- Email: [email protected]
Gum and resin resources from some Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species and their economic contributions in Liban, south-east Ethiopia
ARTICLE IN PRESS Journal of Arid Environments Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482 www.elsevier.com/locate/jnlabr/yjare
Gum and resin resources from some Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species and their economic contributions in Liban, south-east Ethiopia Mulugeta Lemeniha,*, Tarekegn Abebea, Mats Olssonb b
a Wondo Genet College of Forestry, P.O. Box 128, Shashamane, Ethiopia Department of Forest Soils, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P. O. Box 7001, SE 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
Received 28 March 2001; received in revised form 17 September 2002; accepted 11 December 2002
Abstract Oleo-gum resins, hardened resinous plant exudates obtained from some Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species in the lowlands of Ethiopia, have been traded for centuries both on the international and domestic markets. However, their economic contribution to the rural households is little documented. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in Liban, one of the administrative zones in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State, to investigate major oleo-gum-resins collected for commerce and their economic contributions to rural households. The results showed that five types of oleo-gum-resins are collected for commerce in Liban. These are gum arabic obtained from Acacia Senegal, gum talha obtained from A. seyal, frankincense obtained from Boswellia neglecta and B. ogadensis, myrrh obtained from Commiphora myrrha (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata and C. borensis and hagar obtained from C. africana. The average annual cash income generated per household was estimated to be US$ 80.00. This income contributes to 32.6% of annual household subsistence, and ranks second after livestock in the overall household livelihood. The contribution from crop farming was estimated to be 12%, which is about one-third of the contribution from oleo-gum resins. These results show that oleo-gum resins obtained from the vegetation resources play a significant role in the economy of rural households in Liban. The vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins also provide various goods and services for the rural households in Liban. Fodder for livestock, traditional medicines for human and livestock disease treatments, incense for fumigation, cultural and religious rituals, and emergency foods during droughts *Corresponding author. Department of Forest Soils, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7001, SE 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Lemenih). 0140-1963/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0140-1963(03)00053-3
ARTICLE IN PRESS 466
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
are among the most common. Opportunities and constraints for oleo-gum-resin-based development in Liban and other similar areas in Ethiopia are discussed. The results could be used as baseline information for evaluating the potential of the arid and semi-arid land vegetation resources of the country, to plan for extensive studies of their management, conservation and proper utilization. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Gum arabic; Gum talha; Frankincense; Myrrh; Economic contribution; Medicinal uses; multiple purpose
1. Introduction Vast areas of land, approx. 620,000 km2, in Ethiopia are arid to semi-arid with a characteristic scant and erratic rainfall National Conservation Strategy Secretariat (NCSS), 1993; Hawando, 1997). In most parts of these arid and semi-arid lands, a single growing season with the early maturing crops is rarely possible (NCSS, 1993; Hawando, 1997). Liban, one of the administrative zones in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State (ESNRS), where this study was carried out, falls within these environments. Owing to of the difficult environmental conditions and low biological productivity, nomadic pastoralism has been the dominant mode of production in Liban (NCSS, 1993; Farah, 1997). However, recurring droughts and fodder failures are severely affecting the performance of livestock and the overall socio-economic development of Liban, as in other arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia (Farah, 1997; Hawando, 1997; Sugule and Walker, 1998). The present agriculture-based development strategy pursued by the Ethiopian government (NCSS, 1993) is one possible option for utilizing the vast arid and semiarid land resources of the country. However, the harsh climatic conditions of arid and semi-arid environments means that strenuous efforts, often with large economic and technical investments, are required to achieve successful agricultural development (Stiles, 1988; Steen, 1994). On the other hand, the woody vegetation resources that are indigenous in Liban and other arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia could provide an additional opportunity for accelerated economic development. The Acacia, Commiphora, Boswellia and many other trees and shrubs in these arid and semi-arid lowlands hold known or potential promise as producers of economically valuable products (Kuchar, 1988; 1995; Stiles, 1988). Oleo-gum resins such as gum arabic, gum talha, frankincense and myrrh are some of the better-known products that are currently used in many industries (Kuchar, 1988; Stiles, 1988; Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP), 1993; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1995; Budavari, 1996). For instance, frankincense and myrrh, hardened resinous exudates obtained from trees of certain Boswellia and Commiphora species, respectively, are important products used in pharmaceutical industries (Michie and Cooper, 1991; Bradley, 1992; Yen, 1992; Kernick, 1994; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994; Brown, 1995; British Herbal Medicine Association, 1996; Leung and Foster, 1996; Deutshes Arzneibuch (DAB), 1997), the food industry (Hall and Oser, 1965; Council
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
467
of Europe, 1981; Tucker, 1986; Ford et al., 1992; FAO, 1995), flavours, liqueurs and beverages (FAO, 1995; Leung and Foster, 1996), cosmetics and perfumery (Fragrance Foundation, 1983; Tucker, 1986; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995), and in the traditional medicines of several countries (Clifford, 1984; Iwu, 1990; Brown, 1995; FAO, 1995; Leung and Foster, 1996; Gupta et al., 2001; Massoud et al, 2001). Frankincense and myrrh are also widely used in unprocessed form for fragrances in many religious rituals, in Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches as well as in the Muslim religion (Coulter, 1987; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Gum arabic obtained from Acacia Senegal is another important article of commerce with various uses in food, beverages, pharmacology, adhesives and cosmetics industries (FAO, 1982; WHO, 1982; Robbins, 1987; Anderson, 1993; Fennema, 1996). Gum talha produced by A. seyal has also wide applications in non-food industries (Anderson and Eastwood, 1989). Oleo-gum resins constitute an integral part of the regional, national and rural economies and have been playing an essential role in earning foreign exchange in the Horn of Africa in general (Ahmed, 1982; Tucker, 1986; Thulin and Claeson, 1991; Farah, 1994; Kuchar, 1995) and in Ethiopia in particular (EFAP, 1993; Tilahun, 1997). For instance, data obtained from the Natural Gum Processing and Marketing Enterprise (NGPME) of Ethiopia indicated that in 1988 alone, 1084.4 ton of natural gums were traded on the domestic market and 663.4 ton were exported. The total value of this trade was estimated to be US$ 1,296,008 (Tilahun, 1997). This is excluding the unrecorded but large volumes of parallel trans-border trades with neighboring countries such as Somali and Kenya. A large volume of the myrrh exported from Somalia is estimated to originate from Ethiopia (Coulter, 1987; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Ethiopia and Somalia are major producers and exporters of frankincense and myrrh today (Coulter, 1987; Wahab et al., 1987; Goettsch, 1991; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Despite the tendency for a decline in the amount of oleo-gum resins sold in the world market over the past 15–20 years (Anderson, 1993; FAO, 1995), there still remains good commercial demand for those resins that meet international quality specifications (Anderson, 1993). Demand for frankincense and myrrh is also still high in Ethiopia for fumigation and religious rituals. The present supply satisfies less than 15% of the domestic demand (Tilahun, 1997). Moreover, the worldwide trend to shift to natural products will likely increase the demands for these natural gumresin resources in the near future (EFAP, 1993; Fennema, 1996). Kuchar (1995) and Stiles (1988) also emphasize that there exists great potential for developing more products through research that would make use of these vegetation-based oleo-gum resins. Therefore, efforts for accelerated economic development in Liban and other similar arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia need to recognize the potential that exists in the vegetation assets in the form of the oleo-gum resin products mentioned above and to incorporate them in the development strategy. Although Ethiopia is one of the main producers and exporters of oleo-gum resins, little has been done to survey the vegetation resources that provide these products, as well as their economic contributions to rural households in the country (EFAP, 1993; NCSS, 1993; Tilahun, 1997; Getachew, 1999). The ESNRS is one of the
ARTICLE IN PRESS 468
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
regions that supply the largest quantity of oleo-gum resins in Ethiopia (Coulter, 1987; Thulin and Claeson, 1991; EFAP, 1993; Kuchar, 1995) including some of the exports from Somalia (Coulter, 1987; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Accordingly, this reconnaissance survey was initiated with the objectives of (1) assessing the existing potential in oleo-gum resin resources in the Liban zone of ESNRS and (2) estimating the current economic contribution of these oleo-gum resins resources to rural households in Liban
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area Liban zone is situated in the south-western part of the ESNRS (Fig. 1) and is located approximately at longitude 39–41 E and latitude 3–4 N. It is an area bordered by the Ganale river to the north and east and the Dawa river to the west and south. About 19,145 km2, corresponding to approx. 95% of the area of Liban, was covered by this reconnaissance survey. Generally, Liban falls within the arid to semi-arid lowlands (areas below 1500 m a.s.l.) of the country (NCSS, 1993), with an altitude ranging from 200 to 1100 m a.s.l. The rainfall is bimodal and occurs from October to November and March to April with two distinct dry periods separating the two rainy seasons. Mean annual rainfall in Liban ranges from 28 to 820 mm, and annual potential evapo-transpiration rates range from 1630 to 2832 mm (Hawando,
Fig. 1. Map of Ethiopian Somali National Regional State and the study area (Liban)
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
469
1997). Mean temperature ranges from 18 C for the coldest months to over 27 C during the hottest months. Population density is generally low, less than 10 persons/ km 2. It is one of the least populated areas in Ethiopia (NCSS, 1993). The ESNRS is inhabited by the Somali ethnic group that is predominantly pastoralist (nomadic and semi-nomadic), herding combinations of camels, cattle, sheep and goats (Farah, 1997). Livestock, which is the principal capital of the society, provides the staple food, milk and meat (EFAP, 1993). Limited opportunistic rain-fed and sporadic cultivations in certain parts where drainage is impeded are also practised. Agro-pastoralism has been increasing since the 1970s in the whole region of ESNRS including Liban (Sugule and Walker, 1998). The major crop grown is sorghum because of its low water demand. Small-scale crop and fruit cultivations based on irrigation are practised in some parts of the region and also along the two rivers that border Liban. The amount and distribution of rainfall is the greatest physical constraint to agricultural production in the arid lowland areas of Ethiopia (NCSS, 1993). Hunger is common to pastoralists of the ESNRS even during normal dry seasons and is due to several factors relating to the weakened conditions of livestock and a scarcity of water and pasture (Farah, 1997). As the nomadic economy in the ESNRS does not produce all the food a family needs for basic subsistence, grains are purchased during the dry seasons with income obtained from cattle sales. Other activities such as collection of frankincense, myrrh and gum acacia as well as firewood and charcoal sales are also widely practised to augment family livelihood (Farah, 1997). Liban is an area with more favorable pasture, vegetation and water resources relative to the other parts of ESNRS (United Nations Development Programme—Emergency Unit for Ethiopia (UNDP—EUE), 1997). The vegetation in Liban generally belongs to the Somali-Masai Acacia–Commiphora deciduous wood-and-bushland formations (White, 1983; Menout et al., 1995). Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species that are known to produce economically valuable oleo-gum resins such as gum acacia, frankincense and myrrh are the dominant species (Kuchar, 1988, 1995). Grazing land and vegetation resources in ESNRS including Liban are controlled by clans (Farah, 1997). Inhabitants in Liban are members of the same clan and thus grazing land and vegetation resources are used communally among those in the clan. However, the environment in Liban, which is considered to be particularly fragile, has begun to deteriorate. This is due to overstocking because of the steady influx of people and animals migrating from other parts of ESNRS, Somalia and Northern Kenya when extended droughts occur (UNDP—EUE, 1997). 2.2. Survey methods The aims of the survey were two-fold. The first was to provide baseline information on the existing potential in oleo-gum resin resources in Liban. The second was to investigate the economic contribution of oleo-gum resins collection and the relative importance of this economy compared to other major activities such as animal husbandry and crop farming. Both vegetation and socio-economic surveys were conducted simultaneously using the methods described below.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 470
