GSH and analogs in antiviral therapy

Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Molecular Aspects of Medicine journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mam

Review

GSH and analogs in antiviral therapy Alessandra Fraternale a,*, Maria Filomena Paoletti a, Anna Casabianca a, Lucia Nencioni b, Enrico Garaci c, Anna Teresa Palamara b, Mauro Magnani a a b c

Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino ‘‘Carlo Bo”, Via Saffi 2, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy Pharmaceutical Microbiology Section, Department of Public Health ‘‘G. Sanarelli”, University of Rome ‘‘La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy Department of Experimental Medicine and Biochemical Sciences, University of Rome ‘‘Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 23 May 2008 Received in revised form 15 September 2008 Accepted 15 September 2008

Keywords: Reduced glutathione (GSH) Pro-GSH molecules Antiviral drugs Viral infections Oxidative stress Th1/Th2 response

a b s t r a c t Reduced glutathione (GSH) is the most prevalent non-protein thiol in animal cells. Its de novo and salvage synthesis serves to maintain a reduced cellular environment. GSH is the most powerful intracellular antioxidant and plays a role in the detoxification of a variety of electrophilic compounds and peroxides via catalysis by glutathione-S-transferases (GST) and glutathione peroxidases (GPx). As a consequence, the ratio of reduced and oxidized glutathione (GSH:GSSG) serves as a representative marker of the antioxidative capacity of the cell. A deficiency in GSH puts the cell at risk for oxidative damage. An imbalance in GSH is observed in a wide range of pathologies, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cystic fibrosis (CF), several viral infections including HIV-1, as well as in aging. Several reports have provided evidence for the use of GSH and molecules able to replenish intracellular GSH levels in antiviral therapy. This non-conventional role of GSH and its analogs as antiviral drugs is discussed in this chapter. Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2.

3. 4.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GSH and RNA virus infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. HIV and other viruses causing immunodeficiency in animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Influenza and parainfluenza viruses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Rhinovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. Hepatitis viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GSH and DNA virus infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Herpes simplex viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 722 305241; fax: +39 722 305324. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Fraternale). 0098-2997/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.mam.2008.09.001

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

100 101 101 105 106 106 107 107 108 108 108

100

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

1. Introduction Many findings have demonstrated that an alteration of the intracellular redox balance characterizes several viral infections and the progression of viral-induced diseases (Table 1; Beck et al., 2000). It has been demonstrated that intracellular redox status alterations are associated with depletion of GSH, which varies in intensity, duration and mechanism of induction depending on the type of virus and the host cell infected. Even if there is no doubt that GSH depletion is implicated in a wide range of viral infections, it is difficult to ascertain whether it represents a cause or an effect. In fact, the mechanism(s) by which different kinds of viral infections induce a decrease in intracellular GSH content is unclear. Nonetheless, in certain cases, there is reasonable evidence that the impairment of the intracellular redox status is essential for the initiation and maintenance of virus replication (Palamara et al., 1995). Therefore, as in the case of HIV, it has been reported that increased levels of inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 1 (IL-1) and 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a)) can induce both a depletion of GSH and oxidative stress (Poli et al., 1990). This phenomenon, in turn, may activate NFkB, known to be activated in response to different types of oxidative stress, leading to a series of downstream signal transduction events that allow HIV expression (Staal et al., 1990). Rapid decreases in GSH levels have been observed following infection by viruses that produce acute cytopathic effects in epithelial cells (e.g. Parainfluenza and HSV-1); GSH is lost from cells undergoing these viral infections in a two-step process: adsorption of the virus onto the cell would appear to be responsible for most of the loss of GSH by a process involving leakage through the plasma membrane rather than by an oxidative process leading to its depletion; GSH loss oxidatively affects the function of the Na+/H+ antiporter, leading to lower intracellular pH, that in turn favors the early stages of viral replication (Ciriolo et al., 1997). While, in the second phase of viral replication, GSH loss would be a consequence of the preferential incorporation of cysteine into viral proteins, which are very rich in this amino acid (Ciriolo et al., 1997; Tatu et al., 1995). In contrast, chronic infection, such as that produced by HIV in human macrophages, is associated with less dramatic decreases in the levels of the antioxidant, and significant changes are observed only after chronic infection is well established (Garaci et al., 1997). Other studies have demonstrated that even single viral proteins can exert effects on GSH content. For example, HIV-1 transregulatory protein (Tat), which is secreted from HIV-infected cells, can amplify the activity of TNF, and consequently HIV-1 replication, depleting the cells of GSH and inhibiting manganese-superoxide dismutase expression and activity (Westendorp et al., 1995). Moreover, it has been found that the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (gp120) and Tat can induce oxidative stress in an immortalized endothelial cell line from rat brain capillaries, RBE4 (in vitro model of the blood–brain barrier) (Price et al., 2005). Decrease in GSH content can positively affect virus’ life cycle as reported for HIV. In fact, as said above, low thiol levels activate NFkB that can bind to the HIV LTR and induce the transcription of genes under its control (Staal et al., 1990). An HSV1 inducible protein able to bind to NFkB like sites in the HSV-1 genome was described too (Rong et al., 1992). Accordingly, GSH may represent a potentially valuable element in therapeutic strategies and it can have different mechanisms of action. It has been proposed that GSH could regulate NFkB activation at one or more points in the signal transduction pathway. For example, it could influence protein folding or enzyme activation and thus block the activation of the protein kinases (e.g. protein kinase C) that phosphorylate the IkB/NFkB complex and liberate activated NFkB. Alternatively, GSH could interfere directly with IkB phosphorylation or with the transport of activated NFkB into the nucleus. Finally, GSH could prevent NFkB activation simply by scavenging oxidant (Staal et al., 1990). A similar mechanism has also been suggested for HSV-1 (Palamara et al., 1995). In the case of influenza virus infection, GSH may inhibit apoptosis and subsequent release of active virus from dead cells resulting from viral infection (Cai et al., 2003). GSH might interfere with the entry of some viruses such as HIV and rhinovirus into the cells by inducing redox changes in the CD4 D2 domain (Matthias et al., 2002) or by preventing rhinovirus-induced up-regulation of its own receptor ICAM-1 respectively (Papi et al., 2002). An additional mechanism by which GSH can inhibit almost all the viruses cited is at the post-transcriptional level where the tripeptide prevents the proper folding and stabilization of the native conformation of viral proteins thus preventing the production of infectious virus particles (Garaci et al., 1992; Cai et al., 2003; Palamara et al., 1995). To achieve a therapeutic value, administration of high doses of GSH is necessary because of its short half life in blood plasma. Moreover, it cannot cross the cell membrane but first needs to be broken down into amino acids and then resynthesized in the cell by the consecutive actions of gamma-glutamylcysteine and GSH synthetases (Fig. 1). To overcome the problems linked with the use of GSH as a therapeutic agent, many researchers have proposed the use of novel molecules able to exert antiviral effects comparable to or higher than those obtained with GSH. These pro-GSH molTable 1 Viral infections characterized by GSH depletion Viral infections HIV (Buhl et al., 1989) FIV (Mortola et al., 1998) LP-BM5 (Chen et al., 1996) Influenza and parainfluenza (Nencioni et al., 2003; Garaci et al., 1992) Rhinovirus (Papi and Johnston, 1999; Papi et al., 2002) Hepatitis (Okuda et al., 2002) Herpes simplex virus-1 (Nucci et al., 2000; Vogel et al., 2005)

