HOLES, KNOBS, AND WIRES

763 tions on Mr. Whitbread’s Plan for the Education of the Poor (1807), in which he said that a debt of gratitude was due to the proposer of the Bill, but he feared that as a result of the establishment of these parochial day schools the Sunday schools would suffer. He maintained " that a mere literary education without the inculcation of moral and religious principles would prove highly injurious." Furthermore, the parents, whose children earned one to three shillings per week up to the age of 14, and five shillings per week after this age, were unlikely to forego this money for the sake of the children’s education. Much concerned with the welfare of the children of the Sunday school, he kept a register containing the names of all children who were seeking employment, with particulars concerning their abilities, behaviour, &c., which was open to inspection by prospective employers, because he felt that the welfare of poor children was greatly influenced by their first situations in employment. He was also concerned for the welfare of pauper children of the parish, who were apprenticed to masters and mistresses, not in their own parish, but in neighbouring parishes, lest they should become chargeable in adult life. He reflected that no law existed by which the duties of the employer were defined, nor were any inspectors appointed to visit the children to see the conditions under which they worked. He succeeded in persuading the vestry to appoint some of the trustees as voluntary visitors. Later, visitation by paid inspectors was laid down by Act of Parliament. About this time, Malthus maintained that the earth would not be able to yield enough food to feed the rapidly increasing population. Parkinson thought otherwise, and said " that if the population exceeded the means of support, the fault lay not in nature, but in the ability of politicians to discover some latent defect in the laws respecting the division and appropriation of property." PARKINSON’S DISEASE In 1817 he wrote the Essay on the Shaking Palsy, which has brought him posthumous fame in the medical world. His description of the disease, which now bears his name, has never been bettered, though it has been He considered the cause to be principally expanded. " in the medulla spinalis of the cervical region, its membranes, or the containing theca," and he hoped that some doctor would one day have the opportunity of examining the body of a patient whQ had died from the diseasefor he modestly apologised for the hypothetical nature of his observations on it% pathology. The following extract from the essay is an example of his pleasing

literary style. " The patient experiences much inconvenience, which unhappily is found daily to increase. The submission of the limbs to the direction of the will can hardly ever be obtained in the performance of the most ordinary offices of life. The fingers cannot be disposed of in the proposed directions, and applied with certainty to any proposed point. As time and the disease proceed, difficulties increase ; writing can now be hardly at all accomplished, and reading, from the tremulous motion, is accomplished with some difficulty. Whilst at meals the fork, not being duly directed, frequently fails to raise the morsel from the

plate ; which, when seized, is with much

difficulty conveyed to the mouth. At this period the patient seldom experiences a suspension of thp agitation of the limbs. Commencing, for instance, in one arm, the wearisome agitation is borne until beyond sufferance, when, by suddenly changing the posture, it is for a time stopped in that limb, to commence, generally, in less than a minute in one of the legs, or in the arm of the other side. Harassed by this tormenting round, the patient has recourse to walking, a mode of exercise to which the sufferers from this malady, are in general partial; owing to their attention being thereby somewhat diverted from their unpleasant feelings, by the care and exertion required to ensure its safe performance." LAST YEARS

It has been said that Parkinson received for recognising the disease as a clinical entity,

no

nor

honour for his

on palaeontology. True, he was given no honorary degree, nor was he elected to the fellowship of the Royal Society ; but he did receive recognition from the Royal College of Surgeons of England, whose honorary gold

work

medal was awarded him in 1822. He was, indeed, the first to receive this award (instituted twenty years before), and it has been bestowed only fifteen times in the past hundred and fifty years, the recipients including Lord Lister, Sir James Paget, and Richard Owen. It seems clear, too, that Parkinson was held in high esteem by his fellow general practitioners, for in 1818 he was chairman of the Association of Apothecaries and Surgeon Apothecaries of England and Wales. He was also a member of many learned medical and geological societies. He was one of eleven people who met at the Freemason’s Tavern, Great Queen Street, in 1807, and founded the Geological Society of London, and he was on the council from 1813 to 1815. He was a member of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh and the Caesarean Society of Moscow. He was a fellow of the Medical Society of London, and a member of the London Medical