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
2.2.1. Vegetation survey A vegetation survey was undertaken during the summer of 1997 and 1998. As there was no vegetation map for the area, we used topographic maps of the scale 1:50,000 as a base for sampling. The boundary of the study area was first marked and accessible road networks were identified on the maps. A preliminary vegetation-type classification and mapping was attempted using the Yangambi (FAO, 1989a,b) system of tropical Africa vegetation classification, supplemented by the definitions and classification system given in EFAP document (EFAP, 1993) for the forests and woodlands of Ethiopia. An ocular boundary demarcation technique was used to approximately delineate the boundaries of the vegetation types on the base map (Pukkala and Pohjonen, 1989). Six vegetation types were identified and demarcated. The area covered by each of the vegetation types was computed using dot grids. A total of 29 transects with lengths ranging from 10 to 15 km each were systematically laid perpendicular to the slope on the map of vegetation types. The intention was to cover the variation in vegetation composition that might occur along the altitudinal gradient. A total of 160 rectangular plots, each 300 m2 (30 10 m2), were sampled at approx. every 2 km along the transects in five of the vegetation types. A total of 160 plots, 40 plots each in three of the vegetation types and 20 each in two of the vegetation types were sampled (Table 2). All species of trees and shrubs with DBH >10 cm falling within each plot were counted. Identification of species yielding currently traded oleo-gum resins were carried out with the help of local informants and their local names registered. Botanical names for those species that were identified as yielding oleo-gum resins for commerce were obtained from the identification key prepared by Kuchar (1995). From the plot data, the density (stem number per hectare) for A. Senegal, A. seyal, Boswellia and Commiphora species that were indicated by the informants to produce currently traded oleo-gum resins was calculated for each of the vegetation types. Other species found in the plots were counted as others and no further identification was made. No literature data were found for the estimates of gum, myrrh or frankincense produced per tree and year for Liban, or for the techniques for direct field measurements. Therefore, in the absence of such information, the mean annual production per tree was estimated by asking the selected sample households to provide, from their experience, accurate estimates of the various oleo-gum resins that a tree yields per year in local units. The local unit was a collection bowl made by the collectors. The estimates provided by the respondents for each oleogum resin were correspondingly weighed on a scale balance to 0.5 g precision. The averages of all the estimates provided for each type of oleo-gum resin were used as potential production per tree and year. The average stem number per hectare for each oleo-gum-resin-producing species was multiplied by the average yield per tree and year to obtain the annual harvest for each of the products per hectare. Finally, estimates of per hectare production for each oleo-gum resin were multiplied by the area of each vegetation type to obtain estimated total production for Liban.
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
471
2.2.2. Socio-economic survey A total of 105 households, all pastoral households in the rural areas of Liban, were randomly selected and interviewed. Because of the large area covered by the survey and the sparsely clustered mode of living of the people in the study area, a random cluster type of sampling was used. To select the random points, grids of 4 km2 were laid on a map and the intersections were numbered. Random numbers were drawn to identify the grid corners to be used as starting points. The selected grid comers were approximately located in the field and the four nearest households to the random point were picked. A structured questionnaire survey was used to get the information on the type of oleo-gum resins collected, species from which they are tapped, the collection season, collection method, estimated annual income generated from the sale of oleo-gum resins, the percentage share of the income generated in the household subsistence, the share of other land uses, local or household uses, medicinal values and other relevant socio-economic information. Household interviews were conducted in the local language (Somali) using field staff recruited from the area and trained. Quantitative data from the interview results were statistically analysed. The income from the sales of oleo-gum resins were averaged and converted to US$ using the conversion rate for Ethiopian Birr at the time of the survey (1998).
3. Results 3.1. Vegetation type, species composition and distribution Six vegetation types were identified for the vegetation of Liban (Table 1). However, two of the vegetation types, mixed woodland thicket and xerophilous woodland, predominated. Together they cover about 73% of the area in Liban. One of the six vegetation types identified was a pure community of A. seyal. This species is dominantly found in the wetter foothills that are regularly affected by flash floods. Eight species of trees/shrubs belonging to two families Mimosaceae and Burseraceae were designated by the informants to yield currently traded oleo-gum resins. The species include: A. Senegal, A. seyal, Boswellia neglecta, B. ogadensis, Commiphora myrrh (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata, C. africana, and C. borensis. Stem density of these species for each vegetation type is presented in Table 1. Oleo-gum resin producing species together comprised 62.2% of the total stem density in the xerophilous woodland vegetation type, 62.5% in the mixed woodland thicket vegetation type, 82.5% in the Acacia bushland thicket vegetation type, and 42.4% in the mixed shrubland thicket vegetation type. This shows that oleo-gum resin producing species are dominant in the vegetation of Liban. A. Senegal and C. myrrha are the dominant species among the oleo-gum-resin-producing species in most of the mixed vegetation types. Vegetation formations and species composition slightly varied with altitude. At higher altitudes from 700 to 1100 m a.s.l., dense woodland and bushland thickets of predominantly Acacia spp. occurred. At lower altitudes from 200 to 700 m a.s.l.,
ARTICLE IN PRESS 472
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Table 1 Vegetation types and composition of currently traded oleo-gum resins producing trees and shrubs in Liban (only trees and shrubs with DBH >10.0 cm were considered) Vegetation type
Family
Species
Xerophilous woodland
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
Acacia Senegal
59.6711.9
Boswellia neglecta B. ogadensis Commiphora myrrha/ C.molmol C. truncata C. borensis C. africana Others
36.5721.2 73.179.1 40.3713.4
Area=430,970 ha (n=40)
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ —
Density (stem number ha 1) (Mean7S.D.)
20.877.8 19.2721.8 20.4712.3 120.0721.2
Mixed woodland thicket Area= 925,5 l0 ha (n=40)
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ —
A. senegal B. neglecta B. ogadensis C. myrrha/C. molmol C. truncata C. borensis C. africana Others
37.3711.8 25.179.7 41.3723.1 17.777.8 22.6723.9 60.1731.2 181.2717.8
Acacia bushland thicket Area= 89,750 ha (n = 39)
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ —
A. Senegal
261.7738.5
B. neglecta B. ogadensis C. myrrha/C. molmol C. truncata C. borensis C. africana Others
63.2724.8 57.2721.5 79.6724.5 22.474.7 18.574.8 20.9710.1 111.17113.8
Acacia seyal woodland Area=80,210 ha (n=21)
Mimosaceae
A. seyal
420.3+23.0
Mixed shrubland Area =126,520 ha (n = 20)
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
A. Senegal B. neglecta B. ogadensis C. myrrha/C. molmol C. truncata C. ogadensis Others nd
19.676.7 34.1710.2 24.575.6 65.1716.5 15.672.5 21.078.7 244.373.5
Undifferentiated bushland thicket Area=319,390 ha n=number of sample plots taken; nd=no data.
97.9721.5
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
473
savanna and xerophilic vegetation types predominated, and Commiphora and Boswellia spp. tended to dominate the vegetation composition. The farmers indicated that the quality of gums and resins at lower altitude, with drier climate, was generally higher than at the relatively wetter higher altitudes. Visual observations of the vegetation in Liban during the field survey in comparison with the state of the acacia woodland in the central Rift Valley of Ethiopia indicated the vegetation in Liban is relatively intact. This could probably be due to low population pressure, low agricultural activity and/or due to the remoteness of Liban from major fuelwood consuming towns. 3.2. Extraction ofoleo-gum resins Five types of oleo-gum resins, gum arabic, gum talha, frankincense, myrrh and hagar, are currently collected for commerce from the vegetation of Liban (Table 2). List of species from which these oleo-gum resins are obtained is included in Table 2. The interviews indicated that gum resins obtained from three of the Commiphora species, namely C. myrrha (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata and C. ogadensis, are sold under the name myrrh but separately, while the gum resins collected from the two Boswellia species, B. neglecta and B. ogadensis, are categorized as frankincense and traded mixed. The gums obtained from the two acacia species, A. Senegal and A. seyal, are traded separately. Hagar is an oleo-gum resin obtained from the species of C. africana. A total of 903 ton of oleo-gum resins is estimated to be collected from the vegetation of Liban. Out of this, 209 ton is gum arabica, 266 ton is frankincense, 187 ton is myrrh, 33 ton is gum talha and 208 ton is hagar (Table 3). Collections of all of the oleo-gum resins are performed twice each year, during the two dry seasons. The informants pointed out that dry years generally yield a low quantity but superior quality of oleo-gum resins. Informants’ criteria for quality specifications included color and size of the exudates. Unlike in most oleo-gum resin production systems where wounding forms a major activity, collection is mainly performed on natural exudations for all the oleo-gum resins in Liban, often simultaneously with herding. The response to why they did not use wounding varied from one respondent to the other. Some respondents indicated that wounding reduces the quality of the products, while others indicated that oleo-gum resin resources as natural exudates are enough for their present collection. There was no ownership or use restriction for specific trees, species or vegetation stands in Liban. Like pastorage, none of the identified oleo-gum resins had collection restrictions for members of the clan in Liban. About 96.4% of all the interviewed households were collecting oleo-gum resins mainly for earning cash income. The mean annual collections estimated for gum acacia, frankincense and myrrh per household were 97.3731.2, 40719.4 and 34.5714.3 kg, respectively. The socio-economic survey showed that variation between households depended on family size, social status and the productivity and presence of oleo-gum-resin-producing species in the vegetation near the households. Market demand and product prices in a given year were also mentioned as factors affecting the quantities collected. Only a small proportion of the collected
474
Table 2 Oleo-gum resins currently collected, their source species and purposes of collection in Liban Species
Purposes/uses Type of gum and resin
Average production/ tree(kg.year 17S.D.