101

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

O

O HO

-

SH

OH

O

O NH2

ATP

L-glutamate

NH2

L-cysteine gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase

ADP phosphate O

OH

O H N HO

NH2 O SH

L-gamma-glutamylcysteine

O

ATP

H2N OH

glutathione synthetase

L-glycine

ADP phosphate O H2N NH

OH

HO O

HS

NH

O

O

reduced glutathione Fig. 1. Intracellular synthesis of GSH.

ecules can be either GSH carrying a hydrophobic group to make cellular entry easier, or a source of thiol groups from which GSH is synthesized intracellularly (Fig. 2). Some new pro-GSH molecules have already been tested in animal models administered at high concentrations (3– 20 mM) for long periods and no toxicity was observed (Fraternale et al., 2008). Moreover, intraperitoneal administration of pro-GSH molecules at the concentrations said above increases intra-macrophage GSH content by 1.3–3.5 times with respect to control cells. 2. GSH and RNA virus infections 2.1. HIV and other viruses causing immunodeficiency in animals Many studies have shown that infection by RNA viruses induces oxidative stress in host cells. It has been found that GSH levels are depleted in plasma, epithelial lining fluid, peripheral blood mononuclear cells and monocytes in asymptomatic

102

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

O

A

HS

O

B

OH

HN NH

HO

O

H3C NH

O

O SH O

H3C

NH2

O

C

O

O

D

CH3

CH3 S

S OH

HN

HS

H N

H3C NH

OH

O

HN

O

O

O O NH2

E

SH OH H N OH

HN

O O

O NH

H3C

O Fig. 2. Structure of some pro-GSH molecules. (A) N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC); (B) GSH monoethylester (GSH-OEt); (C) I-152; (D) S-acetylglutathione (S-acetylGSH); and (E) N-butanoyl GSH (GSH-C4).

HIV-infected individuals as well as in AIDS patients (Buhl et al., 1989). Moreover, clinical studies have shown that GSH deficiency is correlated with morbidity (Herzenberg et al., 1997). These findings have suggested that a generally impaired antioxidant system has an important role in these clinical conditions, however GSH deficiency is involved in various aspects of HIV infection; for example, decreased GSH levels have been shown to activate NFkB, leading to a series of downstream signal transduction events that allow HIV expression which can be blocked by N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) supplementation (Staal et al., 1990); GSH deficiency is known to be one contributory factor in the induction of apoptosis in CD4+ T lymphocytes (Gil et al., 2003). Reduction in the GSH content described in HIV infection can result from decreased GSH synthesis or an increase rate of loss due to increase consumption, degradation or transport/leakage of GSH or from a combination of these factors. It has been suggested that GSH consumption may increase in HIV infection as a result of increased oxidative stress (Gil et al., 2003), as well as GSH can be suppressed as a consequence of decreased synthesis. In fact, it has been reported that the input of GSH into the circulation was significantly lower in patients with HIV infection suggesting a decreased systemic synthesis of GSH (Helbling et al., 1996). Studies performed in Tat-transgenic mice have shown that the significant decrease in the GSH content found in liver and erythrocytes of these animals is associated with specific modulation of gamma-glutamylcysteine and GSH synthetases (Choi et al., 2000). These findings have suggested that maintenance or restoration of GSH levels might be a potential therapeutic approach in HIV patients. To this aim, the most promising results have been obtained with NAC (Fig. 2A). This molecule has been used

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

103

mainly as a mucolytic agent, due to its ability to cleave disulphide bridges in mucous protein complexes and, thus, depolymerize mucin molecules; several studies have shown it to be a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of HIV and other viral infections in which oxidative stress occurs (Gregory and Kelly, 1998). In fact, it has been discovered that NAC is an effective antioxidant and enriches the intracellular sulphydryl pool, acting as a precursor of GSH. As already said, uptake of extracellular GSH occurs largely, if not entirely, by pathways involving prior breakdown of GSH into dipeptides and aminoacids, their subsequent transport into the cell, and intracellular synthesis of the tripeptide (Meister, 1989). In contrast, NAC easily penetrates cell membranes and, unlike cysteine which is the rate limiting aminoacid in GSH synthesis, has a very low toxicity (De Flora et al., 1995). NAC’s efficacy is primarily attributed to reducing extracellular cystine to cysteine, or acting intracellularly as a source of sulphydryl groups for GSH synthesis, enhancing glutathione-S-transferase activity, promoting detoxification, and acting directly on reactive oxidant radicals (De Vries and De Flora, 1993). Evidence, both in vitro and in vivo, indicates that NAC is able to enhance the intracellular biosynthesis of GSH and to replenish GSH supplies following experimental depletion (Nakata et al., 1996). Several studies have shown the positive effects of NAC in HIV-positive individuals: it can restore GSH levels, prevent the activation of NFkB and replication of HIV (Nakamura et al., 2002); treatment with oral NAC causes an increase in plasma GSH levels (De Rosa et al., 2000); NAC is able to enhance the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity of neutrophils from HIV-infected patients (Roberts et al., 1995); administration of NAC in individuals seropositive for HIV slows the decline of the CD4+ lymphocyte count (Akerlund et al., 1996). Furthermore, no evidence of toxicity was observed to be associated with NAC administration at high doses even for relatively long periods, and a significant association between NAC treatment (consequently GSH replenishment) and improved survival was found, prompting to suggest to test NAC as an inexpensive, non-toxic adjunct therapy for HIV/AIDS (Herzenberg et al., 1997; De Rosa et al., 2000). However, NAC and thiol precursors efficiency in restoring intracellular GSH content has been debated in the light of some studies showing some defect in the utilization of cysteine for GSH biosynthesis in HIV-infected patients (Helbling et al., 1996). Moreover, despite several benefits provided by HAART in HIV-infected patients, it has been demonstrated that adverse symptoms induced by nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors may be amplified by an altered glutathione metabolism, probably related to persistent TNF-a activation in HIV-infected patients (Feng et al., 2001; Yamaguchi et al., 2002). Thus, as a supplement to HAART, combination therapy with GSH-replenishing agents may not only contribute to down-regulation of HIV replication but may also attenuate the toxic effects of HAART (Opii et al., 2007; Aukrust et al., 2003; Baliga et al., 2004). Kalebic et al. studied the effect of some antioxidant molecules against HIV (Kalebic et al., 1991). The molecules taken into consideration were NAC, GSH, and a cell-permeable derivative of GSH, the GSH monoethylester (GSH-OEt) (Fig. 2B), that is hydrolyzed by intracellular esterases thereby increasing GSH concentration in many tissues and cell types. They found that all these molecules can suppress HIV expression in chronically infected monocytic cells at multiple stages of the virus activation process, either on total viral protein synthesis or on post-translational steps depending on the concentrations used. More recently, it has been demonstrated that a pyridine-N-oxide derivative can inhibit TNF-a-induced DNA binding of nuclear NFkB, increase the intracellular GSH levels and induce apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner (Stevens et al., 2006). A novel antioxidant, NAC amide (NACA), has been found to significantly increase the levels of intracellular GSH and to reverse gp120- and Tat-induced oxidative stress in immortalized endothelial cells (Price et al., 2006). The increase in GSH intracellular levels leads to an inhibition of HIV replication by various mechanisms of action (Fig. 3) such as the block of oxidative stress which is responsible for the activation of NFkB (Fig. 3A); induction of redox changes in the CD4 D2 domain, thus interfering with the entry of HIV (Matthias et al., 2002); inhibition of the proper folding and stabilization of the native conformation of viral proteins thus preventing the production of infectious virus particles (Palamara et al., 1996a); inhibition of the reverse transcriptase (RT) process of HIV (Kameoka et al., 1996; Fig. 3B). Moreover, it can be assumed that the use of GSH and its analogs which are able to increase intracellular GSH levels, can be used as immunomodulators to fight HIV infection; in fact, it has been demonstrated that GSH content in antigen-presenting cells (APC), such as macrophages, dendritic cells and B lymphocytes, has an important role in modulating Th1/Th2 response (Kim et al., 2007; Murata et al., 2002a). In particular, it has been found that in macrophages, GSH depletion decreases the secretion of IL-12 and leads to the polarization from the typical Th1 cytokine profile towards Th2 response patterns. On the contrary, the macrophages with elevated GSH levels induced by either NAC or GSH-OEt, produce IL-12 upon suitable stimulation; whereas, those cells with decreased levels of GSH do not (Peterson et al., 1998; Murata et al., 2002a,b). It has been suggested that GSH depletion in macrophages inhibits Th1-associated cytokine production and/or favors Th2-associated responses both reducing the IL-12 secretion and impairing the ability of the cells to properly process the antigen (Short et al., 1996). The combination of these two different mechanisms of action is likely the principal advantage associated with the use of GSH and its analogs for treatment of Th2-mediated diseases. Other thiols, which are not directly used for GSH synthesis, have been reported to suppress HIV replication in acute systems, probably acting to conserve cellular GSH (Harakeh et al., 1990). It has been demonstrated that other retroviral infections are characterized by decreased levels of intracellular GSH, and that GSH supplementation may have an inhibitory effect on viral replication. For example, low levels of GSH have been found both in chronically and acutely infected feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)-infected cells and NAC can be effective in inhibiting viral replication and cell death, leading to the hypothesis that agents that raise intracellular GSH levels may be of therapeutic value in the immunosuppressive conditions of FIV infection (Mortola et al., 1998). LP-BM5, a retroviral isolate, induces a disease featuring an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome termed murine AIDS (MAIDS). Many of the features of the LP-BM5-initiated disease are shared with HIV/AIDS. The MAIDS model was identified

