- Email: [email protected]
Growth and development Gangs
Patricia T. Castiglia, PhD, RN-C, PNP Dean, The University of Texas at El Paso College of Nursing and Allied Health
. Gangs
R
ecently a 9-year-old girl in a small rural community in Texas was shot in the head and fatally injured. She was sitting by a window, and youths in a passing car thought they were shooting at her E-year-old brother. The captured youths were admitted gang members. The community was stunned. The school nurse, the only professional nurse in the community, played an important role in helping the family and her classmates in handling the shock and grief felt by such a wanton act. Recognition of gangs by the American public was stimulated by the musical West Side Stay in the 1950s. However, gangs in the United States actually date back to the 1920s. It is the nature of what membership in a gang means that has changed. A famous series of movies revolved around “Our Gang,” which was composed of cute young children. What had been recognized as a symptom of unrest among young people of different ethnic heritage in the 1940s and 1950s has developed into a more serious problem in the 1990s. The Chicano barrio gangs of Southern California are among the most endurable gangs. Members have stayed affiliated through middle adulthood. Youth gangs today are more violent and have more members than ever before. The issues related to gangs-delinquency, violence, and crime-are escalating trends (Short, 1990, p. 223). Cohen (1990) proposes that gangs are collectivities in which the members are actors with names and reputations that may inspire admiration, resentment, love, or hate. Usually these actors are viewed as doing things that might be criminal or at least antisocial. What one does, how one perceives oneself, and how others view gang members are perceptions influenced by and identified with the collectivity. Members tend to monitor or regulate behaviors of other members. No prescribed size is required for a gang, but size impacts on both the survival and successof the group. Membership in a gang confers identity, a sense of belonging, and a resultant feeling of power. Part of the gang’s mystique is to inspire fear or deference by those who are not members. Achieving this status frequently results in expressions of violence, as shown by gang fights and attacks on citizens of the community. JOURNAL
OF PEDIATRIC
HEALTH
CARE
0891-5245/93/$1.00
+ .lO.
.
If gangs were solely social organizations in which adolescents could form family-like bonds, they would be of little concern. In fact, they would serve a useful societal function. A general tendency is, however, to link violence and either drug use or drug trafficking with gangs. The stereotypes of gangs occur because of the difficulty of actually researching gangs. Many gangs are secretive in nature, especially middle-class gangs whose members may outwardly conform to the expected image. Most reported research has sought respondents from law enforcement people, social workers, or incarcerated gang members. Gangs generally claim a neighborhood or territory and defend it. Sometimes this ownership or territoriality may really establish boundaries for keeping gangs in one place. Members of the gang may be classified by age, hierarchical rank, or function. Nicknames are frequently given and serve to establish a new identity. Loyalty is a trait not only expected but demanded. The concept of honor becomes distorted. Honor frequently means not backing down from challenges. Gang members may seek opportunities to challenge another’s honor as a means of garnering respect and enhancing self image. AU gangs, however, are not the same. Asian gangs are oriented toward obtaining money, especially through extortion. Chicano (Mexican-American) gangs engage in partying and fighting. Black gangs are often involved in drug trafficking. White supremacist skinhead gangs use hate against ethnic and religious groups in their rhetoric and in violent acts. All gangs have one common theme in that they represent a form of adaptation to the larger society. Little agreement exists, however, about an exact definition for a gang. Miller, in 1980, stipulated that gangs possess commonalities in that they are a self-formed association of peers, the members share mutual interests, the leaders can be identified, and lines of authority exist (Miller, 1990). The members act to achieve a specific purpose or goal, which usually involves illegal activities. Companionship, excitement, protection, and peer pressure are the most frequently reported reasons for joining a gang (Hochhaus & Sousa, 1987, p. 75). 39
40
Growth
and
Development
Why have gangs persisted? Gangs are a manifestation of futility caused by life situations. Our economy has fewer and fewer unskilled labor jobs meaning that fewer lesser-educated people have employment opportunities. At the same time the cost of living has increased. Housing facilities for the poor are overcrowded or nonexistent. Concurrently the family structure across all socioeconomic levels has deteriorated. Many adults feel trapped and hopeless and show the futility they experience in their lives. The adult role models for most disadvantaged youth, therefore, are not attractive. Young people want what they see portrayed on television and in the movies. Much of what they see relates to affluence but downplays the need to achieve wealth and status by acquiring marketable knowledge and skills. Young people are impressionable, and typically they are anxious to get what they want immediately. At this stage of development they believe that they are invulnerable. The first gang clique, Chicanos call these klikos, usually consists of young people