Local
International
Acacia Senegal
Hadaad
Gum arabic
3.4 7 2.6
Cash/famine food
Pharmaceutical/food industry/beverages/ textiles/paper/adhesive industries
A. seyal
Jiiq
Talha
4.471.3
Cash
Non-food industries
Boswellia neglecta
Muqlay/Murafur
Frankincense
3.970.9
Cash/fumigation
Incense/perfumery/food and beverage flavoring / pharmaceutical/folk medicine
B. ogadensis
Gended
Frankincense
4.170.9
Cash/famine food/ fumigation
‘‘
Commiphora myrrha
Malmal/molmol
Myrrh
3.571.2
Cash/fumigation/ medicine
Incense/perfurnery/ pharmaceutical/folk medicine/flavoring
C. truncata
Foah
Myrrh
4.171.2
Cash/fumigation/ medicine
‘‘
C. borensis
Murfur
Myrrh
Cash
‘‘
C. africana
Hagar
Hagar
Cash/medicine
Pharmaceutical
— 5.371.7
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Common name (Somali)
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Botanical name
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
475
Table 3 Estimated oleo gum-resins production of the vegetation in Liban Vegetation type
Product type
Production per hectare (kg year 1)
Total production (ton year 1)
Xerophilous woodland
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh Hagar
202.6 442.0 226.3 108.1
87 190 97 47
Mixed woodland thicket
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh Hagar
97.9 62.4 81.6 60.1
91 58 75 55
Acacia bushland thicket
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh Hagar
261.7 120.4 120.5 20.9
23 11 10 18
Acacia seyal woodland
Gum talha
420.4
33
Mixed shrubland
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh
66.6 58.7 377.9
84 74 48
quantity, 2.770.34% on average per household and year, was estimated to be used for household consumption in the form of fumigation of houses, worship places, bad smell removal, medicines to treat human and livestock disease and partly for emergency food during drought. The rest was directly marketed for earning cash income. 3.3. Economic contribution to households Interview results for the estimates of the income generated from the sale of oleogum resins showed an average annual cash income of US$ 80.0727.6 per household, with the corresponding range from US$ 0 1750. The income was estimated to contribute, on average, to 31.9% of the total yearly household subsistence according to the estimates provided by the householders. The small proportion of oleo-gum resins used for household purposes was also estimated to correspond, on average, to 0.7% of the yearly household expenditure. Thus, the total annual economic contribution of oleo-gum resin collection was estimated to be 32.6% per household. 3.4. Oleo-gum resins collection compared to other activities in the household economy The interview results showed that 53.7% of the households interviewed possessed farmlands, 96.6% possessed livestock and 96.4% were involved in oleo-gum resin
ARTICLE IN PRESS 476
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Table 4 Livestock resources of households in Liban Animal type
Average size in animal unit (Mean7S.D.)
Camels Cattle Goats Sheep Donkeys
17.0 712.0 15.5723.6 44.9723.8 26.5711.7 1.370.4
collection. Livestock and oleo-gum resin collection are the dominant occupations. Average herd size per household in animal units is presented in Table 4. The shares of the three activities: animal husbandry, oleo-gum resin collection and crop farming in the household subsistence, as averaged from the estimates provided by the interviewed households, were 55.0724.1%, 32.6722.0% and 12.4715.3%, respectively. These results show that oleo-gum resin collection contributes nearly three- fold more than crop fanning to the livelihood of households living in Liban. 3.5. Other uses of the vegetation and their oleo-gum resins in liban Pastoralism is the dominant mode of life for the people in Liban, and livestock is their principal possession. The vegetation resources supply the dominant part of the fodder requirements of their livestock (Kuchar, 1995). The family of Burseraceae and Mimosaceae are known for their provision of nutritious fodder, and virtually all the Burseraceae are palatable to livestock, particularly in late dry- season (Kuchar, 1988; Farah, 1994). A question was included in the interview for ranking the use of the vegetation resources as rangelands and sources of oleo-gum resins. Majority of the interviewed households (66.2%) indicated rangeland use as the first priority and oleo-gum resins collection as the second priority. Another 30.3% of the respondents indicated both uses as equal first priority. The remaining small percentage ranked gum resins collection as their first priority. Valuable medicinal properties were also attributed to some trees and shrubs of the family Burseraceae. The majority of the community in the study area did not have access to modern medical services. There was only one recently established modern health center located far away in the south-eastern corner, at Dollo odo (Fig. 1), for the entire Liban zone. The interviewed households stressed the long-standing tradition of using some of the trees and shrubs as their major sources of traditional medicines for the treatment of human and domestic animal diseases. Medicinal tree species identified in Liban, parts of the trees used and type of ailments treated are presented in Table 5. Some of the aromatic frankincense and myrrh obtained from the plants was also used for fumigation both in religious and cultural rituals and these resins are therefore highly valued by the people in Liban. They are also used for sanitation purposes such as to dispel bad smells in a house or garments, to cleanse and disinfect
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
477
Table 5 Trees and shrubs with medicinal values in Liban Species
Type of ailment
Parts of the tree used
Commiphora africana
Snake bite Wound Tumor Animal tick control Stomach-ache
Bark, resin and leaf
Commiphora myrrha
Stomach-ache Other various human diseases treatment Disinfections of vessels
Resin
Commiphora sp.
Camel wound treatment
Resin and fruit
Commiphora habessinica
Various treatments
Bark
domestic vessels and to keep away insects such as flies, bees and mosquitoes. Acacia gums, some frankincense and the twigs of one Commiphora spp. are used as food for travelers as well as during famine. Cattle herders and travelers chew the gums like ordinary chewing gum. The woods from the vegetation stands are used for fuel, construction purposes, and for carving household utensils, which are either used in the household or sold.
4. Discussion Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are generally well known worldwide to support many local communities. In India for instance, over 50% of forest revenues and 70% of forest export income comes from NTFPs (Shiva, 1993). A study in Peru showed that extraction of NTFPs for the local market was more profitable than timber harvest (Peters et al., 1989; Balick and Mendelsohn, 1992, 1997). Grimes et al. (1994) reported that revenue generated from NTFPs in Ecuador was significantly greater than the returns from alternative land uses such as agriculture, timber harvesting and cattle ranching. Similarly, the results of our present study show that collection and sale of oleo-gum resins from vegetation in Liban supplied on average US$ 80.00 income per household and year, an income which was three-fold greater than the contribution from crop farming. This income was shown to cover one-third of the pastoral households’ annual subsistence in Liban. The economic incentive provided by the oleo-gum resins could have wider economic and ecological implications for households living in arid and semi-arid lowlands like Liban. It diversifies the economy and potentially minimizes the risks associated with frequent crop and fodder failures as a result of recurring droughts. Generally, the pastoralist and agro-pastoralist economy in Liban and other parts of
ARTICLE IN PRESS 478
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Ethiopia is not able to produce all the food families need for basic subsistence and food shortages are common even during the normal dry seasons (Farah, 1997). As a consequence, households are forced to consume purchased grains at relatively high prices, while selling their livestock at reduced prices since large amounts of livestock are supplied to markets during these dry seasons. One advantage associated with the vegetation resources that yield oleo-gum resins is their ability to produce gum and resins only during dry seasons when forage and grains are scarce (Chickamai and Gachathi, 1994). This could allow the people to be occupied in a meaningful economic activity to earn additional cash, thereby helping them to cope with the problems of high grain yields and falling livestock prices during dry seasons. Moreover, the use of the vegetation resources for extraction of oleo-gum resins could have ecological significance in Liban. Arid and semi-arid lands are generally very vulnerable and soil degradation is easily irreversible (Eden and Parry, 1996). The natural way of protecting arid and semi-arid lands is probably by maintaining their vegetation covers. The non-destructive extraction of oleo-gum resins, therefore, adds a conservation benefit for the protection of arid and semi-arid ecosystems like Liban. This would also mean sustained long-term utilization of the vegetation resources for oleo-gum resin tapping, for other goods and services currently exploited and for other potentially extractable products. 4.1. Oleo-gum-resins-based development opportunity for liban and similar areas Development plans for Ethiopia, including the arid and semi-arid lands, focus on agriculture in the form of crop farming and/or animal husbandry (NCSS, 1993). Little consideration has been given to the contributions of the NTFPs such as oleo-gum resin resources extracted from several indigenous trees and shrubs in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country (EFAP, 1993). Nevertheless, the recurring droughts and frequent crop and fodder failures have made socio-economic developments difficult in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country like Liban. This implies that supplementary options that diversify the economy of the households living in arid areas are imperative. Inclusion of NTFPs, like the oleo-gum resins extracted in Liban, are some of the most viable options. Moreover, livestock production, which supplies the major needs of the pastoral families, heavily depends on the fodder provided from the same vegetation resources that supply the oleo-gum resin resources (Kuchar, 1995). The same vegetation also provides several other goods and services. Above all, it has served as the major source of traditional medicines for treating many kinds of diseases of both human and animals. It provides emergency foods during droughts as well. Thus, the woody vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins have multiple uses and this potential has not been fully utilized. We, therefore, recommend an agroforestry-based approach where these multi-purpose trees/shrubs are integrated wherever possible with food crops, or otherwise with livestock, to exploit the potential of the vegetation resources in the form of dryland forestry and agroforestry.
