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HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION | Ancient Chinese Roses
H HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION Contents
Ancient Chinese Roses European (Pre-1800) Modern (Post-1800) History of the Perfume Industry
Ancient Chinese Roses W Guoliang, Jiangsu Forestry Academy, Dongshanqiao, Nanjing, China # 2003, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
like yuan (garden), pu (nursery) and you (hunting park). In the Chinese language, yuan relates to planting and cultivating trees or fruit trees, pu to vegetables and you to early parks and woods. In addition, there
Introduction It is acknowledged that the rose is one of the four major cultivated ¯owers in the world. Fortunately, the Chinese rose has the same status among native Chinese ¯owers and its cultivation has a long history which can be traced back 2000 years, to the period of the Han Dynasty (141ÿ87 BC), when wild roses were seen everywhere in the gardens of the imperial palace. China is the distribution centre of the genus Rosa. Fossils of rose lea¯ets unearthed in Fushun, Liaoning province (northern China) have proved that the Chinese rose existed at least 40 million years ago (in the Eocene epoch). In 1940, fossils of two kinds of wild rose were discovered in the Shanwang palaeobotanic region of Shandong province, and they were then named Rosa shanwangensis Hu et Chaney (Figure 1), and dated 25 million years old. Since then many archaeological discoveries have been made. Pieces of clay pots engraved with designs of pot plants made 7000 years ago were excavated at the New Stone Age relic site of Yuyao county, Zhejiang province. Some coloured pots and ¯at basins painted with colourful ®ve-petalled ¯owers dating from 3500 BC were unearthed at Dawenkou relics site in Taihu Lake region, Jiangsu Province (Figure 2). In ancient inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells, there are Chinese characters
Figure 1 Wild rose lea¯et fossils preserved in the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Science, which were dug out from the Shanwang palaeobotanic region in Shandong province. Designated Rosa shanwangensis Hu et Chaney: 25 million years old.
388
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
are those before the Xia Dynasty (about 2000ÿ1500 The major artistic achievements of that period included coloured pottery characteristically showing bold design, although coarse rather than delicate. The de®nition of rock paintings, ground paintings and fresco paintings is so rough that plants and ¯owers cannot be de®nitely identi®ed. During the Suitang Dynasty (581ÿ907 AD) the realistic painting genre was established, specializing in painting natural ¯owers and ¯ying birds. During the Five-Dai period (907ÿ960 AD), a group of realistic artists, represented by Huang Jian, recreated the natural beauty of ¯owers and birds. The period of the Northern to Southern Song Dynasty (960ÿ1279 AD) saw the golden prime of the ¯ower and bird paintings when many artists, among whom were Zhao Chang, Cui Bai, Ma Yuan and, even the Emperor, Zhao Ji (1082ÿ1135 AD), recorded the panorama of real beauty of Chinese roses and plants, detailing large, upright, high-centred double ¯owers (Table 1), just as clear and precise as photographs of plants. Literate painting sprang up during the Yuan Dynasty (1271ÿ1368 AD), featuring elegance, re®nement and beauty, re¯ecting the artists' personalities. At that time artists mainly painted plum blossoms, orchids, bamboos and chrysanthemums, while wild rugosa and China roses were occasionally featured. However, from the Ming Dynasty (1368ÿ1644 AD), some famous Chinese artists, such as Qiu Ying and Lu Ji, began to paint more Chinese roses in the ¯ower and bird paintings. So until the Qing Dynasty (1636 AD) there were two parallel styles: antique-imitating and creative. Langsning, an Italian artist who had been greatly appreciated by Emperor Kang Xi (1662ÿ1720 AD), painted, using great technical skill, many large old multiple-petal roses cultivated in the palace gardens (Table 1). As we can see from Table 1, 300 years ago there were red, double wild roses in the frescos of No. 3 Temple in Nuoxiang county, Xinjiang province. Also in the silk painting Guiding Buddha of the Later Tang Dynasty, there were clearly ®ve-petalled wild roses. It is easy to see that large multiple-petalled Chinese roses in ancient Chinese paintings (Northen Song Dynasty, 960ÿ1127 AD) are much the same as their modern cousins. BC).
Figure 2 Ancient painted pottery, preserved in Nanjing Museum, Jiangsu province, which was dug out from Dawendu culture ruins in Taihu, Jiangsju province.
were hua (¯owers), hui (plants), chong (insects) and cao (weeds). However, the ®rst appearance of the phrase hua hui (¯owers and plants) was in Liang History Ð Biography of He Dian, written 1350 years ago. In the Tang Dynasty (618ÿ907 AD), working staff specialized in planting ¯owers and other plants. An eminent poet, Bai Juyi, wrote then: `I bought ¯ower trees to plant them along the hill side of a mount to the east of the city. Any ¯owers will be greatly appreciated.'
The Origin and Evolution of China Roses The origin and evolution of China roses can be traced from ancient books of Chinese paintings, classical poetry and agronomy so that their existence can be proved. Roses in Ancient Flower and Bird Paintings
Old Chinese art can be classi®ed into two periods: prehistoric and posthistoric. The prehistoric paintings
Chinese Roses in Ancient Books
China would still have numerous ancient gardening books if there had not been many wars and riots. Many books have been lost due to careless preservation, among which is the great work Annals of Gardening by Empire Wei, written during the SouthÿNorth Dynasty (420 AD).
AD AD
Unknown
Cui Bai
Zhao Chang
Unknown
Ma Yuan
Qian Xuan
Unknown
Xiao Ron
Ke Jiusi
Xue Chuang
Chen Chun
Qiu Ying
Chen Hongsou
Han Ximen
Li Chan
Guiding Buddha
Peacock and ¯owers
Happy new year
Rose and quail
White roses
Eight ¯owers
One hundred ¯owers
Flowers and birds
Bamboo picture
Orchid and bamboo
Flowers and plants
High-ranking imperial concubine
Return to the ancients
Flowers and birds
China rose AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
Silk painting Silk painting Brocade Silk painting Silk painting Paper painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Brocade Paper painting
1061 960ÿ1127 1127ÿ1279 1127ÿ1280 1239 1301 1271ÿ1368 1271ÿ1369 1271ÿ1370 1368ÿ1644 1368ÿ1645 1368ÿ1646 1368ÿ1647 1738
Fresco Silk painting
BC
Kind of painting
618ÿ907
300
Unknown
Portrait of the youth
Time (year)
Artist
Name of painting
Table 1 Selected Chinese paintings dealing with roses in China
25.2 23.7
24.6 27
41.1 33.8
118 96.9
106 46
126.3 75.2
1679.5 31.5
103 42.9
103.8 51.2
183.1 109.8
85 53.6
Size (cm)
One ¯ower shoots upright; pinkish to red, prickles and shoot very similar to modern rose Three shoots with ®ve ¯owers; double, reddish; like a present-day rose
Planted in parterre; pinkish, double, large ¯owers; a woman pouring water from kettle Five to seven lea¯ets; large ¯owers, pinkish, double, high-centred
Bushy, upright; large ¯owers, pinkish, double; ®ne buds and shoots
Climbing stems; rare lea¯ets and fruits; vertical prickles to stems
Bushy, upright; large ¯owers, double or single; single similar to wild species of China rose. Climbing stems with hooked prickles and fruits; similar to R. cymosa Tratt.
