Health and cosmetics: Investigating consumers’ values for buying organic personal care products

Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163

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Health and cosmetics: Investigating consumers’ values for buying organic personal care products Ezlika Ghazalia, Pat Chen Soonb, Dilip S. Mutumc, Bang Nguyend,

MARK

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a

Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia University Malaya Graduate Business School, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia c Nottingham University Business School, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia d Department of Marketing, East China University of Science and Technology, 200237 Shanghai, China b

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Organic personal care products Re-purchase intention Perceived values Partial least equares Theory of planned behaviour Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA)

In investigating consumers’ intentions to re-purchase organic personal care products (PCP), this study extends the theory of planned behaviour by including perceived value dimensions as the antecedents of attitude in the model. The findings revealed that most of the hypothesised relationships linking the consumer perceived value constructs (namely, health, safety, hedonic and environmental) with attitude towards the rebuying of organic PCP, were supported. Also, better product knowledge about organic PCP would lead to more positive attitudes towards re-purchasing the product. In contrast, social value was not important in predicting attitude. Similarly, the influence of subjective norm on rebuying intention was not supported. In terms of ranking of importance with regards to prediction of re-purchasing intention, attitude was the most important predictor followed by perceived behavioural control, product knowledge, hedonic value, environmental value and safety value.

1. Introduction The market for green and organic cosmetics is expanding globally (Onel, 2016; Raska and Shaw, 2012). The rising health- and go-green consciousness and the growing consumer awareness of the hazards of synthetic chemicals have fuelled the demand for a healthier life style and for organic personal care products (PCP). Organic PCP comprises of skin care, hair care, oral care, colour cosmetics, deodorants, toiletries and feminine hygiene products. They are formulated from agricultural ingredients which are grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, genetically modified organisms or ionizing radiation, making them more desirable among these green consumers (Organic.org, 2016). In the global market, Ecocert, the USDA, the ICEA, the Soil Association, the BDiH, CosmeBio, and the Control Union are the leading organic certification bodies. According to the Organic Monitor (2016), Asian consumers are now also turning to natural and organic cosmetics. In Malaysia, PCP have become part of the urban culture whereby urbanites consume at least one type of item on a daily basis (Davis, 2010). Malaysia's organic cosmetics market is anticipated to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.7% during the forecast period 2014–2020, reaching a value of US$ 533.3 million (FMI, 2015). Considering this sizeable market volume and significant growth, the market for organic PCP

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constitutes an important sector that requires an in-depth investigation. In particular, understanding Malaysian consumers’ decisions behind why they choose to purchase organic PCP has become worthwhile due to the recent trends and transition into a more green cosmetics market (Dutta and Youn, 1999; Nguyen and Rowley, 2015). Previously, the literature on green products have focused mainly on organic foods (e.g. Chen, 2007; Padel and Foster, 2005; Zanoli and Naspetti, 2002; Yadav, 2016). There has been little research on the understanding consumers’ purchasing behaviour with regards to organic personal care products (Cervellon and Carey, 2011; Kim and Chung, 2011). In principle, many analogies exist between consumer choices regarding organic foods and organic PCP (e.g., Lin et al., 2017). Thus, some of the findings from previous studies related organic food produced were utilised as the basis for this study. This study examines Malaysian consumers’ perceptions toward repurchasing organic PCP and seeks to understand the relationship between values, attitudes and behavioural intentions. Based on an extensive review of the literature, the study focuses on the value aspects of health, safety, environment, hedonic value and social value, as well as product knowledge. Focusing on these issues and values relating to organic PCP decision-making ensures a greater understanding of the green consumers that will have both theoretical and practical significance for marketers. The study also expands on Ajzen and Fishbein

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Ghazali), [email protected] (P.C. Soon), [email protected] (D.S. Mutum), [email protected] (B. Nguyen).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.08.002 Received 28 March 2017; Received in revised form 24 June 2017; Accepted 2 August 2017 0969-6989/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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health preservation and improvement of health are among the predominant motives driving organic consumption (Dardak et al., 2009; Xie et al., 2015; Yin et al., 2010). The health aspect of organic consumption is often associated with the absence of chemicals, such as pesticides and chemical-based fertilizers, used in agriculture (Xie et al., 2015). Many consumers feel that organic foods are healthier than conventional products because they are free from pesticides and other chemical residues (Wier et al., 2008). Smith-Spangler et al. (2012) suggested that the consumption of organic products might reduce exposure to pesticide residues and antibioticresistant bacteria that can lead to health risks. Magnusson et al. (2003) also showed that concerns about their own personal and their family health, was the most important factor influencing consumers’ attitude towards organic food. Han and Chung (2014) also found that the perceived health benefits have a significant influence on attitude toward purchasing organic cotton apparels. Thus, it is highly likely that the perceived health value will have similar relationship with repurchase of organic PCP as well and we propose that:

(1980) Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and develops a conceptual model which links perceived values to green consumers’ attitudes, which in turn influences their re-purchase intention. In particular, by investigating the impact of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control on re-purchase intention, the ‘attitude-intention’ framework is tested and validated in the context of organic PCP. In doing so, several theoretical implications arise from the current study. Another important contribution of this study is that it focuses on repurchase intentions as opposed to purchase intentions. In other words, this study examines factors influencing repeat purchase intentions, which may be different from purchasing for the first time. This study is also the first to study the influence of the specific types of consumers’ perceived values, namely, hedonic value, health value, safety value and environmental value, on re-purchase intentions of organic PCP. The study thus extends previous research, for example on organic foods, which showed that concerns regarding health, product safety and environment are key motivators for consumer organic choices. 2. Literature review

H1:. Consumer perception of the health value (HEV) of organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) the products.