104

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

A

Ub

Ub Ub

P

Oxidative stress

P

P

IkB

GSH

Ub

P

Ubiquitin ligation

IkB

IkB kinase IkB IkB proteolysis Inactive NFkB

Cytoplasm Nucleus Transcription

B

GSH GSH

GSH Fig. 3. Mechanisms of action of GSH against HIV. (A) Inhibition of the signal transduction pathway mediated by NFkB. (B) Inhibition of different steps in the HIV life-cycle.

as the animal model, although not identical to HIV/AIDS, most suitable for the rapid and cost-effective initial screening of drugs, drug combinations, plant extracts and drug-plant combinations (Dias et al., 2006). In this animal model, it has been demonstrated that the administration of high doses of GSH is able to reduce progression of the disease, providing additional effects to AZT therapy (Palamara et al., 1996b; Magnani et al., 1997). The authors have used the same animal model to dem-

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

105

onstrate the efficiency of new pro-GSH molecules in reducing the signs of MAIDS. They have proposed the use of these molecules as a novel therapeutic strategy aimed to solve the problems linked with the use of GSH. Ability to fight MAIDS has been described for an acetylated derivative of GSH (S-acetyl-GSH) (Fig. 3D) and for a pro-drug of NAC and beta-mercaptoethylamine (MEA) (I-152, Fig. 3C; Fraternale et al., 2008). They have found that I-152, when administered at a concentration of about 11 times lower than that of the GSH dose, provides effects that are similar to GSH in terms of reduction in lymph node and spleen weights; moreover, it can cause a very significant reduction in BM5d DNA content in the lymph nodes and spleen. S-acetyl-GSH cannot reduce splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy, but it provides an inhibitory effect on BM5d DNA content in spleen and lymph nodes (Fig. 4). The ability of these two compounds to generate GSH is different: S-acetyl-GSH as a GSH derivative is believed to enter cells directly, then it is converted to GSH in a ratio of 1:1 by the cytoplasmic thioesterase; I-152 is a prodrug of NAC and MEA, expected to liberate, after metabolization, two potential pro-GSH compounds providing a more abundant source of soluble thiol pools that can be immediately used for GSH synthesis. The antiviral effect of I-152 was described in human HIVinfected monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), where an increase in intracellular GSH (about two times compared to controls) was described after I-152 treatment (Oiry et al., 2004), while the antiviral activity of S-acetyl-GSH was further tested against HSV-1 (see HSV paragraph). 2.2. Influenza and parainfluenza viruses

% of inhibition (vs infected/untreated)

Influenza viruses are widespread pathogens for both humans and animals (Lamb and Krug, 2001). The studies aiming to elucidate the role of the intracellular redox state in controlling the life cycle of the influenza virus, permit to draw the following conclusions: (1) GSH levels decrease during virus replication, (2) GSH is an important modulator of the life cycle of the influenza virus; its modulation is strictly linked with another modulator which is the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, contributing to enhance intracellular GSH concentrations and (3) GSH inhibits influenza virus replication; in detail, influenza A virus glycoprotein HA mRNAs are efficiently transcribed in all the cell lines, while the expression of the protein is significantly reduced in cells containing high levels of GSH. It has been concluded that GSH can affect disulphide bond formation necessary for the correct folding and maturation of the glycoprotein and consequently its transport and insertion into the cell membrane (Nencioni et al., 2003). Other studies have shown that GSH has a dose-dependent anti-influenza effect in cultured cells and that the addition of GSH in the drinking water of mice inoculated with influenza virus inhibits viral titer in the trachea and lung. The same authors assume that GSH may protect against influenza infection through multiple mechanisms such as inhibition of apoptosis in host cells and subsequent release of active virus from dead cells as well as inhibition of post-transcriptional processing of viral peptides (Cai et al., 2003). These studies are confirmed by a multicentric study performed on 262 subjects receiving rather high daily doses of NAC for six consecutive months covering the cold season. The results show that the occurrence of influenza-like episodes is significantly decreased by NAC treatment; in addition, the severity of episodes is

Spleen weight

BM5d DNA in spleen

Lymph node weight

BM5d DNA in lymph nodes

100

80

60

40

20

0 GSH

I-152

S-acetyl-GSH

Treatments Fig. 4. Effect of GSH and pro-GSH molecules on some aspects of murine AIDS. GSH was administered at the concentration of 58 lmol/mouse, I-152 at the concentration of 30 lmol/mouse and S-acetyl-GSH at the concentration of 143 lmol/mouse. The molecules were administered intramuscularly five days a week for a total of 10 weeks. After 10 weeks of treatment mice were sacrificed and splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy and proviral DNA content in spleen and lymph nodes were studied. BM5d DNA copy number in C57BL/6 mice infected with LP-BM5 and untreated or treated with the molecules was quantified by real-time PCR assay (Casabianca et al., 2004).