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
479
4.2. Constraints for development Issues facing the development of these resources are: (1) lack of information on the resource base and its socio-economic significance and (2) policy constraints. 4.2.1. Lack of information Liban in particular and most of the arid areas of Ethiopia with similar vegetation resources exist entirely in drier, less attractive and sparsely populated lowlands far from political centers. Owing to their non-timber values, lower agricultural potential, and lower population density, little effort has been devoted to the vegetation resources in these drier ecosystems (EFAP, 1993). Consequently, little information is available today concerning their species composition, distribution, or actual and potential productions as well as their socio-economic significance for the local community. The results of the present study in Liban could be an important indicator of the potential in the vegetation resources of the vast arid and semi-arid lands of the country. They could also provide a base for extensive studies to explore the opportunities in the vegetation resources for accelerated economic development in drier marginal environments. 4.2.2. Policy issues In line with the current agriculture-based development strategy of the government of Ethiopia (NCSS, 1993), research and development policies for drylands focus on finding drought resistant and early maturing food crops for rain-fed and small-scale irrigations. Although these development efforts are praiseworthy, it must be stressed that water is limiting the potential for plant and animal biomass production even with the best-known techniques in arid lands (Steen, 1994). Moreover, the vulnerability of arid land ecosystems would demand conservation of the vegetation covers for their protection. Therefore, a development strategy that considers the multiple uses of the vegetation resources in arid lands like Liban need to be devised in conjunction with the ongoing development efforts for their sustainable development. Nevertheless, thorough investigation of the vegetation resources will be necessary to gather essential information. Taxonomic identification of the species, tapping and collection trials, quality issues and chemical analyses of the various extracts, studies and development of value-adding processing plants, international and domestic market studies, and agroforestry trials may be some of the topics. These considerations will have positive bearings on the future development of the vast arid lands of Ethiopia including Liban.
5. Conclusions Liban was shown to have large oleo-gum resin resources still to be tapped. The income generated from present collections and sales alone contribute to one-third of the yearly household subsistence. The oleo-gum-resin-based income was also shown to be three-fold greater than the subsistence generated from crop farming. As this
ARTICLE IN PRESS 480
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
income is mainly obtained during dry seasons when households often fall short of subsistence, it plays an essential role in counteracting the high grain prices and falling livestock prices that are a feature of dry seasons in Liban. In general, the vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins provide multiple goods and services to households living in Liban. This study could, therefore, be taken as baseline information for planning further extensive studies of the management of the arid and semi-arid vegetation resources of Liban and similar places in the country and incorporate them in the economic development plans of such marginal areas.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge to the Agricultural Bureau of the SomaliNational Regional States of Ethiopia who initiated and financed the project. Special thanks also to our colleagues Bekele Lemma, Yosef Mamo, Nigussie Achalu and others, who supported us during the survey planning and writing of this manuscript.
References Ahmed, T., 1982. The Swiss, Italian and Finnish markets for Ethiopian gum olibanum. Program for development cooperation. Market Research Report No. 5. The Helsinki School of Economics. Anderson, D.M.W., Eastwood, M.A., 1989. The safety of gum arabic as a food additive and its energy value as an ingredient - a brief review. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 2, 137–144. Anderson, D.M.W., 1993. Some factors influencing the demand for gum arabic (Acacia senegal (L. willd.) and other water-soluble tree exudates. Forest Ecology and Management 58, 1–18. Balick, M., Mendelsohn, R., 1992. The economic value of traditional medicines from tropical rain forests. Conservation Biology 8, 128–130. Balick, M.J., Mendelsohn, R., 1997. Assessing the value of traditional medicines from tropical rainforest. Conservation Biology 6, 128–130. Bradley, P.R., 1992. British Herbal Compendium, Vol. 1. British Herbal Medicine Association, Bournemouth. British Herbal Medicine Association (BHP) 1996. British Herbal pharmacopoeia British Herbal Medicine Association, p. 141. Brown, D., 1995. In: Encyclopedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dk Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 265. Budavari, S. (Ed.), 1996. The Merck Index: An encyclopedia of chemicals, Drugs, and Biological, 12th edition merck & Co, Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ, P. 1086. Chickamai, B., Gachathi, N., 1994. Gum and resin resources in isiolo district, kenya: ethnobotanical and reconnaissance survey. East Africa Agricultural and Forestry Journal 59 (4), 345–351. Clifford, T., 1984. Tibetan Buddhist Medicinal and Psychiatry. Samuel Weiser Inc., York Beach, ME. Coulter, J., 1987. Market study for frankincense ad myrrh from Somalia (unpubl). Study undertaken for the European Association for Cooperation. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. Council of Europe, 1981. Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field: Flavouring Substances and Natural Sources of Flavourings. List N2, no. 150. Editeur Maisonneuve SA, Strasbourg. Deutshes Arzneibuch (DAB), 1997. Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, Stuttgart. Eden, M.J., Parry, JT. 1996. Land Degradation in the Tropics. Environmental and Policy Issues, A Cassell Imprint. Pinter, London/ New York, 285pp. Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP), 1993. Ethiopian Forestry Action Program, Vol. (2). The Challenge for Development. Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection, Addis Ababa.
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
481
Food and Agriculture Organization, (FAO) 1982. Food and Nutrition paper, No. 25. FAO, 1989a. Management of tropical moist forests in Africa. Forestry Paper 88. FAO, Rome. FAO, 1989b Studies on the volume and yield of tropical forest stand; dry forest formation. Forestry Paper 51/1. FAO, Rome. FAO, vol. 1995. Flavours and Fragrances of Plant Origin. Non-wood Forest Products, Vol. 1. FAO, Rome Farah, A.Y., 1994. The milk of the Boswellia forests: frankincense production among the pastoral somali. Department of Social and Economic Geography, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Farah, A.Y., 1997. Impact of Insufficient Dry Season Rain on Nomad Access to Food in the Central Area of the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State. United Nations Development Programme— Emergency Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Fennema, O.R., 1996. Food Chemistry. Marcel Dekker, New York, USA. Ford, R.A., Api, A.M., Letizia, C.S., 1992. Monographs on fragrance raw materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 30 (Suppl.), 1S–138S. Fragrance Foundation, 1983. The Fragrance Foundation Reference Guide. Fragrance Foundation, New York. Getachew, E., 1999. Assessment of fuelwood resources in acacia woodlands in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia: towards the development of planning tools for sustainable management. Doctoral Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Ume(a, Sweden. Goettsch, E., 1991. Traditional aromatic and perfume plants in Central Ethiopia (abotanical and ethnohistorical survey). In: J. Engels, Melaku Werede (Eds.), Plant Genetic resources of Ethiopia. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, UK. Grimes, A., Loomis, S., Jahnige, P., Burnham, M., Onthank, K., Alarcon, R., et al., 1994. Valuing the rain forest: the economic value of none timber forest products in Ecuador. Ambio 23 (7), 405–410. Gupta, I., Parihar, A., Malhotra, P., Gupta, S., Ludtke, R., Safayhi, H., Ammon, H.P.T., 2001. Effects of gum resin of Boswellia serrata in patients with chronic colitis. Planta Medico 67 (5), 391–395. Hall, R.L., Oser, B.L., 1965. Recent progress in the consideration of flavouring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 3. GRAS substances. Food Technology 19, 151–197. Hawando, T., 1997. Desertification in Ethiopian Highlands. RALA Report No. 200. Norwegian Church AID, Addis Ababa Ethiopia. Iwu, M.M., 1990. Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 160-161. Kernick, C.R., 1994. Pharmacopoeial Standards of Herbal Plants, Vol. 1. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, pp.103-104. Kuchar, P., 1988. The Plants of Somalia: An Overview and Checklist. Revised Draft, LBII-USAID, CRDP, Mogadishu, 329pp. Kuchar, P., 1995. Identification and characterization of Boresraceae in the Southeastern Ethiopia. Southeastern Rangelands Project Technical Paper. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 57pp. Leung, A.Y., Foster, S., 1996. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics, 2nd edition. Wiley, New York. Massoud, A., El Sisi, S., Salama, O., Massoud, A., 2001. Preliminary study of therapeutic efficacy of a new fasciolicidal drug derived from commiphora molmol (MYRRH). American Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 65 (2), 6–99. Menout, J.C., Lepage, M., Abbadie, L., 1995. Savannahs, woodlands, and dry forests in Africa. In: Bullock, S.H., Mooney, H.A., Medina, E. (Eds.), Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests. Cambridge, University Press, Cambridge, pp. 61–92. Michie, C.A., Cooper, E., 1991. Frankincense and myrrh as remedies in children. Journal of Royal Society of Medicine 84 (10), 602–605. National Conservation Strategy Secretariat (NCSS), 1993. National Conservation Strategy, Vol.1. National Policy on the Resources Base, its Utilization and Planning for Sustainability. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 131pp. Peters, C., Gentry, A., Mendelsohn, R., 1989. Valuation of an amazonia rainforest. Nature 339, 655–656. Pukkala, T., Pohjonen, V., 1989. Forest inventory and management planning in the fuelwood plantations of Ethiopia. Silva Carelica, Vol. 13. University of Joensuu, Finland.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 482
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Robbins, S.RJ., 1987. A review of recent trends in selected markets for water-soluble gums. UK Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute Bulletin No. 2., VI+108pp. Shiva, M.P., 1993. Solutions to overcome impediments in forest development through MFP based management. Paper presented at the International Seminar on Minor Forest Products in Forestry, 17–18 April, Dehra Dun. Steen, E., 1994. Drylands of the third world: potential for future development (synopsis). Ambio 23, 458–460. Stiles, D., 1988. Arid land plants for economic development and desertification control. Desertification Control Bulletin 17, 18–21. Sugule, J., Walker, R., 1998. Changing pastoralism in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State (Region 5). South East Rangelands Project (SERP). United Nations Development Program, Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Thulin, M., Claeson, P., 1991. The botanical origin of scented myrrh (Bissabol or habak hadi). Economic Botany 45 (4), 487–494. Tilahun, G.M., 1997. Boswellia papyrifera from the Western Tigray. Opportunities, Constraints, and seed germination responses. Ethiopian M.Sc. in Forestry Progamme Thesis Works. Report No. 1996: 12. Skinnskattebergy. Sweden, p. 58. Tucker, O.A., 1986. Frankincense and myrrh. Economic Botany 40, 425–433. United Nations Development Programme–Emergency Unit for Ethiopia (UNDP—EUE), 1997. Emerging Drought Conditions in Southern and South-eastern Ethiopia, A general Synopsis and Overview. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Wahab, S.M.A., Aboutabl, E.A., El-Zalabani, S.M., Fouad, H.A., De Pooter, H.L., El-Fallaha, B., 1987. The essential oil of olibanum. Planta Medica 53 (4), 382–384. White, F., 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. Natural Resources Research, Vol. 20. UNSECO, Paris. pp. 1–356. WHO (Geneva) 1982. Technical Reports Series, No. 683, p. 28. Wichtl, M., Bisset, N.G. (Eds.), 1994. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Medpharm Scientific Publishers, Stuttgart. Yen, K.Y., 1992. The Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica—Crude and Prepared. SMC Publishing Inc., Taipei, p 202.