between 12 and 15 years of age-usually males. The gang peaks when these members are 15 to 18 years of age. New klikos pattern themselves after established gangs and seek to outdo their predecessors (Vigil & Long, 1990, p. 67). In recent times, female gang members have become more visible. Girls have always been associated with gangs, but the nature of their participation has changed over time. Basically, girls who join gangs have the same low self-esteem and feelings of hopelessness for the future that boys have. If they are members of an underclass, as by virtue of economics, race, or sex, they may have little to look forward to except childbearing and/or an association with a more powerful male. Girls tend to romanticize gangs and to view themselves as breaking out of traditional female roles. Like males, they adopt clothing styles and symbols, such as unusual hair colors and/or tatoos, to identify themselves. Usually females form auxiliary organizations that are affiliated with male gangs. Initiation into the gangs requires rit-
Volume 7, Number 1 January-February 1993
uals such as fighting, having sex with multiple male gang members, or otherwise proving loyalty by stealing from or attacking unwary citizens. Many girls get out of gangs by becoming mothers; others end up in penal institutions or as drug addicts. One kind of gang-related violence appears predominant; that is intergang conflicts (Moore, 1990, p. 171). The relationship of gangs to drugs is not as clear because the drug culture has also flourished in non-gang atmospheres. Violence by gangs is not confined to home neighborhoods or to the streets. Schools have become battlegrounds. Grafliti (“placas”) and weapons are everyday occurrences in many schools today. Administration, faculty, and school boards are faced with making decisions to curb gang activity in the schools. Regulations such as banning earrings for males, not allowing students with the same two-color combinations in clothing to enter schools, and random locker searches are becoming commonplace. The expulsion of students for fighting occurs regularly. Schools have become fortresses in many areas, as evidenced by steel-mesh fences, padlocked gates, and armed guards. Most extracurricular activities have been canceled. Today’s gangs fight with chains, knives, zip guns, and high-powered pistols. They are more sophisticated in terms of the law and have become adept in using juvenile laws to their advantage. The high rate of high school dropouts in some communities provides a ready supply of potential gang members so that the members themselves actually become expendable. The spread of gangs from the inner city to the suburbs and rural areas began more than two decades ago. Los Angeles is currently considered the gang capital of the United States; the number of gangs in New York and Philadelphia have declined or stabilized (Stover, 1986, p. 20). Many middle-class suburbs are experiencing affluent gangs. These young people, who are from middle-class homes, engage in vandalism, robbery, and drug dealing because they are bored or because they feel alienated from friends and families. Many members of affluent gangs deal in drugs to acquire money for the purchase of cars or to travel (Stover, 1986, p. 20). School boards must play an active role in combating gangs. Principals frequently want to be viewed as being able to maintain discipline; therefore, they may hesitate to ask the school boards to take actions to help in curbing gang activities. School boards can really help the school situation by working with the community to dispel gang efforts. Sometimes schools can respond to community needs by being proactive; for example, some schools in Chicago are staying open during evening hours for extracurricular activities (Stover, 1986, p. 24). Although we may never be able to eliminate gang activity, we can use strategies to control gangs by being
Journal of Pediatric Health Care
Growth
aware, by acting as responsible adults in discussing and involving the community, and by not being lulled by the cyclical nature of gang violence. Seven ways to diminish gang activity in schools are listed in the Box. A major deterrent to controlling gangs is the lack of federal support. State agencies try to help. California acknowledged the constitutional right of students and staff to safe schools in 1982. Despite this, districts were not legally required to adopt school safety plans because of financial constraints. Most gang control efforts are localized and unrelated to other programs. Twelve major cities, including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and Cleveland, have formulated and implemented major prevention and control programs using national guidelines (Miller, 1990, p. 269). It is somewhat disappointing that, after all the years of gang recognition and activity, no centralized source of national information on gangs exists. No statistics are available on the number of gangs, their locations, membership, or associated violence. For existing local antigang programs, virtually no evaluation plans or strategies exist. Without feedback, the system cannot be corrected, and ineffective programs may continue to exist. School nurses are not the only health care professionals who deal with gangs. Hospital staff nurses must confront the effects of gang violence. Emergency and trauma nurses must deal with the serious injuries from gang conflicts. Community health nurses must be able to relate to parental and community concerns and must be able to offer support and guidance. PNPs need to be involved in anticipatory guidance with youths and families and need to relate developmental and social phenomena to gang membership.