106

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

attenuated in NAC-treated subjects and most symptoms related to influenza-like episodes including local symptoms in the respiratory tract and general symptoms such as headache and myalgia–arthralgia are prevented by NAC treatment. The authors conclude that NAC treatment during the cold season may be especially advisable in elderly people and high-risk individuals, and that it may be combined with the vaccine formulated each year (De Flora et al., 1997). Other studies have shown an imbalance in the intracellular redox state during parainfluenza-1 Sendai virus infection accompanied by a progressive depletion of GSH, and that exogenous GSH administration significantly inhibits virus replication (Garaci et al., 1992). As already described for inhibition of influenza virus by GSH, it is likely that also in Sendai virus, the tripeptide finds its principal target in the proteins of the viral envelope, and that it can interfere in the proper folding and stabilization of the native conformation of proteins; more precisely, haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) viral glycoprotein, which is essential for virus infectivity and normally assembles into oligomers via formation of disulphide bonds, is the most affected by GSH treatment (Garaci et al., 1992). Moreover, agents which alter the intracellular levels of GSH, such as morphine and cocaine, can increase the susceptibility to virus infection (Palamara et al., 1996c; Macchia et al., 1999). But, more interestingly, the same authors, have demonstrated that a new synthetic GSH derivative, called GSH-C4, is significantly more effective than GSH in inhibiting Sendai virus replication with an EC50 (50% inhibition of viral production) of 3.6 mM compared to 7.5 mM for GSH. The same molecule has also shown antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) (see HSV paragraph). GSH-C4 is a N-butanoyl derivative of GSH in which the aliphatic chain is bound to the a-NH2 group of glutamate (Fig. 2E; Palamara et al., 2004). The addition of the aliphatic chain represents a useful approach in the production of diffusible drugs because of the hydrophobic properties of the chain and the neutralization of a charged NH2 group. With the aim to increase the cellular uptake of GSH, a series of GSH derivatives with aliphatic chains of different lengths have been synthesized; however among these, the C4 derivative resulted non-toxic and possessed remarkable antiviral activity (Palamara et al., 2004). The aliphatic chain allows GSH-C4 to permeate the cell membrane more quickly than GSH and to increase intracellular GSH concentrations; it isn’t a good substrate for GSH metabolizing enzymes such as GSH peroxidase and GSH S-transferase as demonstrated by the higher Km for GSH-C4 and C4-GSSG-C4 than for their natural substrates GSH and GSSG; as a consequence it exerts its primary effect as a reducing agent, with a plasma half-life of about 50 min while free GSH has a half-life of 30 min (Palamara et al., 2004; Magnani et al., 1984). 2.3. Rhinovirus Some studies regarding the effects of GSH on rhinovirus infection have been performed and in particular on its capacity to prevent rhinovirus-induced up-regulation of its own cellular receptor ICAM-1 in respiratory epithelial cells which was found to have a pivotal role in asthma exacerbations. The rationale for the use of reducing agents as drugs against rhinovirus infection derives from the evidence that rhinovirus-induced ICAM-1 up-regulation is dependent on the activation of an NFkB binding element in the ICAM-1 promoter. GSH can significantly inhibit rhinovirus-induced ICAM-1 up-regulation via inhibition of NFkB activation and reducing agents may represent a new family of drugs for the treatment of rhinovirus-induced diseases (Papi and Johnston, 1999; Papi et al., 2002). 2.4. Hepatitis viruses Several studies have investigated oxidative stress and antioxidants in hepatitis virus infections. In particular, numerous studies were aimed at understanding the mechanisms of hepatitis C virus (HCV) pathogenesis; in fact, even if both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and HCV infections produce acute and chronic hepatitis (Cerny and Chisari, 1999), cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, a vaccine that will prevent infection for life only from hepatitis B is available. Understanding the mechanisms of HCV pathogenesis is an important goal in HCV research because it would permit the development of new therapies to reduce disease progression in chronically infected individuals; current antiviral treatment can only eliminate the virus in 50% of patients (Fried et al., 2002). Contrasting findings are present about correlation between perturbation of the redox balance and HCV replication. Several studies have demonstrated that oxidative stress occurs in chronic hepatitis C (Lieber, 1997; Okuda et al., 2002). In patients affected by this pathology, GSH levels are severely depleted in hepatic and plasma fractions and also in peripheral blood mononuclear cells; these conditions are more pronounced in patients who have a concomitant HIV infection (Barbaro et al., 1996). Different causes have been identified as contributing to oxidative damage. For example, some authors have shown that core protein has important mitochondrial effects causing an oxidation of mitochondrial glutathione and pyridine nucleotide pools, a defect in complex-1-mediated electron transport and an increase in ROS production (Korenaga et al., 2005). Others have stressed the different effects on cellular antioxidant defenses exerted by HCV-core and non-structural proteins (Abdalla et al., 2005). In other studies, it has been demonstrated that the oxidative stress induced by HCV in the human liver, can render hepatocytes susceptible to DNA damage, the accumulation of which may lead to malignant transformations (Czeczot et al., 2006). Other studies aimed at elucidating the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in HCV regulation have shown that STAT-3 was activated in response to oxidative stress induced by HCV gene expression and that inactivation of ROS led to a decrease in HCV replication (Waris et al., 2005). In contrast to these results, other studies have described reduced levels of HCV RNA; both exogenous source of ROS and endogenous ROS (amplified by BSO) were used in the studies by Choi et al. and sustained suppression of HCV RNA replication