2.1. Consumers’ perceived value In the current dynamic marketplace, consumer value has become one of the most vital drivers. According to Holbrook (1884, p.22), “… customer value is the fundamental basis for all marketing activity.” Zeithaml (1988) refers to perceived as a consumer's overall assessment of a product/service based on perception of what is received (benefits) and what is given (costs incurred). It is commonly termed as the ratio or trade-off between quality and price (Liu et al., 2006; Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Customer consumption experiences often involve the interplay of many dimensions of values simultaneously. In influencing consumer choice for instance, Sheth et al. (1991) suggested five dimensions of values (social, emotional, functional, epistemic and conditional value) to adequately capture the cognitive and affective nature of value. Sweeney and Soutar (2001) suggested that consumer assessment of products is not just based on quality and performance, but also takes into account the enjoyment and pleasure derived from the product (emotional value) and the social pressure regarding what the product communicates to others (social value). These value dimensions are often independent from each other as they relate additively and make incremental contributions to consumer choice. They identified four distinct consumer value dimensions (social, emotional, quality/performance and price/value for money) that significantly drive purchase attitude and behaviour. Furthermore, they supported the expectation that if a consumer perceives a product to be valuable, they would be more willing to buy the product at a premium price (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). Chen (2007) claimed that the attitude toward the purchase of a product depends on the perceived consequences such as expectations and personal beliefs of the purchase outcome. Perceived values are important criteria that are employed by a person in making preference judgement and guide the consumers’ choice (Butler et al., 2016; Sheth et al., 1991; Varshneya and Das, 2017). It was found that the interaction between customer and product, and found to be significant in explaining attitudes in post purchase situations (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). As such, this study proposes five consumers’ perceived values with respect to health, safety, social value, hedonism and environment that may influence attitude toward repurchasing organic PCP in which the products are generally viewed as promoting healthy and sustainable lifestyle. These are explained next.

2.1.2. Safety value Scandals regarding product safety have played an important role in driving up the purchase of organic food products (Davis, 2010; Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002). For example, in 2008 the incident of melamine-tainted milk products in China caused death and illness in thousands of children (Xie et al., 2015). Similarly, in the context of PCP, the case of ovarian cancer being linked to the daily use of Johnson's talcum-based baby powder and shower products (Bloomberg, 2016) could alarm consumers into being more cautious of the products that they use daily. Bauer et al. (2013) defined perceived safety value as the degree to which customers feel that the consumption of products is harmless as these are free from synthetic chemical residues. Most consumers perceive organic products to be of superior quality due to the use of natural ingredients without chemical inputs (Midmore et al., 2005). Furthermore, Yin et al. (2010) revealed that 67.5% of respondents’ initial purchase reasons for organic foods were their perceived lack of chemical content. Yeung and Morris (2001) conceptualised that there would be a negative correlation between perception of food safety related risks and purchase behaviour. They believed that consumers would modify their "purchasing decisions in order to relieve perceived risk" (p. 182). Another study in South Korea also revealed a link between food safety and purchase of environment friendly agricultural products (Kim, 2007). It was found that consumers who assessed agricultural products safety negatively were more likely to purchase these products. These perceptions of safety would most likely have an impact on re-purchase of PCP as well. Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2:. Consumer perceptions of the safety value (SFV) of organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) of the products. 2.1.3. Social value Sweeney and Soutar (2001) describe social value as the utility derived from the product's ability to enhance social self-concept. It is measured on a profile of choice imagery (Sheth et al., 1991). According to Grubb and Grathwohl (1967), consumers will engage in behaviour, including making purchases, to obtain a positive reaction from their social peers. A study by Kumar and Ghodeswar (2015) showed a significant relationship between social appeal and green product purchase decisions. It suggested that others’ perceptions about one's behaviour have a considerable influence on green purchasing behaviour. Social appeal is influential in developing consumers’ product preference, as

2.1.1. Health value A study of men's use of grooming products in France revealed that, reducing the ageing process and the maintenance of health were among the factors driving the consumption of these products (Sturrock and Pioch, 1998). Past research has also shown that health benefits such as 155

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knowledge. Subjective knowledge refers to a consumer's self-perception of how much they know about a product or service; objective knowledge relates to the product information that has been stored in consumers’ memories and experience-based knowledge refers to information gained from previous product usage experiences. In the context of organic foods, many studies support the view that product knowledge has a positive influence on consumer attitudes toward such foods and directly determine their decisions or intentions, thus enhancing organic food consumption (Padel and Foster, 2005; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2008). Additionally, Gracia and de Magistris (2008) observed that organic knowledge which can influence attitude will not only increase the likelihood of buying organic foods, but will also increase the level of consumption among existing consumers. Subjective knowledge was found to influence consumers’ choice, as they are inspired to act according to the knowledge they hold (Moorman et al., 2004). In this study, product knowledge refers to consumers’ subjective knowledge of organic PCP and we expect that better product knowledge would lead to more positive attitudes toward the product. Hence, the next hypothesis is proposed as follows:

