Holocene environmental change and its impacts on human settlement in the Shanghai Area, East China

Catena 114 (2014) 78–89

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Holocene environmental change and its impacts on human settlement in the Shanghai Area, East China Li Wu a,b, Cheng Zhu b,⁎, Chaogui Zheng c, Feng Li b, Xinhao Wang d, Lan Li e, Wei Sun b a

College of Territorial Resources and Tourism, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, PR China School of Geographic and Oceanographic Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, PR China Geographic Information and Tourism College, Chuzhou University, Chuzhou 239000, PR China d College of Hydrology and Water Resources, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China e Center for Archaeological Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, PR China b c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 28 June 2012 Received in revised form 24 September 2013 Accepted 29 October 2013 Keywords: Holocene Environmental conditions Human–environment correlation Shanghai Area

a b s t r a c t Archaeological excavations and environmental archaeological studies over many years in the Shanghai Area have provided a wealth of information for Holocene environmental changes, growth and decline of human settlements and man–land interaction. Distribution of archaeological sites between 7000 and 3000 cal. yr BP indicates a regression process and a southward advance of the coastline in the study area. Temporal and spatial analyses of 14C dates for archaeological sites, shell ridges, buried trees, and peat suggest that Holocene environmental changes may well have been a major cause of the rise and fall of human settlements and their civilization. A relative sea-level curve of the Shanghai Area was derived from dated shell ridges and peat, and correlates well with the reconstructed sea-level curves of the Yangtze Delta and East China. The development of human settlements was interrupted at least four times in the Shanghai Area, matching four periods of high sea-level, peat accumulation, and increase in shell ridges, after which Neolithic communities moved onto the plain and reclaimed their lowlands for rice cultivation. The Chenier Ridges played an important role in sheltering the Neolithic settlers. The collapse of Liangzhu Culture about 4000 cal. yr BP was followed by the less-developed Maqiao Culture. These studies suggest that extreme environmental and hydrological conditions such as terrestrial inundation caused by sea-level rise and heavy rainfall, contributed to the cessation of paddy exploitation and to the social stress that led to the Liangzhu Culture demise. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The rise and fall of Neolithic human settlement on coastal lowlands, particularly in large river estuaries and deltas, have attracted research to address the emergence of early agriculture, cultural development and exchanges, and human adaptation to coastal changing environments (Kunz et al., 2010; Lespez et al., 2010; Stanley and Galili, 1996; Stanley and Warne, 1994; Veski et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2005). The Shanghai Area of China is located within the Yangtze Delta. Archaeological excavations over many years in the Shanghai Area have found that the cultural layers in many Neolithic sites are discontinuous, being divided by cultural interruptions, which often correspond to periods of peat formation or burial of palaeotrees. This suggests that they reflected short-term extreme climatic variations (Yu et al., 2000), which had significant

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 25 83594567. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Zhu). 0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.10.012

influence on the vicissitudes of the early cultures and associated migrations of Neolithic human settlement in this area (Stanley and Chen, 1996). Different viewpoints have been held by many scientists concerning climatic variation and its role in the rise and fall of human civilization in the Shanghai Area. Some scholars suggest that the particular natural environment presents special relations between Holocene vegetation, environmental evolution and human activities in the Shanghai Area (Wang et al., 1996). Because of the low-lying land with many lakes and swamps in the area, sea-level changes and expansion of Taihu Lake, for example, greatly affected human settlements during the Neolithic age (Chen and Stanley, 1998; Stanley and Chen, 1996; Zhu et al., 2003). Some historical records in Chinese annals as well as archaeological materials also provide useful information for understanding past environmental changes and their role in early Neolithic human occupation history of this area (Chen, 1987; Shen et al., 2004; Wu, 1998). However, other scholars suggest that social factors played the major role in the rise and fall of early civilizations (e. g. Fu, 2008); and the wars between different tribes probably caused the collapse of the

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Liangzhu Culture in Shanghai Area (Zhou and Zheng, 2000). Some archaeologists suggested that ancient people usually lived on higher places to escape floods (Wu, 1998; Zhang et al., 2004a), but others thought that ancient religious activities and human social position rather than environmental change decided the distribution of human settlement. In this paper, a relief map for displaying distribution features of ancient settlement sites, marine vertebrate bones, as well as numerous 14C dates for peat, shell ridges, buried palaeotrees and archaeological sites are used to evaluate possible connection between Holocene environmental change and human settlements in the Shanghai Area. The 14C dates are all taken from published papers or archaeological excavation reports, and were calibrated using the computer calibration program CALIB 6.0.1 (Reimer et al., 2009; Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver et al., 1998) to standardize the results.