Seven to nine lea¯ets; double ¯owers,easy to identify as R. xanthina L.
Bushy, upright; large ¯owers, double and high-centred; ®ne lea¯ets, shoots, and prickles Seven to nine lea¯ets; large ¯owers, white, double; features similar to R. xanthina L. Branch upright, large ¯owers, double, reddish; similar to China rose
Flowering shoots upright; reddish to red, high-centred; shoots, lea¯ets and ¯owers very similar to present rose Branches upright, large ¯owers, double, mild-centred, like a photo
Six petals, ®ve lea¯ets; red ¯ower with vivid colour
Deep crimson ¯ower, 12 petals, double; no foliage and branches
Main features
390
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
It is worth noting that Chinese Tang poetry is known all over the world. There are many versions which reveal people's interest and enthusiasm in planting Chinese roses, such as the famous poet Jia Dao's `Every family plants roses instead of plum blossoms'; Xu Yin's `It is easy to transplant roses from Hill Yuewangtai' and Shao Chuchang's `We smell a beautiful spring banksia rose just as we have a pretty young lady approaching towards us'. All this explains that, even in the Tang Dynasty, differences between wild rose, rugosa and banksia roses were realized. Tumi (tea rose) and yue yue hong (China rose) appeared in the Chinese poetic prose of the NorthSong Dynasty (960ÿ1279 AD) when the famous poet Yang Wanli highlighted the fact that the China rose blossoms all year round. Tumi is Rosa odorata (Andr.), sweet-smelling, distributed over Sichuan and Yuannan (south-west China) and with three colours of ¯ower: white, yellow and red. According to statistics there are over 30 gardening books of antiquity involving the wild rose and its classi®cation. Among these are Notes on Dwelling on Mount Ping Yuan Shan by Li Deyu, the prime minister of the Middle Tang Dynasty, in which he mentioned Rosa centifolia Lindl, the cabbage rose; Records of Flowers and Plants in Luyang by Zhou Shihou (1082 AD), giving 37 varieties of Chinese roses, for instance, Baoxiang (R. chinensis var. baoxiang), which still exists, today; Dreaming of Liang by Wu Zimu (1127ÿ1279 AD), describing the widespread occurrence of roses over Suzhou and Hangzhou (southeast China); and Manual of Roses by Yu Sou, listing 41 varieties, four of which are excellent ones. During the Ming Dynasty, there were more books on Chinese roses, such as On Chinese Medical Herbs (1596 AD) by Li Shizhen, a famous ancient Chinese doctor; Qun Fang Pu, Lists of Famous Flowers (1621 AD) by Wang Xiangjin, Herbs for Starvation (1640 AD) by Zhu Su, and the Flower Mirror (1688 AD) by Chen Min, which not only records the ordinary characteristics of different roses but also classi®es R. laevigata Michx into three provenances, Shu Zhou, Yi Zhou and Quan Zhou. Up to the Qing Dynasty there had been more books on Chinese roses, for example, Manual of Roses and Roses (by Wang Zongxin, during the Guangxu period). All these books are of signi®cance in the palaeobotanic study of old roses. Moreover, the Japanese Fujiwara-no Teika in Kamakura (1213 AD) mentioned in his book Meigetsuki, written in Chinese, that the Japanese `Koushin Rose' and `Perpetual Flower' were transplanted from China to Japan. They certainly belong to the China rose group, judging by their features of blossoming in every season.
Contributions that Chinese Roses make to World Roses
Fossils of rose leaves have been unearthed at South Park, Colorado, USA and specimens of wild roses were found in Egyptian ancient tombs. Roses with identi®able features that ®rst appeared in European paintings date back to the Renaissance, for instance, in the painting Saints in the roses plantation by Martin Schongauer in 1473, and in the painting Venice in 1864. They can also be found in Fresco with blue bird on Crete and in the Cuneiform Tablets of Mesopotamia. All these historical traces prove the long history of rose cultivation in Europe. However, there is no record of yellow roses or roses blooming in every season. Chinese roses were not introduced to Europe until 1792. After importing different rose species, such as R. odorata, R. rugosa, R. wichurana, `Slater's Crimson China', `Parsons' Pink China', `Hume's Blush Tea-scented China', and `Parks' Yellow Tea-scented China', some new hybrid groups were raised. For example, the hybrid perpetual rose ®rst appeared in 1837. It was hybridized again with a Chinese teascented rose. Finally, the ®rst hybrid tea-scented rose named `La France' was obtained in 1867. World roses have come into the times of modern roses since then. Mikinori Ogisu, a Japanese botanist, once wrote: `Rose is a Chinese ¯ower rather than a European ¯ower'.
Mystery of the Original Species of `Slater's Crimson China'
Is there an original species of `Slater's Crimson China' (yueyuehong in Chinese)? It is an unsolved mystery. It is recorded that three westerners and one Japanese had seen the original species in China. A. Henry (1857ÿ1930) found it for the ®rst time at Yichang, Hubei province, in 1885. During his research, another English botanical collector, E.H. Wilson (1876ÿ1930), came across the original species in the central and northern areas of Sichuan province in 1910. The botanical explorer Joseph Rock (1884ÿ 1962) also found it in Gansu province. Mikinori Ogisu also found the original species in 1983. All of the plants they found, however, belong to R. chinensis Jacq. var. spontanea (Rehd. et Wils.) Yu et Ku. Compared with `Slater's Crimson China', they lack some important properties, such as multiple petals, short cane and repeated ¯owering. From the information mentioned above, it can be concluded that evolution of a wild rose to China rose, when the Tang Dynasty was superseded by the Song Dynasty, is an important qualitative change. There are
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
391
three probable reasons for this evolution. Firstly, when various kinds of wild roses were cultivated on a large scale, the probability of ®nding natural sports greatly increased. The mutant was propagated again, so the genetic pattern tended to be changed. After bud mutation, the new breed was shaped to bloom in every season and fruit infrequently. This is closer to our modern ornamental plants. Secondly, another probability is arti®cial pollination by ancient Chinese gardeners. Thirdly, they may have screened the new breed for particular properties after natural hybridization. All of these factors were likely to happen at that time. There is no denying that the evolution of Chinese roses results from ancient Chinese constant, long-term efforts. With great skill, they cultivated and improved breeds of rose plants. As a result, the mystery of whether or not there was an original species is merely an academic problem.