consumers tend to buy a product that follow society's perceptions. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis as follows: H3:. Consumer perception of the social value (SV) of organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) of the products. 2.1.4. Hedonic value Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) define hedonic consumption as those facets of consumer behaviour, which relate to the multisensory, fantastical and emotive aspects of product usage experience. In other words, hedonic products are viewed not as objectives entities, but to provide experiential consumption, enjoyment and pleasure. They are categorised by sensory gratification and affective experience (Cervellon and Carey, 2014). Chitturi et al. (2008) suggested that products generate positive affective responses when they exceed consumers’ expectation. In the context of food, products provide hedonism if they have a superior taste and offer a holistic enjoyment in terms of the purchase, cooking and consumption experience (Bauer et al., 2013). Zanoli and Naspetti (2002), in their qualitative study looking at Italian consumers’ perception of organic food, suggested that the consumption of organic products is linked to health, which is coupled with implicit values such as well being and hedonic emotions. Arvola et al. (2008) also found that self-rewarding feelings of doing the right thing are significantly linked to the attitude toward organic food purchases. Hedonic properties are considered positive for organic cosmetics (Cervellon and Carey, 2014; Kesari et al., 2016). As such, we expect those consumers who develop a hedonic experience to an organic PCP usage to be more likely to have a positive attitude toward the products. Hence, following hypothesis is proposed:

H6:. Product knowledge (PKN) about organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) of the product. 2.3. Theory of planned behaviour The TPB, developed from Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), is a prevailing theory that explains and reveals the motivational influences on individual behaviour. It has been widely used to predict the behavioural intentions and actual behaviour of a person (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Madden et al., 1992). TPB further expands TRA by considering the factor of PBC, in addition to individual attitude toward performing a particular behaviour and the subjective norms of social pressure with regard to that behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). TPB has been widely applied in the research field of consumer behaviour. In the context of organic products, Arvola et al. (2008) applied TPB in predicting intentions to purchase organic foods and their findings showed that attitudes and subjective norms are able to explain variances in purchase intentions. A study by Vermeir and Verbeke (2008) used TPB to investigate the determinants of sustainable food consumption intentions among young adults in Belgium. They found that about 50% of the variance in consumers’ purchase intention was explained by TPB. Since the current study intends to examine factors influencing the intention to re-purchase organic PCP, TPB is adopted as the basis of the study due to its robustness in predicting consumer behaviour in various studies (Kalafatis et al., 1999). This study extends the model by examining the potential antecedents of attitude as discussed earlier. Next, the three predictors of intention to re-purchase –subjective norms, PBC and attitude, based on TPB are discussed.

H4:. Consumer perception of the hedonic value (HDV) of organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) of the products. 2.1.5. Environmental value According to Boxall et al. (2012), concerns have been raised about the potential negative impact of chemicals in PCP on environmental health, either emitted into the sewerage system following use or released to the environment from manufacturing sites. Organic products are perceived to be environmentally friendlier as compared to the conventional products (Van Loo et al., 2013; Olsen et al., 2012). Past studies have supported the concept that consumers consider environmental benefits when making purchase decisions for eco-friendly products (Bauer et al., 2013; Han and Chung, 2014; Kim and Chung, 2011; Smith and Paladino, 2010). For example, Smith and Paladino (2010) showed that there was a positive relationship between environmental concern and organic attitudes. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: H5:. Consumer perception of the environmental value (EV) of organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward repurchasing (ATT) of the products.

2.3.1. Attitudes towards certain behaviour According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), when a person's attitude towards a particular behaviour is favourable, they are more likely to engage in that behaviour. Few studies have supported the attitude-intention relationship in the context of green and organic consumption. These studies showed that the more favourable the attitudes, the greater the purchase intention (Van Loo et al., 2013; Kim and Chung, 2011; Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005). For example, in their study of Finish consumers using a modified TPB model, Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005), showed that consumers' attitudes could predict intentions to buy organic food. Another study by Van Loo et al. (2013) also showed a positive association between attitudes and the frequency of purchasing and consuming organic yogurt. Therefore, we hypothesise the following relationship between attitude and intention to repurchase organic PCP as follows:

2.2. Product knowledge Product knowledge is a key influencer in the consumer decision making process and purchase of organic products (Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002). Consumers who have high product knowledge rely on intrinsic product characteristics to judge product quality and function. In contrast, consumers with low product knowledge tend to evaluate the product based on its extrinsic cues such as price and brand (Wang and Hwang, 2001). Park et al. (1992) categorises consumers’ product knowledge into subjective knowledge, objective knowledge and experience-based 156

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H7:. The attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) organic PCP will have a significant positive effect on intention to re-purchase (INT) of such product.

Females (82.3%) formed the majority of the respondents, compared to males (17.7%). This concurs with Yiridoe et al. (2005) where women were found to be more health conscious about the implications of chemical residues and preservatives in products. As such, women were likely to consume more organic products. The majority of the respondents were Chinese (62.8%), followed by Malay (28.1%), Indian (5.7%) and others (3.5%). This coincides with the study by Dardak et al. (2009), which revealed that the Chinese purchased and consumed more organic food than other races in Malaysia. The respondents were mostly within the age ranges of 25–34 (36.6%) and 35–40 (33.3%). 57.4% of the respondents were married and 47.3% were single. The majority (50.2%) has a bachelor's degree. In terms of purchase frequency, 32.8% of respondents purchased organic PCP more than four times a year and 32.2% about 1–3 times per year. In addition, 64.7% of purchases were focused on skin care, followed by 43.2% on hair care and 32.8% on body shower gel. In addition to organic PCP, 80.4% of the respondents also purchased organic agricultural products such as fresh produce.