Gum and resin resources from some Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species and their economic contributions in Liban, south-east Ethiopia Mulugeta Lemeniha,*, Tarekegn Abebea, Mats Olssonb b
a Wondo Genet College of Forestry, P.O. Box 128, Shashamane, Ethiopia Department of Forest Soils, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P. O. Box 7001, SE 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
Received 28 March 2001; received in revised form 17 September 2002; accepted 11 December 2002
Abstract Oleo-gum resins, hardened resinous plant exudates obtained from some Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species in the lowlands of Ethiopia, have been traded for centuries both on the international and domestic markets. However, their economic contribution to the rural households is little documented. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in Liban, one of the administrative zones in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State, to investigate major oleo-gum-resins collected for commerce and their economic contributions to rural households. The results showed that five types of oleo-gum-resins are collected for commerce in Liban. These are gum arabic obtained from Acacia Senegal, gum talha obtained from A. seyal, frankincense obtained from Boswellia neglecta and B. ogadensis, myrrh obtained from Commiphora myrrha (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata and C. borensis and hagar obtained from C. africana. The average annual cash income generated per household was estimated to be US$ 80.00. This income contributes to 32.6% of annual household subsistence, and ranks second after livestock in the overall household livelihood. The contribution from crop farming was estimated to be 12%, which is about one-third of the contribution from oleo-gum resins. These results show that oleo-gum resins obtained from the vegetation resources play a significant role in the economy of rural households in Liban. The vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins also provide various goods and services for the rural households in Liban. Fodder for livestock, traditional medicines for human and livestock disease treatments, incense for fumigation, cultural and religious rituals, and emergency foods during droughts *Corresponding author. Department of Forest Soils, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7001, SE 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Lemenih). 0140-1963/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0140-1963(03)00053-3
ARTICLE IN PRESS 466
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
are among the most common. Opportunities and constraints for oleo-gum-resin-based development in Liban and other similar areas in Ethiopia are discussed. The results could be used as baseline information for evaluating the potential of the arid and semi-arid land vegetation resources of the country, to plan for extensive studies of their management, conservation and proper utilization. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Gum arabic; Gum talha; Frankincense; Myrrh; Economic contribution; Medicinal uses; multiple purpose
1. Introduction Vast areas of land, approx. 620,000 km2, in Ethiopia are arid to semi-arid with a characteristic scant and erratic rainfall National Conservation Strategy Secretariat (NCSS), 1993; Hawando, 1997). In most parts of these arid and semi-arid lands, a single growing season with the early maturing crops is rarely possible (NCSS, 1993; Hawando, 1997). Liban, one of the administrative zones in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State (ESNRS), where this study was carried out, falls within these environments. Owing to of the difficult environmental conditions and low biological productivity, nomadic pastoralism has been the dominant mode of production in Liban (NCSS, 1993; Farah, 1997). However, recurring droughts and fodder failures are severely affecting the performance of livestock and the overall socio-economic development of Liban, as in other arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia (Farah, 1997; Hawando, 1997; Sugule and Walker, 1998). The present agriculture-based development strategy pursued by the Ethiopian government (NCSS, 1993) is one possible option for utilizing the vast arid and semiarid land resources of the country. However, the harsh climatic conditions of arid and semi-arid environments means that strenuous efforts, often with large economic and technical investments, are required to achieve successful agricultural development (Stiles, 1988; Steen, 1994). On the other hand, the woody vegetation resources that are indigenous in Liban and other arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia could provide an additional opportunity for accelerated economic development. The Acacia, Commiphora, Boswellia and many other trees and shrubs in these arid and semi-arid lowlands hold known or potential promise as producers of economically valuable products (Kuchar, 1988; 1995; Stiles, 1988). Oleo-gum resins such as gum arabic, gum talha, frankincense and myrrh are some of the better-known products that are currently used in many industries (Kuchar, 1988; Stiles, 1988; Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP), 1993; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1995; Budavari, 1996). For instance, frankincense and myrrh, hardened resinous exudates obtained from trees of certain Boswellia and Commiphora species, respectively, are important products used in pharmaceutical industries (Michie and Cooper, 1991; Bradley, 1992; Yen, 1992; Kernick, 1994; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994; Brown, 1995; British Herbal Medicine Association, 1996; Leung and Foster, 1996; Deutshes Arzneibuch (DAB), 1997), the food industry (Hall and Oser, 1965; Council
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
467
of Europe, 1981; Tucker, 1986; Ford et al., 1992; FAO, 1995), flavours, liqueurs and beverages (FAO, 1995; Leung and Foster, 1996), cosmetics and perfumery (Fragrance Foundation, 1983; Tucker, 1986; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995), and in the traditional medicines of several countries (Clifford, 1984; Iwu, 1990; Brown, 1995; FAO, 1995; Leung and Foster, 1996; Gupta et al., 2001; Massoud et al, 2001). Frankincense and myrrh are also widely used in unprocessed form for fragrances in many religious rituals, in Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches as well as in the Muslim religion (Coulter, 1987; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Gum arabic obtained from Acacia Senegal is another important article of commerce with various uses in food, beverages, pharmacology, adhesives and cosmetics industries (FAO, 1982; WHO, 1982; Robbins, 1987; Anderson, 1993; Fennema, 1996). Gum talha produced by A. seyal has also wide applications in non-food industries (Anderson and Eastwood, 1989). Oleo-gum resins constitute an integral part of the regional, national and rural economies and have been playing an essential role in earning foreign exchange in the Horn of Africa in general (Ahmed, 1982; Tucker, 1986; Thulin and Claeson, 1991; Farah, 1994; Kuchar, 1995) and in Ethiopia in particular (EFAP, 1993; Tilahun, 1997). For instance, data obtained from the Natural Gum Processing and Marketing Enterprise (NGPME) of Ethiopia indicated that in 1988 alone, 1084.4 ton of natural gums were traded on the domestic market and 663.4 ton were exported. The total value of this trade was estimated to be US$ 1,296,008 (Tilahun, 1997). This is excluding the unrecorded but large volumes of parallel trans-border trades with neighboring countries such as Somali and Kenya. A large volume of the myrrh exported from Somalia is estimated to originate from Ethiopia (Coulter, 1987; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Ethiopia and Somalia are major producers and exporters of frankincense and myrrh today (Coulter, 1987; Wahab et al., 1987; Goettsch, 1991; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Despite the tendency for a decline in the amount of oleo-gum resins sold in the world market over the past 15–20 years (Anderson, 1993; FAO, 1995), there still remains good commercial demand for those resins that meet international quality specifications (Anderson, 1993). Demand for frankincense and myrrh is also still high in Ethiopia for fumigation and religious rituals. The present supply satisfies less than 15% of the domestic demand (Tilahun, 1997). Moreover, the worldwide trend to shift to natural products will likely increase the demands for these natural gumresin resources in the near future (EFAP, 1993; Fennema, 1996). Kuchar (1995) and Stiles (1988) also emphasize that there exists great potential for developing more products through research that would make use of these vegetation-based oleo-gum resins. Therefore, efforts for accelerated economic development in Liban and other similar arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia need to recognize the potential that exists in the vegetation assets in the form of the oleo-gum resin products mentioned above and to incorporate them in the development strategy. Although Ethiopia is one of the main producers and exporters of oleo-gum resins, little has been done to survey the vegetation resources that provide these products, as well as their economic contributions to rural households in the country (EFAP, 1993; NCSS, 1993; Tilahun, 1997; Getachew, 1999). The ESNRS is one of the
ARTICLE IN PRESS 468
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
regions that supply the largest quantity of oleo-gum resins in Ethiopia (Coulter, 1987; Thulin and Claeson, 1991; EFAP, 1993; Kuchar, 1995) including some of the exports from Somalia (Coulter, 1987; Farah, 1994; FAO, 1995). Accordingly, this reconnaissance survey was initiated with the objectives of (1) assessing the existing potential in oleo-gum resin resources in the Liban zone of ESNRS and (2) estimating the current economic contribution of these oleo-gum resins resources to rural households in Liban
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area Liban zone is situated in the south-western part of the ESNRS (Fig. 1) and is located approximately at longitude 39–41 E and latitude 3–4 N. It is an area bordered by the Ganale river to the north and east and the Dawa river to the west and south. About 19,145 km2, corresponding to approx. 95% of the area of Liban, was covered by this reconnaissance survey. Generally, Liban falls within the arid to semi-arid lowlands (areas below 1500 m a.s.l.) of the country (NCSS, 1993), with an altitude ranging from 200 to 1100 m a.s.l. The rainfall is bimodal and occurs from October to November and March to April with two distinct dry periods separating the two rainy seasons. Mean annual rainfall in Liban ranges from 28 to 820 mm, and annual potential evapo-transpiration rates range from 1630 to 2832 mm (Hawando,
Fig. 1. Map of Ethiopian Somali National Regional State and the study area (Liban)
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
469
1997). Mean temperature ranges from 18 C for the coldest months to over 27 C during the hottest months. Population density is generally low, less than 10 persons/ km 2. It is one of the least populated areas in Ethiopia (NCSS, 1993). The ESNRS is inhabited by the Somali ethnic group that is predominantly pastoralist (nomadic and semi-nomadic), herding combinations of camels, cattle, sheep and goats (Farah, 1997). Livestock, which is the principal capital of the society, provides the staple food, milk and meat (EFAP, 1993). Limited opportunistic rain-fed and sporadic cultivations in certain parts where drainage is impeded are also practised. Agro-pastoralism has been increasing since the 1970s in the whole region of ESNRS including Liban (Sugule and Walker, 1998). The major crop grown is sorghum because of its low water demand. Small-scale crop and fruit cultivations based on irrigation are practised in some parts of the region and also along the two rivers that border Liban. The amount and distribution of rainfall is the greatest physical constraint to agricultural production in the arid lowland areas of Ethiopia (NCSS, 1993). Hunger is common to pastoralists of the ESNRS even during normal dry seasons and is due to several factors relating to the weakened conditions of livestock and a scarcity of water and pasture (Farah, 1997). As the nomadic economy in the ESNRS does not produce all the food a family needs for basic subsistence, grains are purchased during the dry seasons with income obtained from cattle sales. Other activities such as collection of frankincense, myrrh and gum acacia as well as firewood and charcoal sales are also widely practised to augment family livelihood (Farah, 1997). Liban is an area with more favorable pasture, vegetation and water resources relative to the other parts of ESNRS (United Nations Development Programme—Emergency Unit for Ethiopia (UNDP—EUE), 1997). The vegetation in Liban generally belongs to the Somali-Masai Acacia–Commiphora deciduous wood-and-bushland formations (White, 1983; Menout et al., 1995). Acacia, Boswellia and Commiphora species that are known to produce economically valuable oleo-gum resins such as gum acacia, frankincense and myrrh are the dominant species (Kuchar, 1988, 1995). Grazing land and vegetation resources in ESNRS including Liban are controlled by clans (Farah, 1997). Inhabitants in Liban are members of the same clan and thus grazing land and vegetation resources are used communally among those in the clan. However, the environment in Liban, which is considered to be particularly fragile, has begun to deteriorate. This is due to overstocking because of the steady influx of people and animals migrating from other parts of ESNRS, Somalia and Northern Kenya when extended droughts occur (UNDP—EUE, 1997). 2.2. Survey methods The aims of the survey were two-fold. The first was to provide baseline information on the existing potential in oleo-gum resin resources in Liban. The second was to investigate the economic contribution of oleo-gum resins collection and the relative importance of this economy compared to other major activities such as animal husbandry and crop farming. Both vegetation and socio-economic surveys were conducted simultaneously using the methods described below.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 470