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This area is climatically sensitive because it lies along the demarcation line between subtropical and temperate climate that separates different air-masses. It is also bordered on the east by the East China Sea. Thus it often experiences floods that mostly result from excess rainfall or typhoons during summer, especially June and July (the Plum Rainy Season), when the drifting cold northern winds meet the warm and wet air-masses from the Pacific Ocean (He and Zhao, 2009; Liang and Ding, 2008; Shi et al., 2009). Also the floods are associated with snow melt in the headwaters of the Yangtze River. Geomorphologically, a nearly level plain with an elevation of 3.5–4.5 m above sea-level covers most of this area, making it prone to flooding and sea-level changes. 3. Materials and methods 3.1. Archaeological sites

2. Study area The Shanghai Area (30°40′–31°53′ N, 120°52′–122°12′ E; Fig. 1) has a humid subtropical monsoon climate and experiences four distinct seasons. The natural vegetation in the study area is dominated by deciduous and evergreen forests (Box, 1995; Ren and Beug, 2002). The mean annual precipitation is 1164.5 mm. Rainfall in summer months accounts for 60% of the total and only 21% falls during winter months.

Many archaeological excavations indicate the following cultural succession (State Administration of Cultural Heritage, 2008; Zhang, 2011; Zhu et al., 2003): Majiabang Culture (7000–5800 cal. yr BP), Songze Culture (5800–5000 cal. yr BP), Liangzhu Culture (5000– 4000 cal. yr BP), and Maqiao Culture (3900–3300 cal. yr BP). Ancient people would choose suitable places for settlements, and more archaeological sites probably await discovery (Chen et al., 2008).

Fig. 1. Location of the study area, showing the present topography.

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These clusters of settlements suggest periods when Neolithic activities flourished (Yu et al., 2000). The spatial distribution of archaeological sites demonstrates the response of human settlements to coastline changes and expansion or shrinkage of water bodies (Wu et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2003, 2007). 3.2. Marine vertebrate bones Since the 1970s, many Holocene marine vertebrate bones have been found near the Shanghai Area (Cao, 1984). Preliminary studies have shown that these fossils were good materials for showing the coastal environment since the Holocene (Cao, 1976, 1984), and indicative of coastline changes and Yangtze Delta evolution in the Shanghai Area. 3.3. Shell ridges There is a series of Chenier shell ridges distributed in the Shanghai Area (Wei, 1997). They were the result of storm waves and coastal evolution processes causing deposition near high tide level (Forsyth et al., 2010; Liu et al., 1985; Zhang et al., 1982). Micropalaeontological studies have shown that the altitude of the shell ridge bottom matches the high tide level. Therefore, they can serve as indicators showing coastline changes (Aliotta and Farinati, 1990; Nott, 2011; Vilas et al., 1999). 3.4. Buried palaeotrees Field investigation has revealed buried palaeotrees (i.e. ancient trees stratified within sediment layers) in the Shanghai Area, mainly distributed around lakes of the Taihu Plain and the coastal high land (Zhu et al., 2000). Most of the buried palaeotrees were generally found at − 2 to − 8 m depth below ground surface and mixed with sludge, coarse sand and gravel. Some palaeotrees were buried with their branches intact, indicating sudden destruction of the trees during the floods that buried them (Yu et al., 2003). Scanning electron microscope studies of quartz sand grain surfaces have also shown that the palaeotrees were buried in a high-energy water environment (Zhu et al., 1997). Therefore, the buried palaeotrees act as a good proxy indicator of flood and high precipitation. 3.5. Peat accumulation Peat is the soft organic accumulation of decomposed matter (Ma et al., 2008). It usually forms in wetland areas where plant production exceeds organic losses, because cold or anaerobic conditions hinder soil respiration (Ovenden, 1990; Zoltai and Vitt, 1990). In the study area, peats occur near alluvial fans, billabongs (i.e. abandoned river channels or quiet water swamps), marshes, and shallow lakes in the Taihu Lake plain, and serve as an indicator of increased surface water (Jordan and Mason, 1999; Novak and Pacherova, 2008). Increased surface water leading to formation of peat could have resulted from excessive precipitation or sea-level highstand, both of which would be unsuitable for human settlements and agriculture (Qin et al., 2011; Shu et al., 2010; Zong et al., 2007, 2011). 4. Results and discussion 4.1. Distribution rules Fig. 2 demonstrates that the archaeological sites of different periods occur mainly in the western part of the Shanghai Area, nearing the Dianshan Lake, with some tendency to extend southeastwards from the Taihu Lake plain. To the east is an area of fluctuating coastlines and marine influence, which would have influenced settlement location, with the western area more secure. This indicates that