2.3.2. Subjective norms (SN) SN relate to one's perceived social pressure to engage in certain behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). When individuals are within groups, there are rules or norms, or certain beliefs regarding proper consumption behaviour. According to Teng and Wang (2015), consumers tend to have positive purchase intention of a product if they perceive that those important to them have positive attitudes and opinions on such product. Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005) also highlighted the importance of subjective norms in predicting re-purchase intentions. In addition, Griskeicius et al. (2010) highlight that social status was found to be the most important factor influencing environmentally friendly purchases as compared to environmental and financial considerations. Past studies have also identified that SN has a significant positive relationship with organic food purchase intention (Al-Swidi et al., 2014; Chen, 2007; Smith and Paladino, 2010), organic cotton apparel (Han and Chung, 2014) and organic body lotion/ shampoo (Kim and Chung, 2011). Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:

3.2. Measures The items or measures for all the constructs were adapted from previous research (see Table 1). Seven-point Likert scales (1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree) were used to measure each item, except for the attitude (ATT) scale, which was measured via a semantic differential scale. Health value and safety value were measured with 10 items adopted from Bauer et al. (2013). Social value measurement items were derived from Sweeney and Soutar (2001), consisting of five items. Hedonic value was operationalised with eight items from Arvola et al. (2008), while environmental value was measured using five items from Bauer et al. (2013) and Lea and Worsley (2005). Product knowledge was operationalised with five items from Park et al. (1992). Subjective norms were measured via five items from Chen (2007) and Teng and Wang (2015). Perceived behavioural control had five measurement items, which were derived from Chen (2007). Attitude towards re-purchasing organic PCP was measured with five items from Bansal and Taylor (2002). Finally, intention to repurchase organic PCP was measured with eight items, which were derived from Bredahl (2001) and Davidow (2003).

H8:. Subjective norms (SN) will have a significant positive effect on intention to re-purchase (INT) organic PCP. 2.3.3. Perceived behavioural control (PBC) PBC refers to the possession of resources, abilities and opportunities that a person believes je or she has in order to perform a particular behaviour. This factor, compared to a person's attitude toward performing a specific behaviour and SN, not only affects the behavioural intentions but also the actual behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Madden et al. (1992) affirmed that PBC motivates an individual's behavioural intentions, as well as actual behaviour. Prior research has found that PBC significantly influences the purchase intention of organic products (Chen, 2007; Gracia and de Magistris, 2008; Kim and Chung, 2011). Thus, this study assumes that an individual who perceives a higher degree of control will also tend to have stronger intention to re-purchase as well: H9:. Perceived behavioural control will have a significant positive effect on intention to re-purchase organic PCP.

4. Results 4.1. Research model analysis

3. Method In this study, the measurement of the research constructs, both predictors and criteria, relies solely on the perceptual judgment of the same respondent, thus a concern over same-source bias or general method variance may arise. As such, Harman's single-factor test was used to assess Common Method Variance (CMV). CMV occurs if all variables load on one factor or a single factor explaining the majority of the variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). An un-rotated factor analysis of all items showed that the first factor only explained 33% out of the 74% of the variance that was explained by eleven factors (see Appendix A). This was less than 50%, indicating that method variance was not an issue in this study (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The variance-based method Partial Least Square using SmartPLS 3.0 software was employed to analyse the data, following the two-stage analytical procedures recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). In the first stage, the measurement model was evaluated to assess the convergent validity and discriminant validity. Next, the structural model was evaluated to test the hypotheses. A bootstrapping method (5000 resamples) was used to test the significance of outer loadings and

3.1. Sample and data collection As this study focuses on factors influencing consumer attitude and intention to re-purchase organic PCP, participants who had purchased organic PCP within the last 12 months were recruited to complete a questionnaire. A non-probability purposive sampling technique was adopted in this study. Using a self-administered questionnaire, 343 responses were collected from patrons of organic shops and organic events, as well as from members of Malaysian organisations related to green or organic products and sustainable development such as the Centre for Environment, Technology and Development (CETDEM), Organic Alliance Malaysia (OAM) and Green Purchase Network Malaysia (GPNM). Following the process of data preparation, including data entry and data screening for missing values, incomplete observations and outliers, 317 valid responses, which is more than the required sample size of 146,1 were used for the analysis. 1 Gpower software was used to calculate the required sample size. The model had a maximum of 6 predictors (for attitude towards re-purchasing organic PCP). The effect size was set as medium 0.15 and power needed as 0.95, thus the total sample size required

(footnote continued) was 146.