Cohen, A. K. (1990). Foreword and Overview. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 7-21). Newbury Park, Cti Sage Publications. Hochhaus, C., & Sousa, F. (1987). Why children belong to gangs: A comparison of expectations and reality. H@ School Journul, 71, 74-77. Miller, W. B. (1990). Why the United States has failed to solve its youth gang problem. In C. R. Huff(Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 263-287). Newbury Park, CalZ Sage Publications. Moore, J. (1990). Gangs, drugs, and violence. In M. De La Rosa, E. Y. Lambert, &B. Grapper (Eds.), Drugs and violence: Causes, correlates and consequences [NIDA Research Monograph 1031. Rockviie, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 160-176. Short, J. F. (1990). New wine in old bottle? Change and continuity in American gangs. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 223-239). Newbury Park calif: Sage Publications. Stover, D. (1986). A new breed of youth gang is on the prowl and a bigger threat than ever. The American School Board Journal, 173, 19-24, 35. Vigil, J. D., & Long, J. M. (1990). Emit and etic perspectives on gang culture: The Chicano case. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 55-68). Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications.
5, 1993
Participate in the conference by serving as a moderator or monitor. It’s a great way to meet other participants, as well as speakers, and broadens your conference experience. You are assigned to sessions you are attending anyway, so you don’t miss a thing. Volunteers moderators Washington volunteer If you want 15, 1993: Talbot Rd. 3223.
41
REFERENCES
MONITORS AND MODERATORS NEEDED! NAPNAP ANNUAL CONFERENCE ANAHEIM, CALIFORNIA 31 -April
Development
Gangs are undoubtedly here to stay. The potential exists for reeducating gang members to more acceptable behaviors. These efforts cannot be done in isolation from efforts to improve living situations for the disadvantaged. Schools have an important role to play but cannot be effective if they are not part of a communitywide effort. Gang members can influence gang activities, and we may need to convert one member at a time to a more positive life style. We cannot afhord to lose our youth to a life-time sentence of despair.
VOLUNTEER
March
and
are needed to serve as monitors and/or for the educational sessions. The Chapter of NAPNAP is serving as the coordinator chapter and needs your name! to help out, please contact, by March Dee Woods, Valley Pediatrics, 3721 South, Renton, WA 98055; (206) 251-
. Gangs
R
ecently a 9-year-old girl in a small rural community in Texas was shot in the head and fatally injured. She was sitting by a window, and youths in a passing car thought they were shooting at her E-year-old brother. The captured youths were admitted gang members. The community was stunned. The school nurse, the only professional nurse in the community, played an important role in helping the family and her classmates in handling the shock and grief felt by such a wanton act. Recognition of gangs by the American public was stimulated by the musical West Side Stay in the 1950s. However, gangs in the United States actually date back to the 1920s. It is the nature of what membership in a gang means that has changed. A famous series of movies revolved around “Our Gang,” which was composed of cute young children. What had been recognized as a symptom of unrest among young people of different ethnic heritage in the 1940s and 1950s has developed into a more serious problem in the 1990s. The Chicano barrio gangs of Southern California are among the most endurable gangs. Members have stayed affiliated through middle adulthood. Youth gangs today are more violent and have more members than ever before. The issues related to gangs-delinquency, violence, and crime-are escalating trends (Short, 1990, p. 223). Cohen (1990) proposes that gangs are collectivities in which the members are actors with names and reputations that may inspire admiration, resentment, love, or hate. Usually these actors are viewed as doing things that might be criminal or at least antisocial. What one does, how one perceives oneself, and how others view gang members are perceptions influenced by and identified with the collectivity. Members tend to monitor or regulate behaviors of other members. No prescribed size is required for a gang, but size impacts on both the survival and successof the group. Membership in a gang confers identity, a sense of belonging, and a resultant feeling of power. Part of the gang’s mystique is to inspire fear or deference by those who are not members. Achieving this status frequently results in expressions of violence, as shown by gang fights and attacks on citizens of the community. JOURNAL
OF PEDIATRIC
HEALTH
CARE
0891-5245/93/$1.00
+ .lO.
.