Present Situation of Chinese Old Roses According to an investigation made by the Chinese Rose Association and my own observations, there still exist many precious Chinese old roses in some areas, such as in Yangzhou and Huiyin, Jiangsu province, Laizhou and Pingyin, Shandong province, Luoyang, Henan province, Kunming, Yunnan province and Kushui, Gansu province (Figures 3ÿ7). From Table 2, it can be seen that Chinese old roses, with their property of disease resistance, are good ornamental plants. They are, therefore, precious breeding resources.
Figure 3 The old rose variety R. multi¯ora `Nanjingfen', climbing, reddish to red, once-¯owering, strong and vigorous, with good resistance to disease.
Distribution and Spread of Rosa Species Plant Resources Throughout the world, there are about 150 naturally occurring species in the rose genus. In China, there are 82 (see Distribution and Ecology: Continental Asia and Japan), and still some new species are waiting to be identi®ed. Plants of the China roses are mainly distributed in the central and south-western parts of China, especially in the roughly triangular area including Shanxi province, Tibet and south-western provinces, centred on the Sichuan basin. That area is the world centre of rose species distribution. Since the nineteenth century, foreign botanical collectors and explorers have come to China and taken away botanical resources. More than 30 rose species have left their native sites and evolved in new habitats (Table 3).
Figure 4 A China rose, called yueyuehong (R. chinensis Jacq.), distributed in north and south parts of China. It has good resistance to cold and is recurrent, bushy and upright.
392
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
Figure 6 An old garden rose, called yipengfen. Charming, pale pink, upright bushy and recurrent-¯owering.
Figure 5 An old rose called fojianxiao (R. odorata var. gigantea (CreÂp.) Rehd. et Wils.). Strongly fragrant, pinkish to red, double, high-centred, climbing, with very strong vigorous shoots and large lea¯ets.
Conclusions and Prospects The history of Chinese civilization extends back for 5000 years. Throughout this history, Chinese ancestors, with respect for nature and affection for plants, cultivated and bred new varieties of plants. Known as the `mother of gardens' in the world, Chinese ancestors have introduced new varieties of roses, world-famous ¯owers, which are sometimes also named the queen of the ¯ower kingdom. Their brilliant technique and knowledge of breeding new plant varieties can be seen from the following evidence. Seven thousand years ago, coloured pottery on which ®ve-petalled ¯owers were painted was fashioned. Two thousand years ago, the Chinese Emperor Hanwudi
Figure 7 A old rose of pure white colour, called baiyutang (R. multi¯ora Thunb. var. alba-plena Yu et Ku). Double-¯owered, borne in clusters, with strong resistance to cold, it is mainly distributed in the northern part of China.
had roses planted at the palace. More than 1000 years ago, there were roses that were bushy, big-¯owered, double and recurrent-blooming. Over 200 years ago, Chinese roses were brought to Europe and began their important new phase of development. At present, the traditional techniques of cultivating rugosa roses have been improved. There have been more than 50 varieties, and many of them have short
Fragrant
Slightly fragrant
Slightly fragrant Fragrant Slightly fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Very fragrant Very fragrant Fragrant Slightly fragrant Slightly fragrant Very fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Very fragrant Slightly fragrant Slightly fragrant Slightly fragrant
Chinese name
Baiyutang
Chilongtuzhu Dafugui Danyunxiyu Ezhangjinbo Feigeliuyun Fojianxiao Jinfenlian Jinoufanlu Mibohuang Nanjingfen Ruanhongxiang Shuangcuiniao Shuimeiren Simianjing Yangchunbaixue Yipengfen Yuelinglong Yueyuehong Yunzhengxiawei Yushizhuang
Deep red Pink to red Pink to red Slightly yellow Yellow to reddish Pinkish to red Slightly pink Slightly pink Yellow Pinkish to red Purple to reddish Green to white Pink Deep red White Pinkish to reddish Pinkish to white Deep red Pink to red Orange to yellow
Pure white
Flower colour
Table 2 A list of Chinese old roses existing in Jiangsu province
35 40 40 50 40 13 60 6 15 35 45 60 50 15 60 100 15 25 45
10 10 15 15 8 10 12 5 8 10 10
20
Petals
11 15 10 5 10 9 12 12
6
Flower diameter (cm)
Climbing, strong resistance to cold; 7ÿ10 ¯owers borne together on short stems; often in Northern China Recurrent; strong, vigorous; resistant to disease Foliage wrinkled; small prickles on main vein; peony-like ¯owers Slim peduncle; many straight prickles on stems Stems spreading; small foliage; bent shoot Calyces like leather; half upright growth; foliage deep green Climbing, very vigorous; once-¯owering, borne on short stems; large foliage Long peduncle with prickles and bristles Reddish spots on petals in autumn; resistant to disease Recurrent; strong, vigorous; resistant to disease Climbing, vigorous, prickles hooked, once-¯owering Rare branching; borne in clusters; foliage wrinkled; strong resistance to disease Petals with waving margins Larger foliage; obviously lateral veins Four-centred ¯owers Flowers high-centred; hooked prickles and small bristles; upright Climbing; once-¯owering; strong resistant to disease Bushy growth; branching in clusters Foliage evergreen; borne on short stem; recurrent ¯owering Branching upright; foliage wrinkled Long peduncle and easily bent; prickles hooked
Other features
394
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses Table 3 A list of Chinese wild roses spread abroad Latin name
Place of origin
Year
Introducer
R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R.