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

107

depended on a gradual rise in the intracellular calcium (Choi et al., 2004, 2006). In agreement with these findings is the result obtained by Zheng et al. who reported that in hepatoma cells H2O2 decreased the synthesis of all virally encoded components of the HBV virion acting probably at transcriptional level (Zheng and Yen, 1994). For the reasons said, only some authors suggest that antioxidant supplementation may be considered in patients with chronic hepatitis C; so far, to our knowledge, only a few studies have reported on the effects of antioxidant treatment (Houglum et al., 1997; Cimino et al., 1998; Beloqui et al., 1993; Neri et al., 2000). Most of these studies deal with the effects of NAC combined with alpha-interferon and much controversy exists concerning its effect on the response to interferon treatment in patients with C-virus chronic hepatitis. 3. GSH and DNA virus infections 3.1. Herpes simplex viruses Few studies regarding the interactions between GSH and DNA viruses are available. Most studies focus on herpes simplex viruses (HSV). HSV causes various forms of disease from lesions on the lips, to the eyes or genitalia; HSV can also enter the central nervous system (CNS) and have devastating effects (Beyer et al., 1990). Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 may potentiate HIV-1 acquisition by disrupting or activating epithelial cells which produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, and may activate or recruit HIV target cells (Herold et al., 2002). Strategies to prevent transmission of HSV will negatively influence the transmission of HIV (Zuckerman et al., 2007; Ouedraogo et al., 2006). Among HSV, HSV-1 has a relevant impact on morbidity in humans for its frequent recurrences, establishment of viral latency and development of new strains resistant to the most common anti-HSV drugs (Crumpacker et al., 1982). In vitro and in vivo experimental evidence suggests that viral infection causes a significant decrease in GSH and that the impairment of intracellular redox status is necessary for virus replication (Palamara et al., 1995; Nucci et al., 2000; Vogel et al., 2005). In vitro experiments performed on different cellular models, showed that GSH supplementation produces a concentration-dependent inhibition of HSV replication (Vogel et al., 2005; Palamara et al., 1995). More interestingly, in the same models, efficacy of GSH analogs was compared with that of GSH. In human foreskin fibroblasts infected with HSV-1, it has been found that the inhibitory effect of S-acetyl-GSH is comparable to that of GSH (Fig. 5A); on an animal model of HSV-1

Virus yield (TCID50/ml)

A

2.5E+07

2.0E+07

1.5E+07

1.0E+07

5.0E+06

0.0E+00 No treatment

GSH (10 mM)

S-acetyl-GSH (10 mM)

Treatments

B

1.0E+10

Virus yield (PFU/ml)

1.0E+08

1.0E+06

1.0E+04

1.0E+02

1.0E+00 No treatment

GSH (10 mM)

GSH-C4 (10 mM)

Treatments Fig. 5. Inhibition of HSV-1 replication by GSH and its analogs. (A) Effect of GSH and S-acetyl-GSH supplementation on HSV-1 replication in cultures of human fibroblasts. The results are from a representative experiment. The fibroblasts were infected as reported in Vogel et al. (2005). (B) Effect of GSH and GSH-C4 supplementation on HSV-1 replication in Vero cells. Vero cells were infected as reported in Palamara et al. (2004).

108

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

infection, systemic S-acetyl-GSH significantly reduces HSV-1 induced mortality in hr/hr mice so that 50% of animals belonging to the S-acetyl-GSH-treated group survive an otherwise lethal HSV-1 infection; in contrast, GSH supplementation at the same concentration exhibits no protective effect (Vogel et al., 2005). Palamara et al. (2004) have shown that GSH-C4 can completely inhibit HSV-1 production in Vero cells (Fig. 5B). The anti-HSV-1 activity of GSH is substantially related to the inhibition of the late stages of virus replication, i.e. protein synthesis; among HSV-1 proteins, expression of glycoprotein B is the most affected by GSH treatment which is likely to interfere with the dimer formation of the protein by inducing reductive cleavage of the S–S bridges (Palamara et al., 1995). Similar mechanisms of action have already been described for GSH against Sendai virus in which it can inhibit the expression of haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) glycoprotein, and against HIV-1 where it can interfere with expression of gp120, which is very rich in disulphide bonds (Leonard et al., 1990). Other in vivo studies have documented an alteration in the intracellular redox state in the corneal tissue of rabbits characterized by keratitis; topical administration of GSH is able to significantly reduce the virus titre, the severity and the progression of keratitis and conjunctivitis. The authors of these studies suggest that improvement in the clinical signs of the disease can be related to a direct effect of GSH on HSV-1 replication rather than to an inflammatory effect (Nucci et al., 2000). All these data suggest that GSH, but above all GSH derivatives which are able to overcome the limits of GSH administration, can be used in the therapy of HSV-1-releated disease. Future clinical investigation will be necessary to confirm the potential efficacy of GSH and pro-GSH molecules against HSV-1 infection. 4. Conclusions The decrease in GSH content which characterizes several viral infections (Table 1) has prompted many researchers to suggest that maintenance or restoration of GSH levels may be a potential therapeutic approach in patients. Many in vitro studies demonstrate that GSH can attack viruses having different replicative mechanisms (HIV and other retroviruses, influenza and parainfluenza viruses, rhinovirus and HSV-1) and can inhibit viral replication at different stages. Moreover, the use of GSH, thanks to its potent immunomodulatory activity, may be advantageous in those viral diseases in which an imbalance between Th1 and Th2 responses has been described. A limit to GSH use as a therapeutic agent is given by its biochemical and pharmacokinetic properties and for this reason, pro-GSH molecules have been proposed to restore or increase GSH levels. The most used is NAC, but in recent years other molecules have also been shown to possess an antiviral activity against HIV, HSV-1, parainfluenza virus, comparable or higher than that exerted by GSH. The pro-GSH molecules can be either GSH derivatives able to cross cellular membrane more easily than GSH, or they can constitute a source of thiols for GSH synthesis. We might consider using these new leads in combination with traditional antiviral drugs able to attack the virus at different stages of replication. For example, it is known that anti-herpetic agents currently used in HSV infections fail to eliminate the virus from the body and to prevent reinfections/reactivations of HSV. For this reason, it may be useful to investigate the combination of acyclovir with immunomodulatory molecules endowed with antiviral properties. Another useful application would be in HIV-infected individuals in combination with HAART. New knowledge regarding the benefits of pro-GSH molecules is critical for the development of effective combined therapeutic strategies to prevent and treat a wide array of viral infections. Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by Ministero della Sanità, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Progetto AIDS (No. 30G.19) and FIRB Project 2006 (RBIP067F9E and RBPR05NWWC_006).

References Abdalla, M.Y., Ahmad, I.M., Spitz, D.R., Schmidt, W.N., Britigan, B.E., 2005. Hepatitis C virus-core and non structural proteins lead to different effects on cellular antioxidant defenses. J. Med. Virol. 76 (4), 489–497. Akerlund, B., Jarstrand, C., Lindeke, B., Sönnerborg, A., Akerblad, A.C., Rasool, O., 1996. Effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) treatment on HIV-1 infection: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 50 (6), 457–461. Aukrust, P., Müller, F., Svardal, A.M., Ueland, T., Berge, R.K., Frøland, S.S., 2003. Disturbed glutathione metabolism and decreased antioxidant levels in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during highly active antiretroviral therapy – potential immunomodulatory effects of antioxidants. J. Infect. Dis. 188 (2), 232–238. Baliga, R.S., Liu, C., Hoyt, D.G., Chaves, A.A., Bauer, J.A., 2004. Vascular endothelial toxicity induced by HIV protease inhibitor: evidence of oxidant-related dysfunction and apoptosis. Cardiovasc. Toxicol. 4 (2), 199–206. Barbaro, G., Di Lorenzo, G., Soldini, M., Parrotto, S., Bellomo, G., Belloni, G., Grisorio, B., Barbarini, G., 1996. Hepatic glutathione deficiency in chronic hepatitis C: quantitative evaluation in patients who are HIV positive and HIV negative and correlations with plasmatic and lymphocytic concentrations and with the activity of the liver disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 91 (12), 2569–2573. Beck, M.A., Handy, J., Levander, O.A., 2000. The role of oxidative stress in viral infections. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 917, 906–912. Beloqui, O., Prieto, J., Suárez, M., Gil, B., Qian, C.H., García, N., Civeira, M.P., 1993. N-acetyl cysteine enhances the response to interferon-alpha in chronic hepatitis C: a pilot study. J. Interferon Res. 13 (4), 279–282. Beyer, C.F., Hill, J.M., Reidy, J.J., Beuerman, R.W., 1990. Corneal nerve disruption reactivates virus in rabbits latently infected with HSV-1. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 31 (5), 925–932. Buhl, R., Jaffe, H.A., Holroyd, K.J., Wells, F.B., Mastrangeli, A., Saltini, C., Cantin, A.M., Crystal, R.G., 1989. Systemic glutathione deficiency in symptom-free HIV-seropositive individuals. Lancet 2 (8675), 1294–1298.