and Chirurgical Society. Parkinson is believed to have retired when he exchanged houses with his son, who continued the family practice in Hoxton Square. He died on Dec. 21, 1824, at no. 3, Pleasant Row, Hoxton, and an entry in the burials register of St. Leonard’s Church reads: " No. 741. James Parkinson, Kingsland Road, buried December 29th 1824, R. Crosby." His remains were interred in the graveyard attached to the church, but no tombstone can now be found. No portrait of Parkinson is known to exist, and the only description we have of him is by his friend Mantell who wrote : " Mr. Parkinson was rather below middle stature, with an energetic, intelligent, and pleasing expression of countenance, and of mild and courteous manners ; readily imparting information either on his favourite science or on professional subjects." Parkinson was truly a general medical practitioner ; and his impact on his own generation and his influence on succeeding generations is shown by the number of his ideas, both social and scientific, that are now generally

accepted. My thanks are due to Dr. W. McMenemey, Dr. J. Dymock, and Mr. Jackson, borough librarian at Shoreditch for their assistance in obtaining biographical details. A. D. MORRIS M.D. Brux., M.B. Lond.

Points of View HOLES, KNOBS, AND WIRES Abstract Art and

Auto-suggestion

Sir HENRY TURNER,

C.B.E.

THE public is in these days learning in some degree to tolerate persons who act abnormally. We try to persuade ourselves that they are sometimes, in effect, being pushed from behind, and not just " bloodyminded." And I think that we ought to use this charitable approach in considering why artists-many of them

possessing unquestionably skilful technique-produce what are at first sight (and often later) meaningless doodles ; lumps of stone pierced by quite unsuggestive holes, tangles of wire, and so forth. So, with a layman’s proper timidity I shall attempt an answer to the questions-" Why is abstract art produced, and why is it taken seriously by people to appraise it" seemingly well qualified * * * In the first place I would suggest this experiment. Take three (or more) upholsterer’s coiled springs, entangle them, and mount the result in an inverted aquarium bowl indirectly lit, with a professionally

764 lettered card reading (for example) Time Passing. This should be exhibited in a place of some importance. Failing the Tate, a Bond-street art-dealer’s window will do. The reactions of observers will fall into four categories :

(a) Confident,

extravert derision.

(b) Open disconcertment. "Isuppose I ought to see something in it." (c) Insincere praise, to dodge a charge of artistic insensitivity. (d) Prolonged study, and a true statement of pleasure in a new aesthetic experience. There is no reason to trouble about (a). They are happy

enough, even though scorned by the others. But something can, I think, be done about the uncomfortable inferiority feeling of (b), and the unpleasant, self-damaging deceitfulness of (c). The remedy seems to lie in an understanding of the auto-hypnotic process employed by class (d), who are the prime instigators of the confusion. The proposition which I would like considered by better qualified readers is that the key to understanding both the origin and the appreciation of abstract art lies in the mechanism of auto-hypnosis. By this mechanism the observer persuades himself that the object -possesses in itself a quality affording sesthetic pleasure. In the experiment I have recommended, all the apparatus is present for producing, first, a light hypnoidal state, and, second, a post-hypnotic effect. There is the steady gaze ; the illumination casting surrounding objects into relative gloom ; respect, tinged perhaps with awe, for the creator of the intriguing Thing ; a pretty strong initial conviction that the Thing has profound -significance ; and not merely a hope, but an expectation of satisfaction through artistic achievement. The effect of all this, upon a hypnotically susceptible person, is to turn on, so to speak, the switch marked JEsthetic Thrill. From this it seems to follow that literally any object can be used as an emotional trigger by class (d), supposing the right circumstances. They self-induce emotion, and then use that emotion as proof that something tangible exists as its rational cause. The people who -can perform this pleasurable mental antic could equally well, presumably, produce religious exaltation, quickened body-healing power, and all the other phenomena which result from successful auto- (or hetero-) suggestion. It would be interesting to know whether all those who -can