Shanghai Guangdong Western China Southern China Guangdong Tibet Guangdong Guangdong Western China Shichuang Ganshu Western China Western China Western China Southern China Central China Central China Western China Western China Western China Ningbo Shichuang Shichuang Western China Western China Southern China Western China Western China Tibet Western China Western China Western China Eastern China Tibet Tibet Northern China Northern China
1844 1807 1910 1910 1793 1822 1800 1800 1808 1903 1915 1908 1918 1889 1897 1907 1899 1894 1936 1908 1845 1901 1890 1895 1908 1910 1908 1907 1822 1895 1904 1896 1909 1899 1904 1907 1907
R. Fortune William Kerr
anemnifolia Fort. banksiae Ait. banksiopsis Baker bella Rehd. et Wils. bracteata Wendl. brunonii Lindl. chinensis Jacq. chinensis var. minima (Sims) corymbulosa Rolfe davidii CreÂp. farreri Stape ®lipes Rehd. et Wils. forrestiana Boulenger gigantea Collett giraldii CreÂp. helenae Rehd. et Wils. hugonis Hemsl. latibracteata Boulenger moyesii Hemsl. et Wils. multibracteata Hemsl. et Wils. odorata Sweet. omeiensis f. pteracantha Rehd. et Wils. omeiensis Rolfe persetosa Rolfe prattii Hemsl. primula Boulenger roxburghii Tratt. rubus Thunb. sericea Lindl. setipoda Hemsl. et Wils. sinowilsonii Hemsl. soulieana CreÂp. sweginzowii Koehne webbiana Royle willmottiae Hemsl. xanthina f. spontanea Rehd. xanthina Lindl.
stems and bloom every season. Some have very few thorns. There are four main areas for growing rugosa roses in China: Pingyin (Shandong province) Miaofengshan (Beijing), Meishan (Sichuan province) and Kushui (Gansu province). In addition to their traditional ornamental function, roses have been employed in tea-making, wine-making, medicine, diet, drink and perfume (see History of Roses in Cultivation: History of the Perfume Industry. Secondary Metabolites: Culinary Uses and Nutritional Value; Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Uses). Land dedicated to the production of cut roses amounts to 820 hm2, and products have been exported to Japan and SouthEastern Asia. Some research institutions and universities have carried out joint studies on how to protect and apply the resources of rose family plants and old Chinese roses. It can be predicted that the breeding of rose species will come to a new stage in the near future.
George Staunton
E.H. Wilson Reginald Farrer E.H. Wilson
E.H. Wilson A.E. Pratt. Robert Fortune
E.H. Wilson
E.H. Wilson F.N. Meyer
See also: Classi®cation: Conventional Taxonomy (Wild Roses). Distribution and Ecology: Continental Asia and Japan. History Roses in Cultivation: European (Pre-1800); History of the Perfume Industry. Secondary Metabolites: Culinary Uses and Nutritional Value; Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Uses.
Further Reading Len S (1993) Appreciation of the Treasures Preserved in the Imperial Palace, pp. 86ÿ293. Shanghai Science and Technology Press. Qinzhong C (2001) The History of Chinese Painting, pp. 1ÿ242. Zhejiang Education Press. Qixiang Z (ed.) (1999) Famous Flowers in China, pp. 89ÿ104. Yunnan People's Press. Yingkui S (1989) Dictionary of Appreciation of Poetry in Ancient China, pp. 407ÿ558. Jiangsu Science and Technology.
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/European (Pre-1800) Yinglan X (1993) Ancient Flowers and Plants, pp. 119ÿ127. Agricultural Press. Yuwen L and Wenqing H (eds.) (1999) Masterpieces of Chinese Painting Overseas, pp. 27ÿ124. Shanghai Literature Press. Zhongming S (1999) Famous Flowers from Yunnan, pp. 126ÿ135. Yunnan Science and Technology Press.
European (Pre-1800) F Joyaux, Roseraie de la Cour de Commer, Commer, France # 2003, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction We are all aware of the dif®culties of nomenclature presented by nineteenth-century botanical roses and even the horticultural varieties, despite the fact that there is a plethora of literature on the subject. So it is easy to imagine how dif®cult it would be to attempt to go back even further in time. Leaving to one side the roses of Ancient Greece and Rome or the medieval era, about which there is in®nite uncertainty, the roses of the Renaissance and of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are not well known. The nomenclature varies widely from one author to the next and the morphological descriptions are often very basic. Moreover, the wide range of botanical and horticultural roses makes identi®cation dif®cult. Furthermore, the few herbaria which have been conserved from the sixteenth century present only a limited number of species and varieties: before the nineteenth century the rose was not a plant that was judged worthy of scienti®c study. This article considers, with relevant evidence, the origins and history of cultivated roses found in Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
The Contribution of Renaissance Herbaria The oldest conserved herbaria provide us with the ®rst accurate information on which to base our knowledge of roses of the modern era. Thanks to them, we have a fairly accurate idea of at least the species and varieties that were used for medicinal purposes in the sixteenth century; these herbaria were often established by doctors or apothecaries. A very old herbarium, perhaps the oldest in Western Europe, is that of Gherardo Cibo, which is preserved in the Angelica Library in Rome, and which dates from
395
1532ÿ53. In the past the German botanist Penzig studied it, as did Costantino Proietti more recently. Table 1 lists the 17 roses classi®ed by Cibo, as well as the designations proposed by Proietti. Some roses of this herbarium are worthy of comment. First, Rosa moschata Herrm.: Cibo's herbarium seems to have the oldest conserved examples of this rose. We are aware of the great importance of this rose in the genealogy of a number of subsequent varieties (Damask and Noisette roses, for example) and this rose still causes debate today. Let us merely remember that this is a botanical rose, probably from the Middle East (although originating in more eastern regions, such as Persia and north India) and known in the time of the Roman Empire. It was probably lost from sight for centuries, at least in Western and Northern Europe. So its introduction at the very beginning of the sixteenth century, which is duly mentioned in the bibliography, was in all probability really a reintroduction. Rosa lutea Mill., otherwise known as R. foetida (Herrm.) or Yellow Persian rose, is another remarkable rose which features in this herbarium. It is usually considered to have been introduced from Austria into Holland in 1583 by Charles de l'Ecluse, before crossing to England (`Austrian briar'). In fact, as shown by its presence in the herbarium, this rose had been introduced into Europe by the early sixteenth century. (It has even been hypothesized that it was introduced by the Moors to Spain in the thirteenth century.) At the
Table 1 The 17 roses classi®ed by Cibo and designations proposed by C. Proietti Cibo's designation
Proietti's designation
(Not designated) (Not designated) R. alba R. purpurea R. communis R. damascena R. damascena R. sine spinis R. montana R. lutea R. lutea R. sine spinis R. sine spinis Rubus canis montana Rubus canis alius Rubus canis alpina Rubus canis campestris
R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R.
rubiginosa cinnamomea alba var. maxima gallica var. of®cinalis damascena var. bifera moschata var. corneola moschata var. corneola moschata canina foetida foetida
R. R. R. R.
canina canina spinosissima canina
Data from Proietti C (2001) Contributo allo studio delle rose presenti en Italia nel XVI secolo. In: Annuario della Rosa 2001, pp. 35ÿ61. Monza: Associazione Italiana della Rosa. A partial translation into French can be found in Rosa Gallica 13: 28ÿ33 and in Rosa Gallica 14: 37ÿ41.