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Table 1 Measurement items and outer loadings. Constructs and (Sources)

Items

Details

Outer Loadings

Health Value (Bauer et al., 2013)

HEV2 HEV3 HEV4 HEV5 SFV1 SFV2 SFV3 SFV5 SV1 SV2 SV3 SV4 SV5 HDV3 HDV4 HDV5 HDV6 HDV7 HDV8 EV2 EV3 EV4 EV5 PKN1 PKN2 PKN3 PKN4 PKN5 SN1 SN2 SN3 SN5 PBC1 PBC2 PBC3 PBC4 PBC5

I believe that organic PCP enable me to live healthily. I am of the view that the use of organic PCP has a health-promoting effect. Organic PCP and a health-conscious lifestyle match well. The use of organic PCP enhances my health. I believe that organic PCP are free of harmful chemical residues. I believe that organic PCP feature high product safety. I believe that organic PCP are safer than conventional PCP. I am of the opinion that organic PCP are not contaminated. Buying organic PCP would help me feel acceptable. Buying organic PCP would improve the way that I am perceived. Buying organic PCP would make a good impression on other people. Buying organic PCP would give the buyer social approval. Buying organic PCP would make people appreciate me more. Buying organic PCP would give me pleasure. Buying organic PCP would feel like doing the morally right thing. Buying organic PCP would make me feel like a better person. The use of organic PCP can affect my well-being positively. I would enjoy using organic PCP. I would feel relaxed using organic PCP. Organic PCP are environmentally friendly products. Organic PCP and environmentalism match well. Organic PCP are better for the environment than conventional PCP. Organic PCP are manufactured in an environmentally responsible way. I know a lot about organic PCP. I have great purchasing experience with organic PCP. I am familiar with organic PCP. I understand the features and benefits of organic PCP. My knowledge about organic PCP is better relative to the people that I know. My family members think it is a good idea for me to buy organic PCP. My friends think I should buy organic PCP. Most people who are important to me think that I should buy organic PCP. People whom I listen to could influence me to buy organic PCP. Whether or not I buy organic PCP is entirely up to me. If organic PCP were available, nothing would prevent me from buying them. I completely have control over the purchase of organic PCP. I have the resources and ability to buy organic PCP. I am confident that if I want organic PCP, I can buy them. For me, buying organic PCP would be ______________. Bad …Good Unbeneficial … Beneficial Undesirable…. Desirable Foolish…Wise Unpleasant…Pleasant I intend to buy organic PCP in the future. I predict that I will buy organic PCP in the future. I hope to buy organic PCP soon. I will probably not purchase organic PCP again.a I will use organic PCP much less in the future.a I will probably switch to non-organic PCP in the future.a Next time I shall need a PCP, I will buy an organic one. If organic PCP are available, I will buy them.

0.750 0.928 0.926 0.920 0.866 0.913 0.738 0.899 0.851 0.723 0.925 0.739 0.930 0.914 0.776 0.937 0.781 0.940 0.914 0.785 0.910 0.915 0.925 0.738 0.875 0.903 0.860 0.829 0.773 0.935 0.935 0.903 0.848 0.780 0.896 0.790 0.830

Safety Value (Bauer et al., 2013)

Social Value (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001)

Hedonic Value (Arvola et al., 2008)

Environmental Value (Bauer et al., 2013; Lea and Worsley, 2005)

Product Knowledge (Park et al., 1992)

Subjective Norms (Chen, 2007; Teng and Wang, 2015)

Perceived Behavioural Control (Chen, 2007)

Attitude Towards Re-Purchasing Organic PCP (Bansal and Taylor, 2002)

Intention to Re-Purchase Organic PCP (Bredahl, 2001; Davidow, 2003)

ATT1 ATT2 ATT3 ATT4 ATT5 INT1 INT2 INT3 INT4 INT5 INT6 INT7 INT8

0.806 0.731 0.882 0.865 0.837 0.806 0.735 0.887 0.822 0.735 0.788 0.815 0.806

Note: PCP = Personal Care Products; HEV1, SFV4, HDV1, HDV2, EV1, SN4 were deleted due to outer loading of lower than 0.708 (Hair et al., 2016). a Denotes reversed score item.

satisfactory convergent validity. Discriminant validity was assessed following Fornell and Larcker (1981). Table 2 shows that all square roots of the AVE (on the diagonals in bold) were greater than correlations between constructs (on the corresponding row and column), suggesting that discriminant validity was achieved since each reflective construct related more strongly to its own indicators than to others. As such, the discriminant validity of the construct measures was well established. The mean and standard deviation of all constructs are also presented in Table 2. Next, the structural model assessment will be discussed.

path coefficients (Hair et al., 2016). 4.2. Measurement model assessment Convergent validity was assessed via Outer Loadings, Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). According to Hair et al. (2016), outer loading reflecting indicator reliability should be higher than 0.708. Table 1 presents all the outer loadings, ranging from 0.723 to 0.940, confirming the reliability of all measurement indicators. All the values of CR were also above the threshold of 0.70 (Chin, 1998). They were in the range of 0.915 and 0.941, demonstrating a high level of internal consistency of items. See Table 2. In addition, all the AVE values exceeded 0.50 (see 2). An AVE value of at least 0.50 indicates that a latent variable is on average able to explain more than half of the variance of its indicators (Hair et al., 2016). Thus, the measurement model achieved an adequate and

4.3. Structural model assessment Hair et al. (2016) suggested an evaluation of the Coefficient of Determination (R2) Beta and corresponding t-values to assess the structural model. Predictive relevance (Q2) and effect size (f2) were also 158

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Table 2 Discriminant validity (Intercorrelations) of constructs.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

ATT EV HDV HEV INT PBC PKN SFV SN SV

Mean

Std. Dev.