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
2.2.1. Vegetation survey A vegetation survey was undertaken during the summer of 1997 and 1998. As there was no vegetation map for the area, we used topographic maps of the scale 1:50,000 as a base for sampling. The boundary of the study area was first marked and accessible road networks were identified on the maps. A preliminary vegetation-type classification and mapping was attempted using the Yangambi (FAO, 1989a,b) system of tropical Africa vegetation classification, supplemented by the definitions and classification system given in EFAP document (EFAP, 1993) for the forests and woodlands of Ethiopia. An ocular boundary demarcation technique was used to approximately delineate the boundaries of the vegetation types on the base map (Pukkala and Pohjonen, 1989). Six vegetation types were identified and demarcated. The area covered by each of the vegetation types was computed using dot grids. A total of 29 transects with lengths ranging from 10 to 15 km each were systematically laid perpendicular to the slope on the map of vegetation types. The intention was to cover the variation in vegetation composition that might occur along the altitudinal gradient. A total of 160 rectangular plots, each 300 m2 (30 10 m2), were sampled at approx. every 2 km along the transects in five of the vegetation types. A total of 160 plots, 40 plots each in three of the vegetation types and 20 each in two of the vegetation types were sampled (Table 2). All species of trees and shrubs with DBH >10 cm falling within each plot were counted. Identification of species yielding currently traded oleo-gum resins were carried out with the help of local informants and their local names registered. Botanical names for those species that were identified as yielding oleo-gum resins for commerce were obtained from the identification key prepared by Kuchar (1995). From the plot data, the density (stem number per hectare) for A. Senegal, A. seyal, Boswellia and Commiphora species that were indicated by the informants to produce currently traded oleo-gum resins was calculated for each of the vegetation types. Other species found in the plots were counted as others and no further identification was made. No literature data were found for the estimates of gum, myrrh or frankincense produced per tree and year for Liban, or for the techniques for direct field measurements. Therefore, in the absence of such information, the mean annual production per tree was estimated by asking the selected sample households to provide, from their experience, accurate estimates of the various oleo-gum resins that a tree yields per year in local units. The local unit was a collection bowl made by the collectors. The estimates provided by the respondents for each oleogum resin were correspondingly weighed on a scale balance to 0.5 g precision. The averages of all the estimates provided for each type of oleo-gum resin were used as potential production per tree and year. The average stem number per hectare for each oleo-gum-resin-producing species was multiplied by the average yield per tree and year to obtain the annual harvest for each of the products per hectare. Finally, estimates of per hectare production for each oleo-gum resin were multiplied by the area of each vegetation type to obtain estimated total production for Liban.
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
471
2.2.2. Socio-economic survey A total of 105 households, all pastoral households in the rural areas of Liban, were randomly selected and interviewed. Because of the large area covered by the survey and the sparsely clustered mode of living of the people in the study area, a random cluster type of sampling was used. To select the random points, grids of 4 km2 were laid on a map and the intersections were numbered. Random numbers were drawn to identify the grid corners to be used as starting points. The selected grid comers were approximately located in the field and the four nearest households to the random point were picked. A structured questionnaire survey was used to get the information on the type of oleo-gum resins collected, species from which they are tapped, the collection season, collection method, estimated annual income generated from the sale of oleo-gum resins, the percentage share of the income generated in the household subsistence, the share of other land uses, local or household uses, medicinal values and other relevant socio-economic information. Household interviews were conducted in the local language (Somali) using field staff recruited from the area and trained. Quantitative data from the interview results were statistically analysed. The income from the sales of oleo-gum resins were averaged and converted to US$ using the conversion rate for Ethiopian Birr at the time of the survey (1998).
3. Results 3.1. Vegetation type, species composition and distribution Six vegetation types were identified for the vegetation of Liban (Table 1). However, two of the vegetation types, mixed woodland thicket and xerophilous woodland, predominated. Together they cover about 73% of the area in Liban. One of the six vegetation types identified was a pure community of A. seyal. This species is dominantly found in the wetter foothills that are regularly affected by flash floods. Eight species of trees/shrubs belonging to two families Mimosaceae and Burseraceae were designated by the informants to yield currently traded oleo-gum resins. The species include: A. Senegal, A. seyal, Boswellia neglecta, B. ogadensis, Commiphora myrrh (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata, C. africana, and C. borensis. Stem density of these species for each vegetation type is presented in Table 1. Oleo-gum resin producing species together comprised 62.2% of the total stem density in the xerophilous woodland vegetation type, 62.5% in the mixed woodland thicket vegetation type, 82.5% in the Acacia bushland thicket vegetation type, and 42.4% in the mixed shrubland thicket vegetation type. This shows that oleo-gum resin producing species are dominant in the vegetation of Liban. A. Senegal and C. myrrha are the dominant species among the oleo-gum-resin-producing species in most of the mixed vegetation types. Vegetation formations and species composition slightly varied with altitude. At higher altitudes from 700 to 1100 m a.s.l., dense woodland and bushland thickets of predominantly Acacia spp. occurred. At lower altitudes from 200 to 700 m a.s.l.,
ARTICLE IN PRESS 472
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Table 1 Vegetation types and composition of currently traded oleo-gum resins producing trees and shrubs in Liban (only trees and shrubs with DBH >10.0 cm were considered) Vegetation type
Family
Species
Xerophilous woodland
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
Acacia Senegal
59.6711.9
Boswellia neglecta B. ogadensis Commiphora myrrha/ C.molmol C. truncata C. borensis C. africana Others
36.5721.2 73.179.1 40.3713.4
Area=430,970 ha (n=40)
‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ —
Density (stem number ha 1) (Mean7S.D.)
20.877.8 19.2721.8 20.4712.3 120.0721.2
Mixed woodland thicket Area= 925,5 l0 ha (n=40)
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ —
A. senegal B. neglecta B. ogadensis C. myrrha/C. molmol C. truncata C. borensis C. africana Others
37.3711.8 25.179.7 41.3723.1 17.777.8 22.6723.9 60.1731.2 181.2717.8
Acacia bushland thicket Area= 89,750 ha (n = 39)
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ —
A. Senegal
261.7738.5
B. neglecta B. ogadensis C. myrrha/C. molmol C. truncata C. borensis C. africana Others
63.2724.8 57.2721.5 79.6724.5 22.474.7 18.574.8 20.9710.1 111.17113.8
Acacia seyal woodland Area=80,210 ha (n=21)
Mimosaceae
A. seyal
420.3+23.0
Mixed shrubland Area =126,520 ha (n = 20)
Mimosaceae Burseraceae ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
A. Senegal B. neglecta B. ogadensis C. myrrha/C. molmol C. truncata C. ogadensis Others nd
19.676.7 34.1710.2 24.575.6 65.1716.5 15.672.5 21.078.7 244.373.5
Undifferentiated bushland thicket Area=319,390 ha n=number of sample plots taken; nd=no data.
97.9721.5
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
473
savanna and xerophilic vegetation types predominated, and Commiphora and Boswellia spp. tended to dominate the vegetation composition. The farmers indicated that the quality of gums and resins at lower altitude, with drier climate, was generally higher than at the relatively wetter higher altitudes. Visual observations of the vegetation in Liban during the field survey in comparison with the state of the acacia woodland in the central Rift Valley of Ethiopia indicated the vegetation in Liban is relatively intact. This could probably be due to low population pressure, low agricultural activity and/or due to the remoteness of Liban from major fuelwood consuming towns. 3.2. Extraction ofoleo-gum resins Five types of oleo-gum resins, gum arabic, gum talha, frankincense, myrrh and hagar, are currently collected for commerce from the vegetation of Liban (Table 2). List of species from which these oleo-gum resins are obtained is included in Table 2. The interviews indicated that gum resins obtained from three of the Commiphora species, namely C. myrrha (syn. C. molmol), C. truncata and C. ogadensis, are sold under the name myrrh but separately, while the gum resins collected from the two Boswellia species, B. neglecta and B. ogadensis, are categorized as frankincense and traded mixed. The gums obtained from the two acacia species, A. Senegal and A. seyal, are traded separately. Hagar is an oleo-gum resin obtained from the species of C. africana. A total of 903 ton of oleo-gum resins is estimated to be collected from the vegetation of Liban. Out of this, 209 ton is gum arabica, 266 ton is frankincense, 187 ton is myrrh, 33 ton is gum talha and 208 ton is hagar (Table 3). Collections of all of the oleo-gum resins are performed twice each year, during the two dry seasons. The informants pointed out that dry years generally yield a low quantity but superior quality of oleo-gum resins. Informants’ criteria for quality specifications included color and size of the exudates. Unlike in most oleo-gum resin production systems where wounding forms a major activity, collection is mainly performed on natural exudations for all the oleo-gum resins in Liban, often simultaneously with herding. The response to why they did not use wounding varied from one respondent to the other. Some respondents indicated that wounding reduces the quality of the products, while others indicated that oleo-gum resin resources as natural exudates are enough for their present collection. There was no ownership or use restriction for specific trees, species or vegetation stands in Liban. Like pastorage, none of the identified oleo-gum resins had collection restrictions for members of the clan in Liban. About 96.4% of all the interviewed households were collecting oleo-gum resins mainly for earning cash income. The mean annual collections estimated for gum acacia, frankincense and myrrh per household were 97.3731.2, 40719.4 and 34.5714.3 kg, respectively. The socio-economic survey showed that variation between households depended on family size, social status and the productivity and presence of oleo-gum-resin-producing species in the vegetation near the households. Market demand and product prices in a given year were also mentioned as factors affecting the quantities collected. Only a small proportion of the collected
474
Table 2 Oleo-gum resins currently collected, their source species and purposes of collection in Liban Species
Purposes/uses Type of gum and resin
Average production/ tree(kg.year 17S.D.