Ancient Chinese Roses European (Pre-1800) Modern (Post-1800) History of the Perfume Industry
Ancient Chinese Roses W Guoliang, Jiangsu Forestry Academy, Dongshanqiao, Nanjing, China # 2003, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
like yuan (garden), pu (nursery) and you (hunting park). In the Chinese language, yuan relates to planting and cultivating trees or fruit trees, pu to vegetables and you to early parks and woods. In addition, there
Introduction It is acknowledged that the rose is one of the four major cultivated ¯owers in the world. Fortunately, the Chinese rose has the same status among native Chinese ¯owers and its cultivation has a long history which can be traced back 2000 years, to the period of the Han Dynasty (141ÿ87 BC), when wild roses were seen everywhere in the gardens of the imperial palace. China is the distribution centre of the genus Rosa. Fossils of rose lea¯ets unearthed in Fushun, Liaoning province (northern China) have proved that the Chinese rose existed at least 40 million years ago (in the Eocene epoch). In 1940, fossils of two kinds of wild rose were discovered in the Shanwang palaeobotanic region of Shandong province, and they were then named Rosa shanwangensis Hu et Chaney (Figure 1), and dated 25 million years old. Since then many archaeological discoveries have been made. Pieces of clay pots engraved with designs of pot plants made 7000 years ago were excavated at the New Stone Age relic site of Yuyao county, Zhejiang province. Some coloured pots and ¯at basins painted with colourful ®ve-petalled ¯owers dating from 3500 BC were unearthed at Dawenkou relics site in Taihu Lake region, Jiangsu Province (Figure 2). In ancient inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells, there are Chinese characters
Figure 1 Wild rose lea¯et fossils preserved in the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Science, which were dug out from the Shanwang palaeobotanic region in Shandong province. Designated Rosa shanwangensis Hu et Chaney: 25 million years old.
388
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
are those before the Xia Dynasty (about 2000ÿ1500 The major artistic achievements of that period included coloured pottery characteristically showing bold design, although coarse rather than delicate. The de®nition of rock paintings, ground paintings and fresco paintings is so rough that plants and ¯owers cannot be de®nitely identi®ed. During the Suitang Dynasty (581ÿ907 AD) the realistic painting genre was established, specializing in painting natural ¯owers and ¯ying birds. During the Five-Dai period (907ÿ960 AD), a group of realistic artists, represented by Huang Jian, recreated the natural beauty of ¯owers and birds. The period of the Northern to Southern Song Dynasty (960ÿ1279 AD) saw the golden prime of the ¯ower and bird paintings when many artists, among whom were Zhao Chang, Cui Bai, Ma Yuan and, even the Emperor, Zhao Ji (1082ÿ1135 AD), recorded the panorama of real beauty of Chinese roses and plants, detailing large, upright, high-centred double ¯owers (Table 1), just as clear and precise as photographs of plants. Literate painting sprang up during the Yuan Dynasty (1271ÿ1368 AD), featuring elegance, re®nement and beauty, re¯ecting the artists' personalities. At that time artists mainly painted plum blossoms, orchids, bamboos and chrysanthemums, while wild rugosa and China roses were occasionally featured. However, from the Ming Dynasty (1368ÿ1644 AD), some famous Chinese artists, such as Qiu Ying and Lu Ji, began to paint more Chinese roses in the ¯ower and bird paintings. So until the Qing Dynasty (1636 AD) there were two parallel styles: antique-imitating and creative. Langsning, an Italian artist who had been greatly appreciated by Emperor Kang Xi (1662ÿ1720 AD), painted, using great technical skill, many large old multiple-petal roses cultivated in the palace gardens (Table 1). As we can see from Table 1, 300 years ago there were red, double wild roses in the frescos of No. 3 Temple in Nuoxiang county, Xinjiang province. Also in the silk painting Guiding Buddha of the Later Tang Dynasty, there were clearly ®ve-petalled wild roses. It is easy to see that large multiple-petalled Chinese roses in ancient Chinese paintings (Northen Song Dynasty, 960ÿ1127 AD) are much the same as their modern cousins. BC).
Figure 2 Ancient painted pottery, preserved in Nanjing Museum, Jiangsu province, which was dug out from Dawendu culture ruins in Taihu, Jiangsju province.
were hua (¯owers), hui (plants), chong (insects) and cao (weeds). However, the ®rst appearance of the phrase hua hui (¯owers and plants) was in Liang History Ð Biography of He Dian, written 1350 years ago. In the Tang Dynasty (618ÿ907 AD), working staff specialized in planting ¯owers and other plants. An eminent poet, Bai Juyi, wrote then: `I bought ¯ower trees to plant them along the hill side of a mount to the east of the city. Any ¯owers will be greatly appreciated.'
The Origin and Evolution of China Roses The origin and evolution of China roses can be traced from ancient books of Chinese paintings, classical poetry and agronomy so that their existence can be proved. Roses in Ancient Flower and Bird Paintings
Old Chinese art can be classi®ed into two periods: prehistoric and posthistoric. The prehistoric paintings
Chinese Roses in Ancient Books
China would still have numerous ancient gardening books if there had not been many wars and riots. Many books have been lost due to careless preservation, among which is the great work Annals of Gardening by Empire Wei, written during the SouthÿNorth Dynasty (420 AD).
AD AD
Unknown
Cui Bai
Zhao Chang
Unknown
Ma Yuan
Qian Xuan
Unknown
Xiao Ron
Ke Jiusi
Xue Chuang
Chen Chun
Qiu Ying
Chen Hongsou
Han Ximen
Li Chan
Guiding Buddha
Peacock and ¯owers
Happy new year
Rose and quail
White roses
Eight ¯owers
One hundred ¯owers
Flowers and birds
Bamboo picture
Orchid and bamboo
Flowers and plants
High-ranking imperial concubine
Return to the ancients
Flowers and birds
China rose AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
AD
Silk painting Silk painting Brocade Silk painting Silk painting Paper painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Silk painting Brocade Paper painting
1061 960ÿ1127 1127ÿ1279 1127ÿ1280 1239 1301 1271ÿ1368 1271ÿ1369 1271ÿ1370 1368ÿ1644 1368ÿ1645 1368ÿ1646 1368ÿ1647 1738
Fresco Silk painting
BC
Kind of painting
618ÿ907
300
Unknown
Portrait of the youth
Time (year)
Artist
Name of painting
Table 1 Selected Chinese paintings dealing with roses in China
25.2 23.7
24.6 27
41.1 33.8
118 96.9
106 46
126.3 75.2
1679.5 31.5
103 42.9
103.8 51.2
183.1 109.8
85 53.6
Size (cm)
One ¯ower shoots upright; pinkish to red, prickles and shoot very similar to modern rose Three shoots with ®ve ¯owers; double, reddish; like a present-day rose
Planted in parterre; pinkish, double, large ¯owers; a woman pouring water from kettle Five to seven lea¯ets; large ¯owers, pinkish, double, high-centred
Bushy, upright; large ¯owers, pinkish, double; ®ne buds and shoots
Climbing stems; rare lea¯ets and fruits; vertical prickles to stems
Bushy, upright; large ¯owers, double or single; single similar to wild species of China rose. Climbing stems with hooked prickles and fruits; similar to R. cymosa Tratt.