CR

AVE

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

4.07 4.62 5.00 5.06 4.65 5.25 4.22 4.26 4.20 5.45

1.33 1.27 1.23 1.15 1.25 1.20 1.31 1.34 1.32 1.17

0.915 0.936 0.941 0.934 0.925 0.917 0.924 0.916 0.938 0.921

0.682 0.785 0.762 0.782 0.640 0.689 0.711 0.734 0.791 0.703

0.826 0.505 0.535 0.512 0.639 0.429 0.503 0.444 0.313 0.439

0.255 0.886 0.563 0.616 0.409 0.479 0.408 0.404 0.291 0.411

0.286 0.317 0.873 0.513 0.350 0.571 0.455 0.422 0.373 0.730

0.262 0.379 0.263 0.884 0.352 0.499 0.421 0.400 0.339 0.440

0.408 0.166 0.123 0.124 0.800 0.376 0.061 0.242 0.172 0.181

0.184 0.229 0.326 0.249 0.141 0.830 0.370 0.344 0.294 0.391

0.253 0.166 0.207 0.177 0.004 0.137 0.843 0.461 0.337 0.429

0.197 0.163 0.178 0.16 0.058 0.118 0.213 0.857 0.615 0.404

0.098 0.085 0.139 0.115 0.03 0.086 0.114 0.378 0.889 0.274

0.193 0.169 0.533 0.194 0.033 0.153 0.184 0.163 0.075 0.839

Note: The diagonals (in bold) represent the square root of AVE. Correlations of the latent constructs are shown in the lower half of the matrix. Shared variances are reported in the upper half of the matrix.

therefore H3 is not supported. Regarding the predictors of intention to re-purchase organic PCP, attitude (ATT) (ß = 0.598, p < 0.05) and perceived behaviour control (PBC) (ß = 0.135, p < 0.05) were all positively related to intention, explaining 42.3% of the variance in intention to re-purchase. Therefore, H7 and H9 are supported. Surprisingly, subjective norms (SN) (ß = −0.055, p > 0.05) showed an insignificant relationship toward intention, thus H8 is not supported. The PLS SEM analysis results are also summarised in the research model in Fig. 1. Effect size (ƒ2) is another important criterion that indicates the impact of a specific independent latent variable (IV) on whether a dependent latent variable (DV) is high, moderate or low, due to the contribution of this specific IV on the R2 of DV. It is calculated as the increase in the R2 value of the latent variable to which the path is connected, relative the latent variable's proportion of unexplained variance (Chin, 1998). A guideline for assessing the values of ƒ2 suggested by Cohen (1988) is that values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 represent small, medium, and large effects, respectively, of the exogenous latent variables. Table 4 depicts the values of ƒ2 and its interpretation. It can be observed that all the relationships except for SV→ATT and SN→INT showed a substantive impact with six relationships of small effect sizes and one relationship of large effect size.

suggested to be added to the basic assessment. Hair et al. (2016) discussed that it is difficult to set a rule of thumb for an acceptable level of R2 value as it depends on the model complexity and the research discipline. The R2 value ranges from 0 to 1 with higher levels indicating higher levels of predictive accuracy. Cohen (1988) suggested that R2 values of 0.26, 0.13, or 0.02 for endogenous latent variables could be respectively described as substantial, moderate, or weak. The R2 values for the endogenous construct as illustrated in Table 3 are 0.439 and 0.423 for attitude (ATT) and intention to re-purchase (INT), respectively. The results show that the overall condition of the endogenous variables in the model is satisfied with the overall model explaining about 42.3% of the variance in INT. The R2 values of ATT and INT were well above 0.26, as suggested by Cohen (1988), indicating a substantial model. In addition to evaluating the magnitude of the R2 values as a criterion for predictive accuracy, Stone-Geisser's Q2 value also needed to be examined via Blindfolding. A value higher than 0 indicates that the exogenous constructs possess predictive relevance for the endogenous construct under consideration Hair et al. (2016). Table 3 illustrates the Q2 value (along with the R2 value) of endogenous constructs, i.e. ATT and INT. The Q2 value was considerably above zero, with 0.294 and 0.264 for ATT and INT, respectively, thus supporting the model's predictive relevance of ATT and INT. Table 4 presents the results of the hypothesis test of this study based on the path coefficient and T statistics. The path coefficients have standardised values between −1 and +1. Estimated path coefficients close to +1 represent strong positive relationships, and vice versa for negative values. The estimated coefficient values close to zero are usually non-significant (Hair et al., 2016). In this step, we considered the significance and relevance of the structural model relationships. Nine hypotheses were tested based on the TPB, i.e. PBC, SN, ATT and INT integrated with other variables such as HEV, SFV, SV, HDV, EV and PKN. In the case of antecedents to attitude, consumers’ health value (HEV) (ß = 0.175, p < 0.05), safety value (SFV) (ß = 0.128, p < 0.05), hedonic value (HDV) (ß = 0.210, p < 0.05), environmental value (EV) (ß = 0.135, p < 0.05) and product knowledge (PKN) (ß = 0.216, p < 0.05) were positively related to attitude, explaining 43.9% of the variance in attitude. Thus, H1, H2, H4, H5 and H6 are supported. However, the result shows that there is no significant relationship between social value (SV) (ß = 0.009, p > 0.05) and attitude (ATT)