coastline changes played an important role in the expansion of human settlements in this area. Fig. 2A indicates that the Neolithic sites occurred on the western side of the Chenier Ridges in the Shanghai Area at altitudes lower than 5 m, while the sampling points of shell ridges and marine vertebrate bones mainly distributed on the eastern side, demonstrating that the ancient coastline was just along the Chenier Ridges of the central Shanghai area. However, there were no Neolithic sites on the south bank of the Huangpu River and only two shell ridge points distributed there. This phenomenon suggests that the south bank of the Huangpu River was still part of Hangzhou Bay, pointing to an intertidal environment during the Majiabang Culture period. Ancient people lived near the coastline and lakes for the convenience of resources and food. One peat of intertidal origin (containing foraminifera) point is identified along the ancient coastlines (Zhu et al., 1980), showing that the formation of the peat was the result of sea-level changes. Pollen studies of the lower Majiabang cultural layers at the Songze site (Wang et al., 1980, 1996) indicate that the vegetation was dominated by plants suited to wet conditions such as Cyclobalanopsis, Castanopsis, Ulmus, Castanea, Carpinus, Liquidambar, and Cyperaceae; aquatic herbs like Alismataceae, Potamogetonaceae, and Polygonum, which were typical of humid conditions, were abundant; Poaceae (N 40 μm) and rice phytoliths were also discovered in pollen–phytolith assemblages from the Fuquanshan site (Atahan et al., 2008), indicating possible exploration of early rice farming in the study area. Pollen analysis of HM core and Dh core in this region also substantiated the above conclusions (Jia et al., 2007). The buildings during the Majiabang Culture were wooden Ganlan style architecture, and some sites were located on higher ground near the lakes (Zou et al., 2000). This building form and higher living place also reflected damp climate and expansion of surface waters at that time. Those were the human adaptation to the environment. Of course, some higher sites have nothing to do with the expansion or shrinkage of water area, like the earthern table-land of the Fuquanshan site, which was associated with the function of the tomb and altar. In the Songze culture period, peat accumulation was greater than in the Majiabang Culture period (Fig. 2A and B), probably because of a wetter climate at this stage (An, 2000; Shi et al., 1993; Zhao et al., 2009). The new added peat points are along the south of Dianshan Lake, and the north bank of the Huangpu River. Higher sea-level hindered the discharge of the ground and surface waters, leading to the formation of shallow lakes and to lake expansion, which provided areas suitable for peat accumulation. The Neolithic sites tended to concentrate on higher places between Chenier Ridges and Taihu Lake. Two newly discovered sites (i.e. Jishan site and Songzecunbei site) were distributed in the areas of 5–10 m in this period. Palynological study indicates that the vegetation was dominated by plants of wet regions (Wang et al., 1980), such as Quercus, Cyclobalanopsis, Castanopsis and Polypodiaceae (Yu et al., 1999), but cool indicators such as trees like Cupressaceae also increased at this time (Wang et al., 1996). The herbaceous pollen is dominated by halophytes (e.g. Chenopodiaceae), suggesting that sea water extended to near the peat sampling points (Yu et al., 2000). The distribution of cultural sites, shell ridge and marine vertebrate bone samples support this assumption. The south bank of the Huangpu River was still a marine environment during the Songze culture period, and has no settlement distribution. Fig. 2C indicates fewer peat sampling points in the Liangzhu than in the Songze culture period to the west of Shanghai. Cultural sites were widely distributed in the low-lying areas between the Chenier Ridges and Dianshan Lake, and are concentrated in the northwest of the Shanghai Area. In the southern coastal region, there appeared a large number of Neolithic sites at altitudes lower than 5 m, especially to the south bank of the Huangpu River, of which four were new sites, suggesting a terrestrial environment of this area in the Liangzhu Culture period. Therefore, this period experienced a