Local
International
Acacia Senegal
Hadaad
Gum arabic
3.4 7 2.6
Cash/famine food
Pharmaceutical/food industry/beverages/ textiles/paper/adhesive industries
A. seyal
Jiiq
Talha
4.471.3
Cash
Non-food industries
Boswellia neglecta
Muqlay/Murafur
Frankincense
3.970.9
Cash/fumigation
Incense/perfumery/food and beverage flavoring / pharmaceutical/folk medicine
B. ogadensis
Gended
Frankincense
4.170.9
Cash/famine food/ fumigation
‘‘
Commiphora myrrha
Malmal/molmol
Myrrh
3.571.2
Cash/fumigation/ medicine
Incense/perfurnery/ pharmaceutical/folk medicine/flavoring
C. truncata
Foah
Myrrh
4.171.2
Cash/fumigation/ medicine
‘‘
C. borensis
Murfur
Myrrh
Cash
‘‘
C. africana
Hagar
Hagar
Cash/medicine
Pharmaceutical
— 5.371.7
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Common name (Somali)
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Botanical name
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
475
Table 3 Estimated oleo gum-resins production of the vegetation in Liban Vegetation type
Product type
Production per hectare (kg year 1)
Total production (ton year 1)
Xerophilous woodland
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh Hagar
202.6 442.0 226.3 108.1
87 190 97 47
Mixed woodland thicket
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh Hagar
97.9 62.4 81.6 60.1
91 58 75 55
Acacia bushland thicket
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh Hagar
261.7 120.4 120.5 20.9
23 11 10 18
Acacia seyal woodland
Gum talha
420.4
33
Mixed shrubland
Gum arabic Frankincense Myrrh
66.6 58.7 377.9
84 74 48
quantity, 2.770.34% on average per household and year, was estimated to be used for household consumption in the form of fumigation of houses, worship places, bad smell removal, medicines to treat human and livestock disease and partly for emergency food during drought. The rest was directly marketed for earning cash income. 3.3. Economic contribution to households Interview results for the estimates of the income generated from the sale of oleogum resins showed an average annual cash income of US$ 80.0727.6 per household, with the corresponding range from US$ 0 1750. The income was estimated to contribute, on average, to 31.9% of the total yearly household subsistence according to the estimates provided by the householders. The small proportion of oleo-gum resins used for household purposes was also estimated to correspond, on average, to 0.7% of the yearly household expenditure. Thus, the total annual economic contribution of oleo-gum resin collection was estimated to be 32.6% per household. 3.4. Oleo-gum resins collection compared to other activities in the household economy The interview results showed that 53.7% of the households interviewed possessed farmlands, 96.6% possessed livestock and 96.4% were involved in oleo-gum resin
ARTICLE IN PRESS 476
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Table 4 Livestock resources of households in Liban Animal type
Average size in animal unit (Mean7S.D.)
Camels Cattle Goats Sheep Donkeys
17.0 712.0 15.5723.6 44.9723.8 26.5711.7 1.370.4
collection. Livestock and oleo-gum resin collection are the dominant occupations. Average herd size per household in animal units is presented in Table 4. The shares of the three activities: animal husbandry, oleo-gum resin collection and crop farming in the household subsistence, as averaged from the estimates provided by the interviewed households, were 55.0724.1%, 32.6722.0% and 12.4715.3%, respectively. These results show that oleo-gum resin collection contributes nearly three- fold more than crop fanning to the livelihood of households living in Liban. 3.5. Other uses of the vegetation and their oleo-gum resins in liban Pastoralism is the dominant mode of life for the people in Liban, and livestock is their principal possession. The vegetation resources supply the dominant part of the fodder requirements of their livestock (Kuchar, 1995). The family of Burseraceae and Mimosaceae are known for their provision of nutritious fodder, and virtually all the Burseraceae are palatable to livestock, particularly in late dry- season (Kuchar, 1988; Farah, 1994). A question was included in the interview for ranking the use of the vegetation resources as rangelands and sources of oleo-gum resins. Majority of the interviewed households (66.2%) indicated rangeland use as the first priority and oleo-gum resins collection as the second priority. Another 30.3% of the respondents indicated both uses as equal first priority. The remaining small percentage ranked gum resins collection as their first priority. Valuable medicinal properties were also attributed to some trees and shrubs of the family Burseraceae. The majority of the community in the study area did not have access to modern medical services. There was only one recently established modern health center located far away in the south-eastern corner, at Dollo odo (Fig. 1), for the entire Liban zone. The interviewed households stressed the long-standing tradition of using some of the trees and shrubs as their major sources of traditional medicines for the treatment of human and domestic animal diseases. Medicinal tree species identified in Liban, parts of the trees used and type of ailments treated are presented in Table 5. Some of the aromatic frankincense and myrrh obtained from the plants was also used for fumigation both in religious and cultural rituals and these resins are therefore highly valued by the people in Liban. They are also used for sanitation purposes such as to dispel bad smells in a house or garments, to cleanse and disinfect
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
477
Table 5 Trees and shrubs with medicinal values in Liban Species
Type of ailment
Parts of the tree used
Commiphora africana
Snake bite Wound Tumor Animal tick control Stomach-ache
Bark, resin and leaf
Commiphora myrrha
Stomach-ache Other various human diseases treatment Disinfections of vessels
Resin
Commiphora sp.
Camel wound treatment
Resin and fruit
Commiphora habessinica
Various treatments
Bark
domestic vessels and to keep away insects such as flies, bees and mosquitoes. Acacia gums, some frankincense and the twigs of one Commiphora spp. are used as food for travelers as well as during famine. Cattle herders and travelers chew the gums like ordinary chewing gum. The woods from the vegetation stands are used for fuel, construction purposes, and for carving household utensils, which are either used in the household or sold.
4. Discussion Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are generally well known worldwide to support many local communities. In India for instance, over 50% of forest revenues and 70% of forest export income comes from NTFPs (Shiva, 1993). A study in Peru showed that extraction of NTFPs for the local market was more profitable than timber harvest (Peters et al., 1989; Balick and Mendelsohn, 1992, 1997). Grimes et al. (1994) reported that revenue generated from NTFPs in Ecuador was significantly greater than the returns from alternative land uses such as agriculture, timber harvesting and cattle ranching. Similarly, the results of our present study show that collection and sale of oleo-gum resins from vegetation in Liban supplied on average US$ 80.00 income per household and year, an income which was three-fold greater than the contribution from crop farming. This income was shown to cover one-third of the pastoral households’ annual subsistence in Liban. The economic incentive provided by the oleo-gum resins could have wider economic and ecological implications for households living in arid and semi-arid lowlands like Liban. It diversifies the economy and potentially minimizes the risks associated with frequent crop and fodder failures as a result of recurring droughts. Generally, the pastoralist and agro-pastoralist economy in Liban and other parts of
ARTICLE IN PRESS 478
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Ethiopia is not able to produce all the food families need for basic subsistence and food shortages are common even during the normal dry seasons (Farah, 1997). As a consequence, households are forced to consume purchased grains at relatively high prices, while selling their livestock at reduced prices since large amounts of livestock are supplied to markets during these dry seasons. One advantage associated with the vegetation resources that yield oleo-gum resins is their ability to produce gum and resins only during dry seasons when forage and grains are scarce (Chickamai and Gachathi, 1994). This could allow the people to be occupied in a meaningful economic activity to earn additional cash, thereby helping them to cope with the problems of high grain yields and falling livestock prices during dry seasons. Moreover, the use of the vegetation resources for extraction of oleo-gum resins could have ecological significance in Liban. Arid and semi-arid lands are generally very vulnerable and soil degradation is easily irreversible (Eden and Parry, 1996). The natural way of protecting arid and semi-arid lands is probably by maintaining their vegetation covers. The non-destructive extraction of oleo-gum resins, therefore, adds a conservation benefit for the protection of arid and semi-arid ecosystems like Liban. This would also mean sustained long-term utilization of the vegetation resources for oleo-gum resin tapping, for other goods and services currently exploited and for other potentially extractable products. 4.1. Oleo-gum-resins-based development opportunity for liban and similar areas Development plans for Ethiopia, including the arid and semi-arid lands, focus on agriculture in the form of crop farming and/or animal husbandry (NCSS, 1993). Little consideration has been given to the contributions of the NTFPs such as oleo-gum resin resources extracted from several indigenous trees and shrubs in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country (EFAP, 1993). Nevertheless, the recurring droughts and frequent crop and fodder failures have made socio-economic developments difficult in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country like Liban. This implies that supplementary options that diversify the economy of the households living in arid areas are imperative. Inclusion of NTFPs, like the oleo-gum resins extracted in Liban, are some of the most viable options. Moreover, livestock production, which supplies the major needs of the pastoral families, heavily depends on the fodder provided from the same vegetation resources that supply the oleo-gum resin resources (Kuchar, 1995). The same vegetation also provides several other goods and services. Above all, it has served as the major source of traditional medicines for treating many kinds of diseases of both human and animals. It provides emergency foods during droughts as well. Thus, the woody vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins have multiple uses and this potential has not been fully utilized. We, therefore, recommend an agroforestry-based approach where these multi-purpose trees/shrubs are integrated wherever possible with food crops, or otherwise with livestock, to exploit the potential of the vegetation resources in the form of dryland forestry and agroforestry.