Seven to nine lea¯ets; double ¯owers,easy to identify as R. xanthina L.
Bushy, upright; large ¯owers, double and high-centred; ®ne lea¯ets, shoots, and prickles Seven to nine lea¯ets; large ¯owers, white, double; features similar to R. xanthina L. Branch upright, large ¯owers, double, reddish; similar to China rose
Flowering shoots upright; reddish to red, high-centred; shoots, lea¯ets and ¯owers very similar to present rose Branches upright, large ¯owers, double, mild-centred, like a photo
Six petals, ®ve lea¯ets; red ¯ower with vivid colour
Deep crimson ¯ower, 12 petals, double; no foliage and branches
Main features
390
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
It is worth noting that Chinese Tang poetry is known all over the world. There are many versions which reveal people's interest and enthusiasm in planting Chinese roses, such as the famous poet Jia Dao's `Every family plants roses instead of plum blossoms'; Xu Yin's `It is easy to transplant roses from Hill Yuewangtai' and Shao Chuchang's `We smell a beautiful spring banksia rose just as we have a pretty young lady approaching towards us'. All this explains that, even in the Tang Dynasty, differences between wild rose, rugosa and banksia roses were realized. Tumi (tea rose) and yue yue hong (China rose) appeared in the Chinese poetic prose of the NorthSong Dynasty (960ÿ1279 AD) when the famous poet Yang Wanli highlighted the fact that the China rose blossoms all year round. Tumi is Rosa odorata (Andr.), sweet-smelling, distributed over Sichuan and Yuannan (south-west China) and with three colours of ¯ower: white, yellow and red. According to statistics there are over 30 gardening books of antiquity involving the wild rose and its classi®cation. Among these are Notes on Dwelling on Mount Ping Yuan Shan by Li Deyu, the prime minister of the Middle Tang Dynasty, in which he mentioned Rosa centifolia Lindl, the cabbage rose; Records of Flowers and Plants in Luyang by Zhou Shihou (1082 AD), giving 37 varieties of Chinese roses, for instance, Baoxiang (R. chinensis var. baoxiang), which still exists, today; Dreaming of Liang by Wu Zimu (1127ÿ1279 AD), describing the widespread occurrence of roses over Suzhou and Hangzhou (southeast China); and Manual of Roses by Yu Sou, listing 41 varieties, four of which are excellent ones. During the Ming Dynasty, there were more books on Chinese roses, such as On Chinese Medical Herbs (1596 AD) by Li Shizhen, a famous ancient Chinese doctor; Qun Fang Pu, Lists of Famous Flowers (1621 AD) by Wang Xiangjin, Herbs for Starvation (1640 AD) by Zhu Su, and the Flower Mirror (1688 AD) by Chen Min, which not only records the ordinary characteristics of different roses but also classi®es R. laevigata Michx into three provenances, Shu Zhou, Yi Zhou and Quan Zhou. Up to the Qing Dynasty there had been more books on Chinese roses, for example, Manual of Roses and Roses (by Wang Zongxin, during the Guangxu period). All these books are of signi®cance in the palaeobotanic study of old roses. Moreover, the Japanese Fujiwara-no Teika in Kamakura (1213 AD) mentioned in his book Meigetsuki, written in Chinese, that the Japanese `Koushin Rose' and `Perpetual Flower' were transplanted from China to Japan. They certainly belong to the China rose group, judging by their features of blossoming in every season.
Contributions that Chinese Roses make to World Roses
Fossils of rose leaves have been unearthed at South Park, Colorado, USA and specimens of wild roses were found in Egyptian ancient tombs. Roses with identi®able features that ®rst appeared in European paintings date back to the Renaissance, for instance, in the painting Saints in the roses plantation by Martin Schongauer in 1473, and in the painting Venice in 1864. They can also be found in Fresco with blue bird on Crete and in the Cuneiform Tablets of Mesopotamia. All these historical traces prove the long history of rose cultivation in Europe. However, there is no record of yellow roses or roses blooming in every season. Chinese roses were not introduced to Europe until 1792. After importing different rose species, such as R. odorata, R. rugosa, R. wichurana, `Slater's Crimson China', `Parsons' Pink China', `Hume's Blush Tea-scented China', and `Parks' Yellow Tea-scented China', some new hybrid groups were raised. For example, the hybrid perpetual rose ®rst appeared in 1837. It was hybridized again with a Chinese teascented rose. Finally, the ®rst hybrid tea-scented rose named `La France' was obtained in 1867. World roses have come into the times of modern roses since then. Mikinori Ogisu, a Japanese botanist, once wrote: `Rose is a Chinese ¯ower rather than a European ¯ower'.
Mystery of the Original Species of `Slater's Crimson China'
Is there an original species of `Slater's Crimson China' (yueyuehong in Chinese)? It is an unsolved mystery. It is recorded that three westerners and one Japanese had seen the original species in China. A. Henry (1857ÿ1930) found it for the ®rst time at Yichang, Hubei province, in 1885. During his research, another English botanical collector, E.H. Wilson (1876ÿ1930), came across the original species in the central and northern areas of Sichuan province in 1910. The botanical explorer Joseph Rock (1884ÿ 1962) also found it in Gansu province. Mikinori Ogisu also found the original species in 1983. All of the plants they found, however, belong to R. chinensis Jacq. var. spontanea (Rehd. et Wils.) Yu et Ku. Compared with `Slater's Crimson China', they lack some important properties, such as multiple petals, short cane and repeated ¯owering. From the information mentioned above, it can be concluded that evolution of a wild rose to China rose, when the Tang Dynasty was superseded by the Song Dynasty, is an important qualitative change. There are
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
391
three probable reasons for this evolution. Firstly, when various kinds of wild roses were cultivated on a large scale, the probability of ®nding natural sports greatly increased. The mutant was propagated again, so the genetic pattern tended to be changed. After bud mutation, the new breed was shaped to bloom in every season and fruit infrequently. This is closer to our modern ornamental plants. Secondly, another probability is arti®cial pollination by ancient Chinese gardeners. Thirdly, they may have screened the new breed for particular properties after natural hybridization. All of these factors were likely to happen at that time. There is no denying that the evolution of Chinese roses results from ancient Chinese constant, long-term efforts. With great skill, they cultivated and improved breeds of rose plants. As a result, the mystery of whether or not there was an original species is merely an academic problem.