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Fig. 2. The locations of known Neolithic settlement sites, shell ridges, peats, buried palaeotrees and marine vertebrate bones of the Shanghai Area. Names of archaeological sites and their present altitudes (m WSD) are listed behind. (A) Majiabang Culture: 1—Chashan (0–5); 2—Songze (0–5); 3—Fuquanshan (0–5); (B) Songze Culture: 1—Jinshanfen (0–5); 2—Yaojiaquan (0–5); 3—Tangmiaocun (0–5); 4—Jishan (5–10); 5—Songzecunbei (5–10); 6—Songze (0–5); 7—Siqian (0–5); 8—Fuquanshan (0–5); (C) Liangzhu Culture: 1—Zhelin (0–5); 2—Zhaoxianbang (0–5); 3—Tinglin (0–5); 4—Jianghai (5–10); 5—Qijiadun (0–5); 6—Jinshanfen (0–5); 7—Chashan (0–5); 8—Yaojiaquan (20–30); 9—Maqiao (0–5); 10—Tangmiaocun (0–5); 11—Guangfulin (5–10); 12—Dianshanhu (0–5); 13—Qianbucun (5–10); 14—Dongshecun (5–10); 15—Songze (0–5); 16—Jiexincun (5–10); 17—Fengxi (0–5); 18—Siqian (0–5); 19—Fuquanshan (0–5); 20—Guoyuancun (0–5); (D) Maqiao Culture: 1—Tinglin (0–5); 2—Jianghai (5–10); 3—Chashan (0–5); 4—Jinshanfen (0–5); 5—Yaojiaquan (0–5); 6—Tangcunmiao (0–5); 7—Dianshanhu (0–5); 8—Liuxia (0–5); 9—Songze (0–5); 10—Siqian (0–5); 11—Fuquanshan (0–5); 12—Maqiao (0–5).