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

109

Cai, J., Chen, Y., Seth, S., Furukawa, S., Compans, R.W., Jones, D.P., 2003. Inhibition of influenza infection by glutathione. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 34 (7), 928– 936. Casabianca, A., Orlandi, C., Fraternale, A., Magnani, M., 2004. Development of a real-time PCR assay using SYBR Green I for provirus load quantification in a murine model of AIDS. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42 (9), 4361–4364. Cerny, A., Chisari, F.V., 1999. Pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis C: immunological features of hepatic injury and viral persistence. Hepatology 30 (3), 595– 601. Chen, L.H., Xi, S., Cohen, D.A., 1996. Liver endogenous antioxidant defenses in mice fed AIN-76A diet and infected with murine AIDS. Chem. Biol. Interact. 99 (1–3), 17–28. Choi, J., Forman, H.J., Ou, J.H., Lai, M.M., Seronello, S., Nandipati, A., 2006. Redox modulation of the hepatitis C virus replication complex is calcium dependent. Free Radic. Biol. Chem. 41 (9), 1488–1498. Choi, J., Lee, K.G., Zheng, Y., Yamaga, A.K., Lai, M.M.C., Ou, J.H., 2004. Reactive oxygen species suppress hepatitis C virus RNA replication in human hepatoma cells. Hepatology 39 (1), 81–89. Choi, J., Liu, R.M., Kundu, R.K., Sangiorgi, F., Wu, W., Maxson, R., Forman, H.J., 2000. Molecular mechanism of decreased glutathione content in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat-transgenic mice. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (5), 3693–3698. Cimino, L., Belisario, M.A., Intrieri, M., D’Ascoli, B., Sacchetti, L., Salvatore, F., Budillon, G., 1998. Effect of N-acetyl-cysteine on lymphomonocyte glutathione and response to interferon treatment in C-virus chronic hepatitis. Ital. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 30 (2), 189–193. Ciriolo, M.R., Palamara, A.T., Incerpi, S., Lafavia, E., Buè, M.C., De Vito, P., Garaci, E., Rotilio, G., 1997. Loss of GSH, oxidative stress, and decrease of intracellular pH as sequential steps in viral infection. J. Biol. Chem. 272 (5), 2700–2708. Crumpacker, C.S., Schnipper, L.E., Kowalsky, P.N., Sherman, D.M., 1982. Resistance of herpes simplex virus to adenine arabinoside and E-5-(2-bromovinyl)20 -deoxyuridine: a physical analysis. J. Infect. Dis. 146 (2), 167–172. Czeczot, H., Scibior, D., Skrzycki, M., Podsiad, M., 2006. Glutathione and GSH-dependent enzymes in patients with liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Acta Biochim. Pol. 53 (1), 237–242. De Flora, S., Balansky, R., Bennicelli, C., Camoirano, A., D’Agostini, F., Izzotti, A., Cesarone, C.F., 1995. Mechanisms of anticarcinogenesis: the example of Nacetylcysteine. In: Ioannides, C., Lewis, D.F.V. (Eds.), Drugs, Diet and Disease, Mechanistic Approaches to Cancer, vol. 1. Ellis Horwood, Hernel Hempstead, pp. 151–203. De Flora, S., Grassi, C., Carati, L., 1997. Attenuation of influenza-like symptomatology and improvement of cell-mediated immunity with long-term Nacetylcysteine treatment. Eur. Respir. J. 10 (7), 1535–1541. De Rosa, S.C., Zaretsky, M.D., Dubs, J.G., Roederer, M., Anderson, M., Green, A., Mitra, D., Watanabe, N., Nakamura, H., Tjio, I., Deresinski, S.C., Moore, W.A., Ela, S.W., Parks, D., Herzenberg, L.A., Herzenberg, L.A., 2000. N-acetylcysteine replenishes glutathione in HIV infection. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 30 (10), 915–929. De Vries, N., De Flora, S., 1993. N-acetyl-L-cysteine. J. Cell. Biochem. Suppl. 17 (F:S), 270–277. Dias, A.S., Bester, M.J., Britz, R.F., Apostolides, Z., 2006. Animal models used for the evaluation of antiretroviral therapies. Curr. HIV Res. 4 (4), 431–446. Feng, J.Y., Johnson, A.A., Johnson, K.A., Anderson, K.S., 2001. Insights into the molecular mechanism of mitochondrial toxicity by AIDS drugs. J. Biol. Chem. 276 (26), 23832–23837. Fraternale, A., Paoletti, M.F., Casabianca, A., Orlandi, C., Schiavano, G.F., Chiarantini, L., Clayette, P., Oiry, J., Vogel, J.U., Cinatl, J.Jr., Magnani, M., 2008. Inhibition of murine AIDS by pro-glutathione (GSH) molecules. Antiviral Res. 77 (2), 120–127. Fried, M.W., Shiffman, M.L., Reddy, K.R., Smith, C., Marinos, G., Goncales, F.L.Jr., Häussinger, D., Diago, M., Carosi, G., Dhumeaux, D., Craxi, A., Lin, A., Hoffman, J., Yu, J., 2002. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 347 (13), 975–982. Garaci, E., Palamara, A.T., Ciriolo, M.R., D’Agostini, C., Abdel-Latif, M.S., Aquaro, S., Lafavia, E., Rotilio, G., 1997. Intracellular GSH content and HIV replication in human macrophages. J. Leukoc. Biol. 62 (1), 54–59. Garaci, E., Palamara, A.T., Di Francesco, P., Favalli, C., Ciriolo, M.R., Rotilio, G., 1992. Glutathione inhibits replication and expression of viral proteins in cultured cells infected with Sendai virus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 188 (3), 1090–1096. Gil, L., Martínez, G., González, I., Tarinas, A., Alvarez, A., Giuliani, A., Molina, R., Tápanes, R., Pérez, J., León, O.S., 2003. Contribution to characterization of oxidative stress in HIV/AIDS patients. Pharmacol. Res. 47 (3), 217–224. Gregory, S., Kelly, N.D., 1998. Clinical applications of N-acetylcysteine. Alternative Med. Rev. 3 (2), 114–127. Harakeh, S., Jariwalla, R.J., Pauling, L., 1990. