review, manuscript preparation, figure preparation

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Journal Pre-proof Manuscript Highlights

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1. Groundwater Surface water interactions were analysed for an effluent dominated river in the Gangetic plains. 2. Stream discharge measurements, vertical hydraulic gradients in mini-piezometers, and hydrochemical observations were employed. 3. River Kali is losing water to the adjacent aquifers during the period of study.

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