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coastline regression process to the south; but to the east of the Cheniers a marine environment persisted. Pollen analysis of the Liangzhu cultural layers showed that wetland plants decreased greatly, and xerophilic plants (e.g. Artemisia, Cyperaceae, and Chenopodiaceae) increased (Li et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2000), suggesting a drier and warmer climate with shrinking lake areas (Ni and Ji, 1997; Zhao et al., 2007). Excavation of about 50 palaeo-wells at the Xinglong site, Changshu, Jiangsu Province (Wu, 1994), shows that the Liangzhu people dug wells to increase water resources. One Liangzhu cultural site was also found at the bottom of Dianshan Lake (Chen, 2008), indicating that the lake floors were partly dry and suitable for human settlement. Warm and dry climatic conditions led to an increase in land area, offering more space for agricultural activities, which facilitated expansion of the Liangzhu Culture. However, archaeological excavations indicate that the Liangzhu Culture disappeared mysteriously around 4000 cal. yr BP (Ni and Ji, 1997; Wu, 1988). As the cultural layers are usually interrupted by muddy or marshy and sandy–gravelly layers with buried palaeotrees (Zhu et al., 1996), the collapse of the Liangzhu Culture could have resulted from an increasing frequency of catastrophic floods (Yu et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2002). Soon after the collapse of the Liangzhu Culture, the Maqiao Culture emerged. Fig. 2D indicates that most of the Maqiao cultural sites were still distributed to the west region of the Chenier Ridges. The site number of 0–5 m has decreased. The disappeared Liangzhu cultural sites were mainly distributed in the middle of the western Shanghai Area and along the Hangzhou Bay area. Meanwhile, along the Huangpu River, distribution of shell ridges, buried palaeotrees and Maqiao cultural sites was coincident, suggesting that sea-level variation drove human migrations. But the major trend was the rising sea-level, especially along Hangzhou Bay in the south of the Shanghai Area (Yan and Shao, 1989; Zong, 2004). Inundation caused by rising sea-level and expansion of lakes likely led to the collapse of earlier human settlements (Chen and Stanley, 1998; Yu et al., 2000; Y. Zhang, 2002; Zhang et al., 2002). Settlements of this area were not resumed until the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), when climate conditions again became more favourable for agriculture with lower water tables (Yu et al., 2000). 4.2. Migration of human settlements: response to climate variations and sea-level changes The above discussion has highlighted some aspects of Neolithic migrations across the low-lying coastal areas of the Shanghai Area. Fig. 3 demonstrates the temporal relations of climate variations, sea-level changes and human settlements at century scales from 8000 to 2000 cal. yr BP in the Shanghai Area. During at least four periods, decline in human settlements (shaded zones marked by a, b, c, and d) is indicated by fewer archaeological sites. These four periods match four periods of high sea-level and four periods with more shell ridges and peats, and the trend of reconstructed relative sea-level changes correlates well with the two sea-level curves of the Yangtze Delta and East China respectively (Zhang et al., 2005; Zong, 2004). For example, from 7100 to 6300 cal. yr BP (the earlymiddle Majiabang Culture period), more shell ridges and formation of peat indicate high sea-level and lake expansion, and sea-level changes were consistent with the changes of reconstructed sealevel curves of the Yangtze Delta and East China (Zhang et al., 2005; Zong, 2004), having rapid rising rate and fluctuations. High sea-level with an average of 4 m above m.s.l. resulted in high ground water level and this led to ground–surface water expansion, which was consistent with the proposed highstand sea-level (3.0 m higher than the present) around 6500 cal. yr BP (Zhang et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 1982). Therefore, fewer places were probably suitable for human settlement (shaded zone d). However, there is no evidence of frequent floods, as would be suggested by buried palaeotrees at