Present Situation of Chinese Old Roses According to an investigation made by the Chinese Rose Association and my own observations, there still exist many precious Chinese old roses in some areas, such as in Yangzhou and Huiyin, Jiangsu province, Laizhou and Pingyin, Shandong province, Luoyang, Henan province, Kunming, Yunnan province and Kushui, Gansu province (Figures 3ÿ7). From Table 2, it can be seen that Chinese old roses, with their property of disease resistance, are good ornamental plants. They are, therefore, precious breeding resources.
Figure 3 The old rose variety R. multi¯ora `Nanjingfen', climbing, reddish to red, once-¯owering, strong and vigorous, with good resistance to disease.
Distribution and Spread of Rosa Species Plant Resources Throughout the world, there are about 150 naturally occurring species in the rose genus. In China, there are 82 (see Distribution and Ecology: Continental Asia and Japan), and still some new species are waiting to be identi®ed. Plants of the China roses are mainly distributed in the central and south-western parts of China, especially in the roughly triangular area including Shanxi province, Tibet and south-western provinces, centred on the Sichuan basin. That area is the world centre of rose species distribution. Since the nineteenth century, foreign botanical collectors and explorers have come to China and taken away botanical resources. More than 30 rose species have left their native sites and evolved in new habitats (Table 3).
Figure 4 A China rose, called yueyuehong (R. chinensis Jacq.), distributed in north and south parts of China. It has good resistance to cold and is recurrent, bushy and upright.
392
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses
Figure 6 An old garden rose, called yipengfen. Charming, pale pink, upright bushy and recurrent-¯owering.
Figure 5 An old rose called fojianxiao (R. odorata var. gigantea (CreÂp.) Rehd. et Wils.). Strongly fragrant, pinkish to red, double, high-centred, climbing, with very strong vigorous shoots and large lea¯ets.
Conclusions and Prospects The history of Chinese civilization extends back for 5000 years. Throughout this history, Chinese ancestors, with respect for nature and affection for plants, cultivated and bred new varieties of plants. Known as the `mother of gardens' in the world, Chinese ancestors have introduced new varieties of roses, world-famous ¯owers, which are sometimes also named the queen of the ¯ower kingdom. Their brilliant technique and knowledge of breeding new plant varieties can be seen from the following evidence. Seven thousand years ago, coloured pottery on which ®ve-petalled ¯owers were painted was fashioned. Two thousand years ago, the Chinese Emperor Hanwudi
Figure 7 A old rose of pure white colour, called baiyutang (R. multi¯ora Thunb. var. alba-plena Yu et Ku). Double-¯owered, borne in clusters, with strong resistance to cold, it is mainly distributed in the northern part of China.
had roses planted at the palace. More than 1000 years ago, there were roses that were bushy, big-¯owered, double and recurrent-blooming. Over 200 years ago, Chinese roses were brought to Europe and began their important new phase of development. At present, the traditional techniques of cultivating rugosa roses have been improved. There have been more than 50 varieties, and many of them have short
Fragrant
Slightly fragrant
Slightly fragrant Fragrant Slightly fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Very fragrant Very fragrant Fragrant Slightly fragrant Slightly fragrant Very fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Fragrant Very fragrant Slightly fragrant Slightly fragrant Slightly fragrant
Chinese name
Baiyutang
Chilongtuzhu Dafugui Danyunxiyu Ezhangjinbo Feigeliuyun Fojianxiao Jinfenlian Jinoufanlu Mibohuang Nanjingfen Ruanhongxiang Shuangcuiniao Shuimeiren Simianjing Yangchunbaixue Yipengfen Yuelinglong Yueyuehong Yunzhengxiawei Yushizhuang
Deep red Pink to red Pink to red Slightly yellow Yellow to reddish Pinkish to red Slightly pink Slightly pink Yellow Pinkish to red Purple to reddish Green to white Pink Deep red White Pinkish to reddish Pinkish to white Deep red Pink to red Orange to yellow
Pure white
Flower colour
Table 2 A list of Chinese old roses existing in Jiangsu province
35 40 40 50 40 13 60 6 15 35 45 60 50 15 60 100 15 25 45
10 10 15 15 8 10 12 5 8 10 10
20
Petals
11 15 10 5 10 9 12 12
6
Flower diameter (cm)
Climbing, strong resistance to cold; 7ÿ10 ¯owers borne together on short stems; often in Northern China Recurrent; strong, vigorous; resistant to disease Foliage wrinkled; small prickles on main vein; peony-like ¯owers Slim peduncle; many straight prickles on stems Stems spreading; small foliage; bent shoot Calyces like leather; half upright growth; foliage deep green Climbing, very vigorous; once-¯owering, borne on short stems; large foliage Long peduncle with prickles and bristles Reddish spots on petals in autumn; resistant to disease Recurrent; strong, vigorous; resistant to disease Climbing, vigorous, prickles hooked, once-¯owering Rare branching; borne in clusters; foliage wrinkled; strong resistance to disease Petals with waving margins Larger foliage; obviously lateral veins Four-centred ¯owers Flowers high-centred; hooked prickles and small bristles; upright Climbing; once-¯owering; strong resistant to disease Bushy growth; branching in clusters Foliage evergreen; borne on short stem; recurrent ¯owering Branching upright; foliage wrinkled Long peduncle and easily bent; prickles hooked
Other features
394
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/Ancient Chinese Roses Table 3 A list of Chinese wild roses spread abroad Latin name
Place of origin
Year
Introducer
R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R.