4.4. Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) As an extension of the findings, we also assessed the IPMA using intention to re-purchase organic PCP as the target construct. This analysis contrasts the total effects (importance) and the average values of the latent variable scores (performance) in the structural model. To improve the target construct's outcome, priority should be given to the driver constructs with relatively greater importance and relatively lower performance (Hair et al., 2016). Based on the results (see Fig. 2), attitude is observed to be the most critical factor in determining consumer re-purchase intention of organic PCP. An increase of one point in the performance of attitude leads to an increase in the performance of intention to re-purchase by a total effect of 0.604 (ceteris paribus). Perceived behaviour control also has a considerably higher performance but lower importance than attitude. Subjective norms, on the other hand, have little relevance due to its low importance and low performance. As such, managerial activities to increase intention to re-purchase organic PCP should focus on increasing consumers’ positive attitude towards organic PCP. Attention must be given to enhance consumers’ organic PCP product knowledge, perceived hedonic and health benefits as they function as the main precursors to attitude.

Table 3 Results of R2 and Q2 values. Endogenous latent variable

R2

Q2

Interpretation

Attitude toward Re-purchasing (ATT) Intention to Re-purchase (INT)

0.439 0.423

0.294 0.264

substantial substantial

5. Discussion The findings of this study make a theoretical contribution by 159

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Table 4 Hypotheses testing and effect size. Hyp.

Path

Beta

SE

t-value

p-value

Supported

f2

Interpretation

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9

HEV → ATT SFV → ATT SV → ATT HDV → ATT EV → ATT PKN → ATT ATT → INT SN → INT PBC → INT

0.175*** 0.128** 0.009 0.210*** 0.135** 0.216*** 0.598*** −0.055 0.135**

0.066 0.060 0.063 0.073 0.064 0.062 0.054 0.050 0.069

2.639 2.127 0.147 2.882 2.104 3.477 11.164 1.101 1.958

0.004 0.017 0.442 0.002 0.018 0.000 0.000 0.135 0.025

Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes

0.030 0.020 0.000 0.029 0.017 0.056 0.482 0.005 0.024

Small Small – Small Small Small Large – Small

Note: Beta is path coefficient; SE is standard error; f2 is effect size; Path coefficient is significant if t-value greater than 1.645, p < 0.05 one-tailed test. ** P < 0.05. *** P < 0.01.

identifying the types of consumers’ perceived value on organic PCP based on past experience, such as hedonic value, health value, safety value and environmental value have a significant positive effect on consumer attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. The findings extend previous research on organic foods that showed the concerns regarding health, product safety and environment are key motivators for consumer organic choices (Bauer et al., 2013; Dardak et al., 2009; Van Loo et al., 2013). Surprisingly, hedonic value was found to have the strongest influence on attitude compared to health, safety and environmental values. This could be due to the intriguing characteristics of organic PCP, which offer aesthetic and other hedonic qualities. The hedonic responses are based primarily on the symbolic elements of the products rather than on their tangible features, and this is viewed as the essence of the usage experience (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982). The natural

Fig. 2. Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) for Intention to Re-purchase Organic PCP.

Fig. 1. Research Framework and Summary of Result. Note: Path coefficient is significant if t-value greater than 1.645, p < 0.05 one-tailed test. **P < 0.05; ***P < 0.01.

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packaging labels and collateral marketing materials to disseminate product information. Knowledge of a product's benefits and features is important to influence consumer attitude and intention to re-purchase organic PCP. This approach could also entice potential consumers into buying organic PCP. Hedonic value is found to have the strongest influence on attitude compared to other perceived values. As such, marketers could leverage the hedonic benefits of product usage by engaging in emotional appeal advertising to link the products with indulgence to stimulate pleasure and enjoyment. In addition, the consumer desire for pleasure and enjoyment can be met through multi-sensory marketing with the highlight of hedonic properties (smell, texture and visual aspect). For example, the signature scent of a perfume is powerful in shaping perceptions and forging an emotional connection with consumers. On the other hand, consumer perception on the health value and safety value of products can be enhanced if the products are tested and meet toxicity, hypoallergenic and dermatological tests conducted by an accredited laboratory. In terms of environmental value, an increase in the perceived environmental value of a product among consumers can be achieved by participating in corporate social responsibility campaigns or adopting an eco-friendly supply chain process of the product, e.g. reducing its carbon footprint. Biodegradable packaging materials can be used in the product line to minimise the negative impact on the environment.