the same time. At 6200 to 5800 cal. yr BP, with the sea-level slightly falling then becoming relatively stable, since which relative sea-level has risen at a markedly reduced rate (Zong, 2004), more suitable living places led to Neolithic cultural sites increasing gradually in the late Majiabang Culture period. Wang et al. (2012) also argue that saltmarsh and tidal flats dominated on the southern Yangtze delta plain until ca. 6500 to 6000 cal BP when sea level became relatively stable and the shoreline progradation occurred. Rice cultivation began, and two irrigation systems (water well and pond) were created during this period (Shen et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2010), but hunting, gathering and fishing were still important (Chen et al., 2005; Zong et al., 2012). However, as indicated in Fig. 2, people generally lived in the west higher land of the Shanghai Area during this stage, when the east of Chenier Ridges and the south bank of the Huangpu River were in a marine environment at that time (Chen et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2005). The Songze culture period (5800–5000 cal. yr BP) was in the Holocene hypsithermal, with a relatively stable climate that allowed the Songze Culture to flourish, reflected by a steady increase of Neolithic cultural sites. Fig. 3 suggests that although the sea-level was still higher (an average of 2.6 m above m.s.l.), it was lower than the Majiabang Culture period. Sea-level changes along the east coast of China also proved this variation trend (Yang and Xie, 1984; Zhang et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 1982). Neolithic site distribution range has a tendency to expand to the south. Many palaeotrees buried by gravel, coarse sand and mud probably indicate flood environments during this period (Zhu et al., 1997, 2000). Therefore, as in the Majiabang Culture period, human settlements tended to be concentrated at higher places between the Chenier Ridges and Dianshan Lake. The east of Chenier Ridges and the south bank of the Huangpu River were still in a marine environment. Fig. 3 also indicates, by the discovery of many buried palaeotrees, that frequent floods affected the early Songze culture, most notably in an anti-correlation between cultural sites and buried palaeotrees. However, in the process of flood control, Neolithic people improved the ability to transform nature. This might have contributed to the transition from the Majiabang Culture to the Songze Culture, which was related to the transition from Si (an ancient tillage form) agriculture to plough agriculture (Cao and Wang, 2005). The plough-shaped device (e.g. Stone Plough excavated from the Songze site) invented in the Songze period was used on a large scale (Zhang, 2011; Zou et al., 2000). This rapid progress of rice cultivation tools was probably in connection with the stimulus of environmental stress at the time (Ding, 2004; Wang et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2012), although could simply represent cultural and technological developments unrelated to environmental factors. Therefore, the site numbers of the late Songze cultural period were double those of the previous Majiabang cultural period. The Liangzhu Culture (5000–4000 cal. yr BP) was a flourishing period of human civilization in pre-historic China. Pollen analysis indicates that the climate was warm and humid during the early Liangzhu Culture period (Yu et al., 2000). However, in the late Liangzhu Culture period, there was an absence of hygrophilous species (e.g. Cyclobalanopsis, needs a lot of rainfall), while Pinus and Artemisia suited to a dry environment increased in abundance (Jing, 1989). Also, many ancient wells of this period have also been discovered (Wu et al., 2010). This evidence is also consistent with the sea-level changes in this period (Fig. 3). Under warmer and drier climates, sea-level declined (Li et al., 2010; Yang and Xie, 1984; Yu et al., 2000; Zhang et al., 2005; Zong, 2004), and exposed large areas of land provided enough space for human activities so that the Liangzhu Culture flourished and its settlements increased sharply. The distribution pattern of Neolithic sites shows an expansion seaward, towards the southeast (Fig. 2), indicating that the south bank of the Huangpu River has been changed into a terrestrial environment. This had supported by a lot of sedimentary evidence (Chen et al.,

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Calendar year BP Fig. 3. Temporal relationships between sea-level, frequency of dates of the buried palaeotrees, peats, shell ridges and number of Neolithic sites in the Shanghai Area, compared with reconstructed sea-level curves of the Yangtze Delta and East China. (A) Frequency of dates for buried trees; (B) frequency of dates for peat; (C) frequency of dates for shell ridges; (D) frequency of dates for Neolithic cultural sites; (E) relative sea-level changes (m WSD) reconstructed from shell ridges and peat; (F) reconstructed relative sea-level curves (m WSD) of the Yangtze Delta (Zhang et al., 2005); and (G) reconstructed relative sea-level curves (m YSD) of East China (Zong, 2004). The YSD refers to the Yellow Sea Datum (Ming and Xing, 2010; Wang et al., 2009). Shaded zones marked a–d indicate the periods of cultural decline. Dashed lines separate the different cultural periods.