Shanghai Guangdong Western China Southern China Guangdong Tibet Guangdong Guangdong Western China Shichuang Ganshu Western China Western China Western China Southern China Central China Central China Western China Western China Western China Ningbo Shichuang Shichuang Western China Western China Southern China Western China Western China Tibet Western China Western China Western China Eastern China Tibet Tibet Northern China Northern China
1844 1807 1910 1910 1793 1822 1800 1800 1808 1903 1915 1908 1918 1889 1897 1907 1899 1894 1936 1908 1845 1901 1890 1895 1908 1910 1908 1907 1822 1895 1904 1896 1909 1899 1904 1907 1907
R. Fortune William Kerr
anemnifolia Fort. banksiae Ait. banksiopsis Baker bella Rehd. et Wils. bracteata Wendl. brunonii Lindl. chinensis Jacq. chinensis var. minima (Sims) corymbulosa Rolfe davidii CreÂp. farreri Stape ®lipes Rehd. et Wils. forrestiana Boulenger gigantea Collett giraldii CreÂp. helenae Rehd. et Wils. hugonis Hemsl. latibracteata Boulenger moyesii Hemsl. et Wils. multibracteata Hemsl. et Wils. odorata Sweet. omeiensis f. pteracantha Rehd. et Wils. omeiensis Rolfe persetosa Rolfe prattii Hemsl. primula Boulenger roxburghii Tratt. rubus Thunb. sericea Lindl. setipoda Hemsl. et Wils. sinowilsonii Hemsl. soulieana CreÂp. sweginzowii Koehne webbiana Royle willmottiae Hemsl. xanthina f. spontanea Rehd. xanthina Lindl.
stems and bloom every season. Some have very few thorns. There are four main areas for growing rugosa roses in China: Pingyin (Shandong province) Miaofengshan (Beijing), Meishan (Sichuan province) and Kushui (Gansu province). In addition to their traditional ornamental function, roses have been employed in tea-making, wine-making, medicine, diet, drink and perfume (see History of Roses in Cultivation: History of the Perfume Industry. Secondary Metabolites: Culinary Uses and Nutritional Value; Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Uses). Land dedicated to the production of cut roses amounts to 820 hm2, and products have been exported to Japan and SouthEastern Asia. Some research institutions and universities have carried out joint studies on how to protect and apply the resources of rose family plants and old Chinese roses. It can be predicted that the breeding of rose species will come to a new stage in the near future.
George Staunton
E.H. Wilson Reginald Farrer E.H. Wilson
E.H. Wilson A.E. Pratt. Robert Fortune
E.H. Wilson
E.H. Wilson F.N. Meyer
See also: Classi®cation: Conventional Taxonomy (Wild Roses). Distribution and Ecology: Continental Asia and Japan. History Roses in Cultivation: European (Pre-1800); History of the Perfume Industry. Secondary Metabolites: Culinary Uses and Nutritional Value; Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Uses.
Further Reading Len S (1993) Appreciation of the Treasures Preserved in the Imperial Palace, pp. 86ÿ293. Shanghai Science and Technology Press. Qinzhong C (2001) The History of Chinese Painting, pp. 1ÿ242. Zhejiang Education Press. Qixiang Z (ed.) (1999) Famous Flowers in China, pp. 89ÿ104. Yunnan People's Press. Yingkui S (1989) Dictionary of Appreciation of Poetry in Ancient China, pp. 407ÿ558. Jiangsu Science and Technology.
HISTORY OF ROSES IN CULTIVATION/European (Pre-1800) Yinglan X (1993) Ancient Flowers and Plants, pp. 119ÿ127. Agricultural Press. Yuwen L and Wenqing H (eds.) (1999) Masterpieces of Chinese Painting Overseas, pp. 27ÿ124. Shanghai Literature Press. Zhongming S (1999) Famous Flowers from Yunnan, pp. 126ÿ135. Yunnan Science and Technology Press.
European (Pre-1800) F Joyaux, Roseraie de la Cour de Commer, Commer, France # 2003, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction We are all aware of the dif®culties of nomenclature presented by nineteenth-century botanical roses and even the horticultural varieties, despite the fact that there is a plethora of literature on the subject. So it is easy to imagine how dif®cult it would be to attempt to go back even further in time. Leaving to one side the roses of Ancient Greece and Rome or the medieval era, about which there is in®nite uncertainty, the roses of the Renaissance and of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are not well known. The nomenclature varies widely from one author to the next and the morphological descriptions are often very basic. Moreover, the wide range of botanical and horticultural roses makes identi®cation dif®cult. Furthermore, the few herbaria which have been conserved from the sixteenth century present only a limited number of species and varieties: before the nineteenth century the rose was not a plant that was judged worthy of scienti®c study. This article considers, with relevant evidence, the origins and history of cultivated roses found in Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.
The Contribution of Renaissance Herbaria The oldest conserved herbaria provide us with the ®rst accurate information on which to base our knowledge of roses of the modern era. Thanks to them, we have a fairly accurate idea of at least the species and varieties that were used for medicinal purposes in the sixteenth century; these herbaria were often established by doctors or apothecaries. A very old herbarium, perhaps the oldest in Western Europe, is that of Gherardo Cibo, which is preserved in the Angelica Library in Rome, and which dates from
395
1532ÿ53. In the past the German botanist Penzig studied it, as did Costantino Proietti more recently. Table 1 lists the 17 roses classi®ed by Cibo, as well as the designations proposed by Proietti. Some roses of this herbarium are worthy of comment. First, Rosa moschata Herrm.: Cibo's herbarium seems to have the oldest conserved examples of this rose. We are aware of the great importance of this rose in the genealogy of a number of subsequent varieties (Damask and Noisette roses, for example) and this rose still causes debate today. Let us merely remember that this is a botanical rose, probably from the Middle East (although originating in more eastern regions, such as Persia and north India) and known in the time of the Roman Empire. It was probably lost from sight for centuries, at least in Western and Northern Europe. So its introduction at the very beginning of the sixteenth century, which is duly mentioned in the bibliography, was in all probability really a reintroduction. Rosa lutea Mill., otherwise known as R. foetida (Herrm.) or Yellow Persian rose, is another remarkable rose which features in this herbarium. It is usually considered to have been introduced from Austria into Holland in 1583 by Charles de l'Ecluse, before crossing to England (`Austrian briar'). In fact, as shown by its presence in the herbarium, this rose had been introduced into Europe by the early sixteenth century. (It has even been hypothesized that it was introduced by the Moors to Spain in the thirteenth century.) At the
Table 1 The 17 roses classi®ed by Cibo and designations proposed by C. Proietti Cibo's designation
Proietti's designation
(Not designated) (Not designated) R. alba R. purpurea R. communis R. damascena R. damascena R. sine spinis R. montana R. lutea R. lutea R. sine spinis R. sine spinis Rubus canis montana Rubus canis alius Rubus canis alpina Rubus canis campestris
R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R.
rubiginosa cinnamomea alba var. maxima gallica var. of®cinalis damascena var. bifera moschata var. corneola moschata var. corneola moschata canina foetida foetida
R. R. R. R.
canina canina spinosissima canina
Data from Proietti C (2001) Contributo allo studio delle rose presenti en Italia nel XVI secolo. In: Annuario della Rosa 2001, pp. 35ÿ61. Monza: Associazione Italiana della Rosa. A partial translation into French can be found in Rosa Gallica 13: 28ÿ33 and in Rosa Gallica 14: 37ÿ41.