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
479
4.2. Constraints for development Issues facing the development of these resources are: (1) lack of information on the resource base and its socio-economic significance and (2) policy constraints. 4.2.1. Lack of information Liban in particular and most of the arid areas of Ethiopia with similar vegetation resources exist entirely in drier, less attractive and sparsely populated lowlands far from political centers. Owing to their non-timber values, lower agricultural potential, and lower population density, little effort has been devoted to the vegetation resources in these drier ecosystems (EFAP, 1993). Consequently, little information is available today concerning their species composition, distribution, or actual and potential productions as well as their socio-economic significance for the local community. The results of the present study in Liban could be an important indicator of the potential in the vegetation resources of the vast arid and semi-arid lands of the country. They could also provide a base for extensive studies to explore the opportunities in the vegetation resources for accelerated economic development in drier marginal environments. 4.2.2. Policy issues In line with the current agriculture-based development strategy of the government of Ethiopia (NCSS, 1993), research and development policies for drylands focus on finding drought resistant and early maturing food crops for rain-fed and small-scale irrigations. Although these development efforts are praiseworthy, it must be stressed that water is limiting the potential for plant and animal biomass production even with the best-known techniques in arid lands (Steen, 1994). Moreover, the vulnerability of arid land ecosystems would demand conservation of the vegetation covers for their protection. Therefore, a development strategy that considers the multiple uses of the vegetation resources in arid lands like Liban need to be devised in conjunction with the ongoing development efforts for their sustainable development. Nevertheless, thorough investigation of the vegetation resources will be necessary to gather essential information. Taxonomic identification of the species, tapping and collection trials, quality issues and chemical analyses of the various extracts, studies and development of value-adding processing plants, international and domestic market studies, and agroforestry trials may be some of the topics. These considerations will have positive bearings on the future development of the vast arid lands of Ethiopia including Liban.
5. Conclusions Liban was shown to have large oleo-gum resin resources still to be tapped. The income generated from present collections and sales alone contribute to one-third of the yearly household subsistence. The oleo-gum-resin-based income was also shown to be three-fold greater than the subsistence generated from crop farming. As this
ARTICLE IN PRESS 480
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
income is mainly obtained during dry seasons when households often fall short of subsistence, it plays an essential role in counteracting the high grain prices and falling livestock prices that are a feature of dry seasons in Liban. In general, the vegetation resources and their oleo-gum resins provide multiple goods and services to households living in Liban. This study could, therefore, be taken as baseline information for planning further extensive studies of the management of the arid and semi-arid vegetation resources of Liban and similar places in the country and incorporate them in the economic development plans of such marginal areas.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge to the Agricultural Bureau of the SomaliNational Regional States of Ethiopia who initiated and financed the project. Special thanks also to our colleagues Bekele Lemma, Yosef Mamo, Nigussie Achalu and others, who supported us during the survey planning and writing of this manuscript.
References Ahmed, T., 1982. The Swiss, Italian and Finnish markets for Ethiopian gum olibanum. Program for development cooperation. Market Research Report No. 5. The Helsinki School of Economics. Anderson, D.M.W., Eastwood, M.A., 1989. The safety of gum arabic as a food additive and its energy value as an ingredient - a brief review. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 2, 137–144. Anderson, D.M.W., 1993. Some factors influencing the demand for gum arabic (Acacia senegal (L. willd.) and other water-soluble tree exudates. Forest Ecology and Management 58, 1–18. Balick, M., Mendelsohn, R., 1992. The economic value of traditional medicines from tropical rain forests. Conservation Biology 8, 128–130. Balick, M.J., Mendelsohn, R., 1997. Assessing the value of traditional medicines from tropical rainforest. Conservation Biology 6, 128–130. Bradley, P.R., 1992. British Herbal Compendium, Vol. 1. British Herbal Medicine Association, Bournemouth. British Herbal Medicine Association (BHP) 1996. British Herbal pharmacopoeia British Herbal Medicine Association, p. 141. Brown, D., 1995. In: Encyclopedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dk Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 265. Budavari, S. (Ed.), 1996. The Merck Index: An encyclopedia of chemicals, Drugs, and Biological, 12th edition merck & Co, Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ, P. 1086. Chickamai, B., Gachathi, N., 1994. Gum and resin resources in isiolo district, kenya: ethnobotanical and reconnaissance survey. East Africa Agricultural and Forestry Journal 59 (4), 345–351. Clifford, T., 1984. Tibetan Buddhist Medicinal and Psychiatry. Samuel Weiser Inc., York Beach, ME. Coulter, J., 1987. Market study for frankincense ad myrrh from Somalia (unpubl). Study undertaken for the European Association for Cooperation. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. Council of Europe, 1981. Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field: Flavouring Substances and Natural Sources of Flavourings. List N2, no. 150. Editeur Maisonneuve SA, Strasbourg. Deutshes Arzneibuch (DAB), 1997. Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, Stuttgart. Eden, M.J., Parry, JT. 1996. Land Degradation in the Tropics. Environmental and Policy Issues, A Cassell Imprint. Pinter, London/ New York, 285pp. Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP), 1993. Ethiopian Forestry Action Program, Vol. (2). The Challenge for Development. Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection, Addis Ababa.
ARTICLE IN PRESS M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
481
Food and Agriculture Organization, (FAO) 1982. Food and Nutrition paper, No. 25. FAO, 1989a. Management of tropical moist forests in Africa. Forestry Paper 88. FAO, Rome. FAO, 1989b Studies on the volume and yield of tropical forest stand; dry forest formation. Forestry Paper 51/1. FAO, Rome. FAO, vol. 1995. Flavours and Fragrances of Plant Origin. Non-wood Forest Products, Vol. 1. FAO, Rome Farah, A.Y., 1994. The milk of the Boswellia forests: frankincense production among the pastoral somali. Department of Social and Economic Geography, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Farah, A.Y., 1997. Impact of Insufficient Dry Season Rain on Nomad Access to Food in the Central Area of the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State. United Nations Development Programme— Emergency Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Fennema, O.R., 1996. Food Chemistry. Marcel Dekker, New York, USA. Ford, R.A., Api, A.M., Letizia, C.S., 1992. Monographs on fragrance raw materials. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 30 (Suppl.), 1S–138S. Fragrance Foundation, 1983. The Fragrance Foundation Reference Guide. Fragrance Foundation, New York. Getachew, E., 1999. Assessment of fuelwood resources in acacia woodlands in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia: towards the development of planning tools for sustainable management. Doctoral Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Ume(a, Sweden. Goettsch, E., 1991. Traditional aromatic and perfume plants in Central Ethiopia (abotanical and ethnohistorical survey). In: J. Engels, Melaku Werede (Eds.), Plant Genetic resources of Ethiopia. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, UK. Grimes, A., Loomis, S., Jahnige, P., Burnham, M., Onthank, K., Alarcon, R., et al., 1994. Valuing the rain forest: the economic value of none timber forest products in Ecuador. Ambio 23 (7), 405–410. Gupta, I., Parihar, A., Malhotra, P., Gupta, S., Ludtke, R., Safayhi, H., Ammon, H.P.T., 2001. Effects of gum resin of Boswellia serrata in patients with chronic colitis. Planta Medico 67 (5), 391–395. Hall, R.L., Oser, B.L., 1965. Recent progress in the consideration of flavouring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 3. GRAS substances. Food Technology 19, 151–197. Hawando, T., 1997. Desertification in Ethiopian Highlands. RALA Report No. 200. Norwegian Church AID, Addis Ababa Ethiopia. Iwu, M.M., 1990. Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 160-161. Kernick, C.R., 1994. Pharmacopoeial Standards of Herbal Plants, Vol. 1. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, pp.103-104. Kuchar, P., 1988. The Plants of Somalia: An Overview and Checklist. Revised Draft, LBII-USAID, CRDP, Mogadishu, 329pp. Kuchar, P., 1995. Identification and characterization of Boresraceae in the Southeastern Ethiopia. Southeastern Rangelands Project Technical Paper. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 57pp. Leung, A.Y., Foster, S., 1996. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics, 2nd edition. Wiley, New York. Massoud, A., El Sisi, S., Salama, O., Massoud, A., 2001. Preliminary study of therapeutic efficacy of a new fasciolicidal drug derived from commiphora molmol (MYRRH). American Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 65 (2), 6–99. Menout, J.C., Lepage, M., Abbadie, L., 1995. Savannahs, woodlands, and dry forests in Africa. In: Bullock, S.H., Mooney, H.A., Medina, E. (Eds.), Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests. Cambridge, University Press, Cambridge, pp. 61–92. Michie, C.A., Cooper, E., 1991. Frankincense and myrrh as remedies in children. Journal of Royal Society of Medicine 84 (10), 602–605. National Conservation Strategy Secretariat (NCSS), 1993. National Conservation Strategy, Vol.1. National Policy on the Resources Base, its Utilization and Planning for Sustainability. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 131pp. Peters, C., Gentry, A., Mendelsohn, R., 1989. Valuation of an amazonia rainforest. Nature 339, 655–656. Pukkala, T., Pohjonen, V., 1989. Forest inventory and management planning in the fuelwood plantations of Ethiopia. Silva Carelica, Vol. 13. University of Joensuu, Finland.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 482
M. Lemenih et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 55 (2003) 465–482
Robbins, S.RJ., 1987. A review of recent trends in selected markets for water-soluble gums. UK Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute Bulletin No. 2., VI+108pp. Shiva, M.P., 1993. Solutions to overcome impediments in forest development through MFP based management. Paper presented at the International Seminar on Minor Forest Products in Forestry, 17–18 April, Dehra Dun. Steen, E., 1994. Drylands of the third world: potential for future development (synopsis). Ambio 23, 458–460. Stiles, D., 1988. Arid land plants for economic development and desertification control. Desertification Control Bulletin 17, 18–21. Sugule, J., Walker, R., 1998. Changing pastoralism in the Ethiopian Somali National Regional State (Region 5). South East Rangelands Project (SERP). United Nations Development Program, Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Thulin, M., Claeson, P., 1991. The botanical origin of scented myrrh (Bissabol or habak hadi). Economic Botany 45 (4), 487–494. Tilahun, G.M., 1997. Boswellia papyrifera from the Western Tigray. Opportunities, Constraints, and seed germination responses. Ethiopian M.Sc. in Forestry Progamme Thesis Works. Report No. 1996: 12. Skinnskattebergy. Sweden, p. 58. Tucker, O.A., 1986. Frankincense and myrrh. Economic Botany 40, 425–433. United Nations Development Programme–Emergency Unit for Ethiopia (UNDP—EUE), 1997. Emerging Drought Conditions in Southern and South-eastern Ethiopia, A general Synopsis and Overview. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Wahab, S.M.A., Aboutabl, E.A., El-Zalabani, S.M., Fouad, H.A., De Pooter, H.L., El-Fallaha, B., 1987. The essential oil of olibanum. Planta Medica 53 (4), 382–384. White, F., 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. Natural Resources Research, Vol. 20. UNSECO, Paris. pp. 1–356. WHO (Geneva) 1982. Technical Reports Series, No. 683, p. 28. Wichtl, M., Bisset, N.G. (Eds.), 1994. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Medpharm Scientific Publishers, Stuttgart. Yen, K.Y., 1992. The Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica—Crude and Prepared. SMC Publishing Inc., Taipei, p 202.