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2008; Zhang et al., 2005). Rice farming became more robust during the period as indicated by a large amount of rice remains, along with more diversified tools (Wu et al., 2012). In addition to the plough-shaped device, there was a complete tool kit supporting agricultural production in the Liangzhu Culture, such as stone shovels and stone hoes for soil preparation, stone sickles or half-moon knives for harvesting, and other tools for dehusking rice (Wu et al., 2012). However, it collapsed at about 4000 cal. yr BP, and no one has found a provable culture inherited from the Liangzhu Culture so far. The Maqiao Culture, which appeared after the fall of the Liangzhu Culture, has a cultural style of Central Plains and gone far from the Liangzhu Culture. There is an argument that the invasion of a powerful enemy or internal military conflicts may have led to the collapse of the Liangzhu Culture (Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, 2002). Ancient Chinese mythologies have some records of fierce wars between different tribes. However, these conditions should not create a cultural gap stage. Political or military conflicts mainly aim at seizing power and plundering wealth, not purely for destruction. Invasion by other cultures will inevitably result in the imposition of social changes and new types of material object, forming a transitional hybrid culture (Zhang, 2011). Significantly, no such hybrid culture between the Liangzhu and Maqiao Cultures has been found in the study area. Archaeological evidence shows that there was a rapid population growth in the late Liangzhu Culture period, forming a complex man– land ecosystem strongly dependent on rice cultivation in coastal wetlands of East China, an ecosystem vulnerable to coastal environment change (Wang et al., 2010). All three reconstructed relative sea-level curves indicate that sea-level rose again after 4000 cal. yr BP (Zhang et al., 2005; Zong, 2004), with the maximum range of 3.8 m above m.s.l., which resulted in high ground water levels and surface water area expansion. This left fewer places suitable for human settlements, because Neolithic settlements could not adapt to the extension of marshland or water areas in the depression behind the Chenier Ridges (Chen and Stanley, 1998). The ancient people were forced to abandon their settlements, as witnessed by many sites (e. g. at Maqiao, Jianghai and Songze) presently found beneath extensive flood mud layers dated between 4000 and 3000 cal. yr BP, and 0.5–1.0 m above the Liangzhu cultural layers (Zhang, 2011; Zhang et al., 2004b; Zhu et al., 1996). In addition, many sites' paddy exploitation ceased when it was overwhelmed by terrestrial inundation around 4000 cal. yr BP (Yu et al., 1998; Zhang, 2011; Zhu et al., 1996), which could have contributed to the fall of the Liangzhu Culture (Wang et al., 2010). Thus, extreme environmental and hydrological conditions, such as terrestrial inundation caused by sea-level rise and heavy rainfall, contributed to the cessation of paddy exploitation and to social stresses that led to the Liangzhu Culture's demise. There was therefore, a short-term interruption in cultural succession after 4000 cal. yr BP (Chen et al., 2005; Stanley and Chen, 1996), which corresponded with “Holocene Event 3”, an interval of severe climatic anomalies that occurred across much of China (Wu and Liu, 2004). Higher water tables and expansion of lakes due to cold and moist climate (Yu et al., 1998, 2000), together with frequent sealevel changes (the varied range was 0–3.4 m), also temporarily terminated settlements and resulted in the decline of Maqiao Culture (3900–3300 cal. yr BP; see shaded zone a in Fig. 3) in the Shanghai Area (Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, 2002). 5. Conclusions Climate in the Shanghai Area changed at intervals through the Holocene, influenced primarily by the strength of the East Asian Monsoon (Cai et al., 2001; Chen and Stanley, 1998; Itzstein-Davey et al., 2007; Jia et al., 2007; Yu et al., 2000; Zhang, 2006), and the

timing and duration of Holocene climatic events varied considerably (Meese et al., 1994). On the low-lying plain of the Shanghai Area, like now, settlements were susceptible to sea-level changes, lake water expansion and floods. Distribution of archaeological sites between 7000 and 3000 cal. yr BP indicates a regression process and the coastline advanced to the south in this area. Also, spatial and temporal analysis of the numerous 14 C dates for shell ridges, buried palaeotrees, peat, and archaeological sites indicates that human settlements in the Shanghai Area were seriously influenced by these environmental changes. Periods with adverse environmental conditions coincided with the decline of ancient human settlements and their civilizations. A relative sea-level curve of the Shanghai Area was derived from dated shell ridges and peat, and correlates well with the reconstructed sea-level curves of the Yangtze Delta and East China. In the Shanghai Area, there were mainly four declines in human settlements between 8000 and 2000 cal. yr BP (the shaded zones a–d in Fig. 3), which closely match four periods of high sealevel, represented by increased development of peat and shell ridges, etc., after which Neolithic communities moved onto the plain and occupied the land for rice cultivation. The Chenier Ridges played an important role in sheltering the Neolithic communities. However, oyster fragments were also found in the Linjiacao of Qingpu, which lies to the west of the Chenier Ridges (Fig. 2). This indicated that the Chenier Ridges would not be enough to stop spring tide invasion. Some low-lying lands like Linjiacao were still at the unstable inwelling status now and then. The collapse of Liangzhu Culture about 4000 cal. yr BP was followed by the less-developed Maqiao Culture. Above studies suggest that the Holocene environmental variations especially extreme environmental and hydrological conditions exerted tremendous impacts on human settlement and the development of human civilization. Holocene environmental conditions, to some degree, can hinder the human civilization progress.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41171163), National Key Technology R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2013BAK08B02), Major Program of the National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 11&ZD183), Open Foundation of the State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment (Grant No. 2012SKL003), and Open Foundation of the State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology (Grant No. SKLLQG1206). The authors wish to thank Dr. Ran An and Dr. Daniel Merrill for their constructive comments on the original manuscript.