ingredients used in organic products to signify safety have given consumers a complete peace of mind to enjoy the use of these organic products. When consumers enjoy and are happy using organic PCP, their attitudes toward the products becomes more positive. According to Chitturi et al. (2008) when a product meets or exceeds hedonic criteria, consumers experience excitement and delight and become more loyal. Therefore, it is important to increase the products’ hedonic value, driving positive attitudes, leading to the intention to repurchase. Interestingly, in this collectivistic society, perceived social value did not show any significant effect in predicting attitude in this study. Furthermore, the results also show that subjective norms failed to influence intention to re-purchase organic products, compared to attitude and perceived behavioural, based on the TPB model. This is not consistent with the findings that subjective norms are positively related to purchase intention of organic cotton apparel (Han and Chung, 2014) and organic foods (Chen, 2007; Smith and Paladino, 2010; Teng and Wang, 2015). This could be due to the fact that PCP consumption has a low degree of visibility as compared to clothing and/or foods, thus subjective norms may play a lesser role in purchase behaviour of organic PCP. Generally, the choice of PCP is driven by personal factors and interests rather than those of peers, family members and reference groups. For instance, individuals have different skin types, allergic reactions to certain ingredients and preferences for various product functions such as hydrating, whitening and soothing. In addition, this study is related to re-purchase motivations. In another word, all of the respondents have already used organic PCP and are familiar with the product. As such, the level of influence imposed by reference group such as family, friends and colleague for instance; that usually occurs during the initial purchase choice and decision-making stages would be minimal. As a result, construct related to social pressure in the research model has little or no impact on the re-purchase intention of organic PCP. In addition to the five types of perceived values, this study also integrates product knowledge into the model, which proved to positively influence attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. This result is consistent with research finding that knowledge to be the key influencer in consumer buying behaviour (Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002). The present study confirms that attitude is a strong predictor for repurchase intention of organic PCP. This result is in line with classical attitude-behaviour theory (Azjen, 1991) and previous studies, such as Van Loo et al. (2013), who stated that the attitude toward organic products had a direct, positive and relatively strong relationship with organic consumption.

5.2. Limitations and recommendations This study has some limitations. This study looked at responses collected from two major cities in Malaysia as most consumers of organic products reside mainly in the urban areas. However, it is recommend that future research should collect responses from a wider area of the country. Furthermore, this study focuses on self-rated product knowledge (subjective knowledge). Future studies could incorporate objective knowledge to compare its influence with that of subjective knowledge on the attitude and consumption of organic PCP. Other variables could be integrated into the TPB model to examine the predictive power of consumer organic re-purchase behaviour such as customers’ satisfaction and loyalty. Inhibiting factors such as availability and price (Davies et al., 1995) and the scepticism associated with claims regarding organic products (level of trust) (Teng and Wang, 2015) could also be incorporated into future research. 6. Conclusion

5.1. Managerial implications for social marketers Today's consumers engage in healthier and more sustainable lifestyles. They make greener choices in their purchases. This study provides an integration of the research findings and suggestions for future study on consumer purchase behaviour of organic PCP. It provides valuable insights by confirming that attitude is the most important factor in predicting intention to re-purchase organic PCP compared with PBC and subjective norms based on the TPB. Furthermore, it suggests that product knowledge is a priority, followed by hedonic value, health value, safety value and environmental value, in influencing the attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. This study enables industry practitioners to have a better understanding of consumer purchase behaviour in order to capitalise on the growing interest in organic consumerism. Based on the findings, firms can develop more effective marketing activities focusing on the key influences. It is important for the industry to provide clear and genuine information about the benefits of their organic products and to assure the authenticity of their organic product claims regarding health and safety while satisfying consumer demands and needs. In order to enhance the competence and credibility of the organic PCP sector, it is essential for the National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau to collaborate with organic certification bodies in Malaysia to establish and define

The results of this study have interesting implications for social marketing and the marketing of organic PCP. They can help a firm establish a strong product positioning involving an in-depth understanding of how consumers perceive organic PCP according to four key criteria, which are related to health, safety, hedonism and the environment. To generate interest and a positive attitude toward the organic PCP, marketing efforts should emphasise those activities that can boost consumer perceived value and product knowledge. These have been proven to influence attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP, which in turn influenced intention to re-purchase organic PCP. However, perceived product value should be examined now and then in building customer loyalty and acquiring new health conscious customers. The study also revealed that product knowledge is the main driver for the attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. Marketers should utilise miniature samples as a marketing tool to induce trials. This can be applied when introducing new products or targeting potential consumers. In addition, the goodness and benefits of the products, particularly regarding the aspects of promoting well-being, enjoyment, health and safety, should be emphasised and reinforced on the 161

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criteria for terms regarding organic products, particularly in the aspects of health claims, product safety and environmental-friendliness for the

industry to comply.

Appendix A. Common method variance (CMV)

Total Variance Explained N

Total

% of Variance

Cumulative %

Total

% of Variance

Cumulative %

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

18.294 5.183 3.608 2.991 2.6 1.981 1.588 1.473 1.36 1.237 1.041 0.96 0.878 0.765 0.739 0.687 0.675 0.602 0.578 0.54 0.514 0.488 0.478

32.667 9.256 6.442 5.341 4.644 3.537 2.835 2.631 2.428 2.208 1.86 1.715 1.568 1.367 1.32 1.226 1.206 1.076 1.033 0.965 0.917 0.871 0.853

32.667 41.923 48.365 53.706 58.35 61.887 64.722 67.353 69.781 71.989 73.849 75.564 77.132 78.499 79.819 81.045 82.251 83.326 84.359 85.324 86.241 87.112 87.965

18.294 5.183 3.608 2.991 2.6 1.981 1.588 1.473 1.36 1.237 1.041

32.667 9.256 6.442 5.341 4.644 3.537 2.835 2.631 2.428 2.208 1.86

32.667 41.923 48.365 53.706 58.35 61.887 64.722 67.353 69.781 71.989 73.849

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