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication by ascorbate in chronically and acutely infected cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 (18), 7245–7249. Helbling, B., von Overbeck, J., Lauterburg, B.H., 1996. Decreased release of glutathione into the systemic circulation of patients with HIV infection. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 26 (1), 38–44. Herold, B.C., Scordi-Bello, I., Cheshenko, N., Marcellino, D., Dzuzelewski, M., Francois, F., Morin, R., Casullo, V.M., Anderson, R.A., Chany 2nd, C., Waller, D.P., Zaneveld, L.J., Klotman, M.E., 2002. Mandelic acid condensation polymer: novel candidate microbicide for prevention of human immunodeficiency virus and herpes simplex virus entry. J. Virol. 76 (22), 11236–11244. Herzenberg, L.A., De Rosa, S.C., Dubs, J.G., Roederer, M., Anderson, M.T., Ela, S.W., Deresinski, S.C., Herzenberg, L.A., 1997. Glutathione deficiency is associated with impaired survival in HIV disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (5), 1967–1972. Houglum, K., Venkataramani, A., Lyche, K., Chojkier, M., 1997. A pilot study of the effects of d-alpha-tocopherol on hepatic stellate cell activation in chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 113 (4), 1069–1073. Kalebic, T., Kinter, A., Poli, G., Anderson, M.E., Meister, A., Fauci, A.S., 1991. Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus expression in chronically infected monocytic cells by glutathione, glutahione ester, and N-acetylcysteine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88 (3), 986–990. Kameoka, M., Okada, Y., Tobiume, M., Kimura, T., Ikuta, K., 1996. Intracelluar glutathione as a possible direct blocker of HIV type 1 reverse transcription. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12 (17), 1635–1638. Kim, H.J., Barajas, B., Chan, R.C., Nel, A.E., 2007. Glutathione depletion inhibits dendritic cell maturation and delayed-type hypersensivity: implications for systemic disease and immunosenescense. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 119 (5), 1225–1233. Korenaga, M., Wang, T., Li, Y., Showalter, L.A., Chan, T., Sun, J., Weinman, S.A., 2005. Hepatitis C virus core protein inhibits mitochondrial electron transport and increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. J. Biol. Chem. 280 (45), 37481–37488. Lamb, R.A., Krug, R.M., 2001. Orthomyxoviridiae: the viruses and their replication. In: Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M. (Eds.), Fields Virology, fourth ed. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp. 1487–1531. Leonard, C.K., Spellman, M.W., Riddle, L., Harris, R.J., Thomas, J.N., Gregory, T.J., 1990. Assignment of intrachain disulfide bonds and characterization of potential glycosylation sites of the type 1 recombinant human immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoprotein (gp120) expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. J. Biol. Chem. 265 (18), 10373–10382. Lieber, C.S., 1997. Role of oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in alcoholic and nonalcoholic liver diseases. Adv. Pharmacol. 38, 601–628. Macchia, I., Palamara, A.T., Buè, C., Savini, P., Ciriolo, M., Graziano, R., di Francesco, P., 1999. Increased replication of Sendai virus in morphine-treated epithelial cells: evidence for the involvement of the intracellular levels of glutathione. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 21 (3), 185–193. Magnani, M., Fraternale, A., Casabianca, A., Schiavano, G.F., Chiarantini, L., Palamara, A.T., Ciriolo, M.R., Rotilio, G., Garaci, E., 1997. Antiretroviral effect of combined zidovudine and reduced glutathione therapy in murine AIDS. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 13 (13), 1093–1099. Magnani, M., Novelli, G., Palloni, R., 1984. Human plasma glutathione oxidation in normal and pathological conditions. Clin. Physiol. Biochem. 2 (6), 287– 290. Matthias, L.J., Yam, P.T., Jiang, X.M., Vandegraaff, N., Li, P., Poumbourios, P., Donoghue, N., Hogg, P.J., 2002. Disulfide exchange in domain 2 of CD4 is required for entry of HIV-1. Nat. Immunol. 3 (8), 727–732. Meister, A., 1989. Metabolism and function of glutathione. In: Dolphin, D., Poulson, R., Avramovich, O. (Eds.), Glutathione, Chemical, Biochemical and Medical Aspects, Part A. Wiley, New York, pp. 367–374.