If gangs were solely social organizations in which adolescents could form family-like bonds, they would be of little concern. In fact, they would serve a useful societal function. A general tendency is, however, to link violence and either drug use or drug trafficking with gangs. The stereotypes of gangs occur because of the difficulty of actually researching gangs. Many gangs are secretive in nature, especially middle-class gangs whose members may outwardly conform to the expected image. Most reported research has sought respondents from law enforcement people, social workers, or incarcerated gang members. Gangs generally claim a neighborhood or territory and defend it. Sometimes this ownership or territoriality may really establish boundaries for keeping gangs in one place. Members of the gang may be classified by age, hierarchical rank, or function. Nicknames are frequently given and serve to establish a new identity. Loyalty is a trait not only expected but demanded. The concept of honor becomes distorted. Honor frequently means not backing down from challenges. Gang members may seek opportunities to challenge another’s honor as a means of garnering respect and enhancing self image. AU gangs, however, are not the same. Asian gangs are oriented toward obtaining money, especially through extortion. Chicano (Mexican-American) gangs engage in partying and fighting. Black gangs are often involved in drug trafficking. White supremacist skinhead gangs use hate against ethnic and religious groups in their rhetoric and in violent acts. All gangs have one common theme in that they represent a form of adaptation to the larger society. Little agreement exists, however, about an exact definition for a gang. Miller, in 1980, stipulated that gangs possess commonalities in that they are a self-formed association of peers, the members share mutual interests, the leaders can be identified, and lines of authority exist (Miller, 1990). The members act to achieve a specific purpose or goal, which usually involves illegal activities. Companionship, excitement, protection, and peer pressure are the most frequently reported reasons for joining a gang (Hochhaus & Sousa, 1987, p. 75). 39
40
Growth
and
Development
Why have gangs persisted? Gangs are a manifestation of futility caused by life situations. Our economy has fewer and fewer unskilled labor jobs meaning that fewer lesser-educated people have employment opportunities. At the same time the cost of living has increased. Housing facilities for the poor are overcrowded or nonexistent. Concurrently the family structure across all socioeconomic levels has deteriorated. Many adults feel trapped and hopeless and show the futility they experience in their lives. The adult role models for most disadvantaged youth, therefore, are not attractive. Young people want what they see portrayed on television and in the movies. Much of what they see relates to affluence but downplays the need to achieve wealth and status by acquiring marketable knowledge and skills. Young people are impressionable, and typically they are anxious to get what they want immediately. At this stage of development they believe that they are invulnerable. The first gang clique, Chicanos call these klikos, usually consists of young people between 12 and 15 years of age-usually males. The gang peaks when these members are 15 to 18 years of age. New klikos pattern themselves after established gangs and seek to outdo their predecessors (Vigil & Long, 1990, p. 67). In recent times, female gang members have become more visible. Girls have always been associated with gangs, but the nature of their participation has changed over time. Basically, girls who join gangs have the same low self-esteem and feelings of hopelessness for the future that boys have. If they are members of an underclass, as by virtue of economics, race, or sex, they may have little to look forward to except childbearing and/or an association with a more powerful male. Girls tend to romanticize gangs and to view themselves as breaking out of traditional female roles. Like males, they adopt clothing styles and symbols, such as unusual hair colors and/or tatoos, to identify themselves. Usually females form auxiliary organizations that are affiliated with male gangs. Initiation into the gangs requires rit-
Volume 7, Number 1 January-February 1993
uals such as fighting, having sex with multiple male gang members, or otherwise proving loyalty by stealing from or attacking unwary citizens. Many girls get out of gangs by becoming mothers; others end up in penal institutions or as drug addicts. One kind of gang-related violence appears predominant; that is intergang conflicts (Moore, 1990, p. 171). The relationship of gangs to drugs is not as clear because the drug culture has also flourished in non-gang atmospheres. Violence by gangs is not confined to home neighborhoods or to the streets. Schools have become battlegrounds. Grafliti (“placas”) and weapons are everyday occurrences in many schools today. Administration, faculty, and school boards are faced with making decisions to curb gang activity in the schools. Regulations such as banning earrings for males, not allowing students with the same two-color combinations in clothing to enter schools, and random locker searches are becoming commonplace. The expulsion of students for fighting occurs regularly. Schools have become fortresses in many areas, as evidenced by steel-mesh fences, padlocked gates, and armed guards. Most extracurricular activities have been canceled. Today’s gangs fight with chains, knives, zip guns, and high-powered pistols. They are more sophisticated in terms of the law and have become adept in using juvenile laws to their advantage. The high rate of