achieve admiration for abstract art

are

in fact

" good " subjects for post-hypnotic suggestion in general. My hypothesis gains some corroboration from the fact that the phases of successive cults of purely abstract art are briefer than those depending on more direct appeal-i.e., the straight, representational, associative styles. The relatively short lives of Dadaism and Cubism may be due to their dependence on auto-hypnosis. Hypnotic suggestions do, I believe, tend to wear out ; they wear out too soon for them to be widely transmitted, by training, from one generation to another. Surrealism seems to be lasting better, because it uses recognisable objects which, although irrationally juxtaposed, do,provide some ordinary associative prompting. While I have provided (to my own satisfaction) a rational explanation of artistic admiration of meaningless objects, I have not dealt with the abstract artist himself. But I suggest that my theory covers him too. All ,creative artists (I think it is agreed) achieve abnormally close contact with their unconscious mental mechanism. They induce this by the age-old processes of muscular relaxation, immobility, and disregard of environment, and sometimes by means of alcohol or drugs. They are people who seek, with profound and reckless desire, .a higher allegiance and transcendence of personal identity, and they seem to have something in common with the Buddhist and other contemplative religious orders; perhaps even the Christian Scientists, whose writings are almost totally without meaning to those

il.nsusceptible

to

suggestion. * *

*

So my conclusion is that no-one need be disgusted his incompetence in sharing the enthusiasm of lovers of abstract art, of jazz music, or " stream of conscious. ness " prose. Nor indeed, of those people who use a fishing-float to induce a light trance state for escape from their horrid homes. These are all ways of escape from more or less distressing reality. We are the lucky ones if we have no need for such refuges.

by

Public Health COWPOX IN MAN And its

Relationship

with Milker’s Nodules

BERNARD LAURANCE M.B. Lond., M.R.C.P., D.C.H. CONSULTANT PÆDIATRICIAN, DERBY CITY DERBYSHIRE HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN ;

REGISTRAR, BRISTOL

ROYAL

HOSPITAL FOR

HOSPITAL

AND

LATELY SENIOR SICK CHILDREN

PROPHYLACTIC inoculation against smallpox (variola) with fluid from a vesicle or pustule of a patient with the disease is known to have been practised for many centuries in various parts of the world. In ancient China dried crusts from a smallpox pustule were inserted into the nostril on " a lucky day "-a practice known as " sowing the smallpox." This is a fine example of the successful empiricism of some ancient Chinese medicine, for we now know that variola virus can survive for over a year in dried crusts and floor dust (Downie and Dumbell

1947). Variolation was introduced into England at the end of the 17th century. Before then many travellers had brought back news of this form of inoculation, but Dr. Martin Lister was probably the first to communicate the method to the medical profession in this country. In 1695 he published a tract on smallpox that resulted in correspondence between the secretary of the RoyaJ Society and many physicians from abroad. This possibly led to the famous letter written in 1713, and read by Dr. John Woodward to the society in 1714, in which Dr. Timoni of Constantinople advocated the introduction of inoculation into Great Britain (Stearns 1950). There is some evidence that the method was practised before this time in South Wales (Shrewsbury 1951). For the adoption of the practice in this country Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the wife of the British Ambassador to- the Ottoman Court, was chiefly responsible. She was impressed by the methods she had seen practised in Turkey to lessen the dreaded peril of smallpox, and wrote to her friends in England of her experiences. The following is an extract from a letter written in 1717 : "

of distempers, I am going to tell you a thing will make you wish yourself here. The smallpox, so fatal, and so general amongst us, is here entirely harmless by the invention of ingrafting, which is the term they give it. There is a set of old women who make it their business to perform the operation every autumn, in the month of September, when the great heat is abated. People send to one another to know if any of their family has a mind to have the smallpox ; they make parties for this purpose, and when they are met (commonly fifteen or sixteen together), the old woman comes with a nutshell full of the matter of the best sort of smallpox, and asks what veins you please to have opened. She immediately rips open that you offer to her with a large needle (which gives you no more pain than a common scratch) and puts into the vein as much venom as can lie upon the head of her needle, and after binds up the little wound with a hollow bit of shell; and in this manner opens four or five veins ... The French Ambassador says pleasantly, that they take the smallpox here by way of diversion, as they take the waters in other countries."

Apropos

that I

am sure

By 1721 Lady Mary had returned to England and, largely by persuading the Princess of Wales to have her children inoculated against smallpox in the Turkish