110

A. Fraternale et al. / Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30 (2009) 99–110

Mortola, E., Okuda, M., Ohno, K., Watari, T., Tsujimoto, H., Hasegawa, A., 1998. Inhibition of apoptosis and virus replication in feline immunodeficiency virusinfected cells by N-acetylcysteine and ascorbic acid. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 60 (11), 1187–1193. Murata, Y., Amao, M., Yoneda, J., Hamuro, J., 2002a. Intracellular thiol redox status of macrophages directs the Th1 skewing in thioredoxin transgenic mice during aging. Mol. Immunol. 38 (10), 747–757. Murata, Y., Shimamura, T., Hamuro, J., 2002b. The polarization of T(h)1/T(h)2 balance is dependent on the intracellular thiol redox status of macrophages due to the distinctive cytokine production. Int. Immunol. 14 (2), 201–212. Nakamura, H., Masutani, H., Yodoi, J., 2002. Redox imbalance and its control in HIV infection. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 4 (3), 455–464. Nakata, K., Kawase, M., Ogino, S., Kinoshita, C., Murata, H., Sakaue, T., Ogata, K., Ohmori, S., 1996. Effects of age on levels of cysteine, glutathione and related enzyme activities in livers of mice and rats and an attempt to replenish hepatic glutathione level of mouse with cysteine derivatives. Mech. Ageing Dev. 90 (3), 195–207. Nencioni, L., Iuvara, A., Aquilano, K., Ciriolo, M.R., Cozzolino, F., Rotilio, G., Garaci, E., Palamara, A.T., 2003. Influenza A virus replication is dependent on an antioxidant pathway that involves GSH and Bcl-2. FASEB J. 17 (6), 758–760. Neri, S., Ierna, D., Antoci, S., Campanile, E., D’Amico, R.A., Noto, R., 2000. Association of alpha-interferon and acetyl cysteine in patients with chronic C hepatitis. Panminerva Med. 42 (3), 187–192. Nucci, C., Palamara, A.T., Ciriolo, M.R., Nencioni, L., Savini, P., D’Agostini, C., Rotilio, G., Cerulli, L., Garaci, E., 2000. Imbalance in corneal redox state during herpes simplex virus 1-induced keratitis in rabbits. Effectiveness of exogenous glutathione supply. Exp. Eye Res. 70 (2), 215–220. Oiry, J., Mialocq, P., Puy, J.Y., Fretier, P., Dereuddre-Bosquet, N., Dormont, D., Imbach, J.L., Clayette, P., 2004. Synthesis and biological evaluation in human monocyte-derived macrophages of N-(N-acetyl-L-cysteinyl)-S-acetylcysteamine analogues with potent antioxidant and anti-HIV activities. J. Med. Chem. 47 (7), 1789–1795. Okuda, M., Li, K., Beard, M.R., Showalter, L.A., Scholle, F., Lemon, S.M., Weinman, S.A., 2002. Mitochondrial injury, oxidative stress, and antioxidant gene expression are induced by hepatitis C virus core protein. Gastroenterology 122 (2), 366–375. Opii, W.O., Sultana, R., Abdul, H.M., Ansari, M.A., Nath, A., Butterfield, D.A., 2007. Oxidative stress and toxicity induced by the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI)-20 ,30 -dideoxycytidine (ddC): relevance to HIV-dementia. Exp. Neurol. 204 (1), 29–38. Ouedraogo, A., Nagot, N., Vergne, L., Konate, I., Weiss, H.A., Defer, M.C., Foulongne, V., Sanon, A., Andonaba, J.B., Segondy, M., Mayaud, P., Van de Perre, P., 2006. Impact of suppressive herpes therapy on genital HIV-1 RNA among women taking antiretroviral therapy: a randomized controlled trial. AIDS 20 (18), 2305–2313. Palamara, A.T., Brandi, G., Rossi, L., Millo, E., Benatti, U., Nencioni, L., Iuvara, A., Garaci, E., Magnani, M., 2004. New synthetic glutathione derivatives with increased antiviral activities. Antiviral Chem. Chemother. 15 (2), 83–91. Palamara, A.T., Di Francesco, P., Ciriolo, M.R., Buè, C., Lafavia, E., Rotilio, G., Garaci, E., 1996a. Cocaine increases Sendai virus replication in cultured epithelial cells: critical role of the intracellular redox status. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 228 (2), 579–585. Palamara, A.T., Garaci, E., Rotilio, G., Ciriolo, M.R., Casabianca, A., Fraternale, A., Rossi, L., Schiavano, G.F., Chiarantini, L., Magnani, M., 1996b. Inhibition of murine AIDS by reduced glutathione. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12 (14), 1373–1381. Palamara, A.T., Perno, C.F., Aquaro, S., Buè, M.C., Dini, L., Garaci, E., 1996c. Glutathione inhibits HIV replication by acting at late stages of the virus life cycle. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 12 (16), 1537–1541. Palamara, A.T., Perno, C.F., Ciriolo, M.R., Dini, L., Balestra, E., D’Agostini, C., Di Francesco, P., Favalli, C., Rotilio, G., Garaci, E., 1995. Evidence for antiviral activity of glutathione: in vitro inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication. Antiviral Res. 27 (3), 237–253. Papi, A., Johnston, S.L., 1999. Respiratory epithelial cell expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and its up-regulation by rhinovirus infection via NFkappaB and GATA transcription factors. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (42), 30041–30051. Papi, A., Papadopoulos, N.G., Stanciu, L.A., Bellettato, C.M., Pinamonti, S., Degitz, K., Holgate, S.T., Johnston, S.L., 2002. Reducing agents inhibit rhinovirusinduced up-regulation of the rhinovirus receptor intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in respiratory epithelial cells. FASEB J. 16 (14), 1934–1936. Peterson, J.D., Herzenberg, L.A., Vasquez, K., Waltebaugh, C., 1998. Glutathione levels in antigen-presenting cells modulate Th1 versus Th2 response patterns. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 (6), 3071–3076. Poli, G., Bressler, P., Kinter, A., Duh, E., Timmer, W.C., Rabson, A., Justement, J.S., Stanley, S., Fauci, A.S., 1990. Interleukin 6 induces human immunodeficiency virus expression in infected monocytic cells alone and in synergy with tumor necrosis factor alpha by transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanism. J. Exp. Med. 172 (1), 151–158. Price, T.O., Ercal, N., Nakaoke, R., Banks, W.A., 2005. HIV-1 viral proteins gp 120 and Tat induce oxidative stress in brain endothelial cells. Brain Res. 1045 (1– 2), 57–63. Price, T.O., Uras, F., Banks, W.A., Ercal, N., 2006. A novel antioxidant N-acetylcysteine amide prevents gp120- and Tat-induced oxidative stress in brain endothelial cells. Exp. Neurol. 201 (1), 193–202. Roberts, R.L., Aroda, V.R., Ank, B.J., 1995. N-acetylcysteine enhances antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in neutrophils and mononuclear cells from healthy adults and human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J. Infect. Dis. 172 (69), 1492–1502. Rong, B.L., Libermann, T.A., Kogawa, K., Ghosh, S., Cao, L.-X., Pavan-Langston, D., Dunkel, E.C., 1992. HSV-1-inducible proteins bind to NF-kB-like sites in the HSV-1 genome. Virol. 189 (2), 750–756. Short, S., Merkel, B.J., Caffrey, R., McCoy, K.L., 1996. Defective antigen processing correlates with a low level of intracellular glutathione. Eur. J. Immunol. 26 (12), 3015–3020. Staal, F.J., Roederer, M., Herzenberg, L.A., Herzenberg, L.A., 1990. Intracellular thiols regulate activation of nuclear factor kappa B and transcription of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87 (24), 9943–9947. Stevens, M., Pannecouque, C., De Clercq, E., Balzarini, J., 2006. Pyridine N-oxide derivatives inhibit viral transactivation by interfering with NF-kappaB binding. Biochem. Pharmacol. 71 (8), 1122–1135. Tatu, U., Hammond, C., Helenius, A., 1995. Folding and oligomerization of influenza hemagglutinin in the ER and the intermediate compartment. EMBO J. 14 (7), 1340–1348. Vogel, J.-U., Cinatl, J., Dauletbaev, N., Buxbaum, S., Treusch, G., Cinatl, J.Jr., Gerein, V., Doerr, H.W., 2005. Effects of S-acetylglutathione in cell and animal model of herpes simplex virus type 1 infection. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 194 (1–2), 55–59. Waris, G., Turkson, J., Hassanein, T., Siddiqui, A., 2005. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) constitutively activates STAT-3 via oxidative stress: role of STAT-3 in HCV replication. J. Virol. 79 (3), 1569–1580. Westendorp, M.O., Shatrov, V.A., Schulze-Osthoff, K., Frank, R., Kraft, M., Los, M., Krammer, P.H., Dröge, W., Lehmann, V., 1995. HIV-1 Tat potentiates TNFinduced NF-kappa B activation and cytotoxicity by altering the cellular redox state. EMBO J. 14 (3), 546–554. Yamaguchi, T., Katoh, I., Kurata, S., 2002. Azidothymidine causes functional and structural destruction of mitochondria, glutathione deficiency and HIV-1 promoter sensitization. Eur. J. Biochem. 269 (11), 2782–2788. Zheng, Y.W., Yen, T.S.B., 1994. Negative regulation of hepatitis B virus gene expression and replication of oxidative stress. J. Biol. Chem. 269 (12), 8857–8862. Zuckerman, R.A., Lucchetti, A., Whittington, W.L., Sanchez, J., Coombs, R.W., Zuñiga, R., Magaret, A.S., Wald, A., Corey, L., Celum, C., 2007. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) suppression with valacyclovir reduces rectal and blood plasma HIV-1 levels in HIV-1/HSV-2-seropositive men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled crossover trial. J. Infect. Dis. 196 (10), 1500–1508.