high school dropouts in some communities provides a ready supply of potential gang members so that the members themselves actually become expendable. The spread of gangs from the inner city to the suburbs and rural areas began more than two decades ago. Los Angeles is currently considered the gang capital of the United States; the number of gangs in New York and Philadelphia have declined or stabilized (Stover, 1986, p. 20). Many middle-class suburbs are experiencing affluent gangs. These young people, who are from middle-class homes, engage in vandalism, robbery, and drug dealing because they are bored or because they feel alienated from friends and families. Many members of affluent gangs deal in drugs to acquire money for the purchase of cars or to travel (Stover, 1986, p. 20). School boards must play an active role in combating gangs. Principals frequently want to be viewed as being able to maintain discipline; therefore, they may hesitate to ask the school boards to take actions to help in curbing gang activities. School boards can really help the school situation by working with the community to dispel gang efforts. Sometimes schools can respond to community needs by being proactive; for example, some schools in Chicago are staying open during evening hours for extracurricular activities (Stover, 1986, p. 24). Although we may never be able to eliminate gang activity, we can use strategies to control gangs by being
Journal of Pediatric Health Care
Growth
aware, by acting as responsible adults in discussing and involving the community, and by not being lulled by the cyclical nature of gang violence. Seven ways to diminish gang activity in schools are listed in the Box. A major deterrent to controlling gangs is the lack of federal support. State agencies try to help. California acknowledged the constitutional right of students and staff to safe schools in 1982. Despite this, districts were not legally required to adopt school safety plans because of financial constraints. Most gang control efforts are localized and unrelated to other programs. Twelve major cities, including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and Cleveland, have formulated and implemented major prevention and control programs using national guidelines (Miller, 1990, p. 269). It is somewhat disappointing that, after all the years of gang recognition and activity, no centralized source of national information on gangs exists. No statistics are available on the number of gangs, their locations, membership, or associated violence. For existing local antigang programs, virtually no evaluation plans or strategies exist. Without feedback, the system cannot be corrected, and ineffective programs may continue to exist. School nurses are not the only health care professionals who deal with gangs. Hospital staff nurses must confront the effects of gang violence. Emergency and trauma nurses must deal with the serious injuries from gang conflicts. Community health nurses must be able to relate to parental and community concerns and must be able to offer support and guidance. PNPs need to be involved in anticipatory guidance with youths and families and need to relate developmental and social phenomena to gang membership.
Cohen, A. K. (1990). Foreword and Overview. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 7-21). Newbury Park, Cti Sage Publications. Hochhaus, C., & Sousa, F. (1987). Why children belong to gangs: A comparison of expectations and reality. H@ School Journul, 71, 74-77. Miller, W. B. (1990). Why the United States has failed to solve its youth gang problem. In C. R. Huff(Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 263-287). Newbury Park, CalZ Sage Publications. Moore, J. (1990). Gangs, drugs, and violence. In M. De La Rosa, E. Y. Lambert, &B. Grapper (Eds.), Drugs and violence: Causes, correlates and consequences [NIDA Research Monograph 1031. Rockviie, Md: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 160-176. Short, J. F. (1990). New wine in old bottle? Change and continuity in American gangs. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 223-239). Newbury Park calif: Sage Publications. Stover, D. (1986). A new breed of youth gang is on the prowl and a bigger threat than ever. The American School Board Journal, 173, 19-24, 35. Vigil, J. D., & Long, J. M. (1990). Emit and etic perspectives on gang culture: The Chicano case. In C. R. Huff (Ed.), Gangs in America (pp. 55-68). Newbury Park, Calif: Sage Publications.
5, 1993
Participate in the conference by serving as a moderator or monitor. It’s a great way to meet other participants, as well as speakers, and broadens your conference experience. You are assigned to sessions you are attending anyway, so you don’t miss a thing. Volunteers moderators Washington volunteer If you want 15, 1993: Talbot Rd. 3223.
41
REFERENCES
MONITORS AND MODERATORS NEEDED! NAPNAP ANNUAL CONFERENCE ANAHEIM, CALIFORNIA 31 -April
Development
Gangs are undoubtedly here to stay. The potential exists for reeducating gang members to more acceptable behaviors. These efforts cannot be done in isolation from efforts to improve living situations for the disadvantaged. Schools have an important role to play but cannot be effective if they are not part of a communitywide effort. Gang members can influence gang activities, and we may need to convert one member at a time to a more positive life style. We cannot afhord to lose our youth to a life-time sentence of despair.
VOLUNTEER
March
and
are needed to serve as monitors and/or for the educational sessions. The Chapter of NAPNAP is serving as the coordinator chapter and needs your name! to help out, please contact, by March Dee Woods, Valley Pediatrics, 3721 South, Renton, WA 98055; (206) 251-