Appendix A To determine the relative sea-level change and its relations to the human settlement, radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates of archaeological sites, shell ridges, buried palaeotrees, and peats in the Shanghai Area are collected and listed as follows (Tables A.1, A.2, A.3, and A.4). All the radiocarbon dates were calibrated using the computer software CALIB 6.0.1 (Reimer et al., 2009; Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver et al., 1998), and the range of the calibrated ages is 2σ. Otherwise, some collected sites only have archaeological ages determined by excavated relics. These sites are not listed in the following tables. The relative sea-level changes (m WSD) of the Shanghai Area are reconstructed from the elevation of shell ridges and peat relative to m.s.l., and the WSD refers to the Wusong Sea Datum (Ming and Xing, 2010; Wang et al., 2009). Specific methods can refer to the following references (Chen and Stanley, 1998; Chen et al., 2008; Yu et al., 2000).

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Table A.1 Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence ages of archaeological sites investigated in this study from the Shanghai Area. No.

Name of site

Archaeological ages (determined by excavated relics)

Materials dated

Dating types

Lab. ID

Dating results (yr BP)

2σ calibrated age (cal. yr BP)

Reference

1

Chashan

Late Majiabang stage (6200–5800 cal. yr BP) Middle Liangzhu stage (4800–4400 cal. yr BP) Late Maqiao stage (3500–3300 cal. yr BP)

Wood charcoal Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Human bones

14

C TL TL TL 14 C 14 C AMS14C AMS14C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C

ZK204 SB1 SB2 SB3 ZK0204 ZK255 BK94162 BK95045 BA94104 BA94119 BK79003 BK79004 ZK4370

3114 2930 2890 3260 2880 3255 3275 3340 2690 4160 5480 5390 4635

3280 – – – 3026 3484 3526 3582 2764 4701 6308 6151 5315

Human bones

14

ZK4380

5230 ± 200

5999 ± 406

Wood Wood Wood Carbonized wood

14

C C C 14 C

ZK0055 SH0022 SH0017 ZK55

5345 5305 5145 5360

6113 6074 5870 6118

Wood Wood charcoal

14

SH17 ZK1251

5150 ± 75 5010 ± 80

5874 ± 157 5758 ± 152

Wood Round wood Carbonized wood Pottery shard Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shard Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards

14

C C C TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL TL

SH199 ZK1318 ZK1250 SB58 SB2 SB73 SB74 SB165 SB166 SB167 SB107 SB108 SB190 SB191 SB193 SB194 SB195 SB196 SB197 SB198 SB19

5210 4955 4730 4360 5620 4350 4450 3930 4690 4610 5390 5990 6040 5750 5320 5830 5680 5070 5380 6140 4860

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

75 80 80 260 254 220 310 360 400 430 280 360 400 570 440 310 450 320 410 460 230

6027 ± 163 5745 ± 160 5456 ± 147 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Xia (1977) Sun (1997) Sun (1997) Sun (1997) Zhang (2003) Y. Zhang (2002) Y. Zhang (2002) Y. Zhang (2002) Y. Zhang (2002) Y. Zhang (2002) Wu (1988) Wu (1988) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1979) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1979) Huang (1962) Huang and Zhang (1980) Huang and Zhang (1980) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1972) Wu (1988) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1984) Zheng (2005) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Huang (2000) Wu (1988)

Batten Peat Wood charcoal Wood charcoal Wood chips Wood chips Shell fragments Carbonized wood

14

C C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C

BK91014 BK91015 BK91012 BK91013 BK91010 BK91011 CG234 SH0030

6350 5010 4910 4820 4645 2380 3820 4320

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

250 80 100 70 70 85 110 70

7173 5758 5686 5556 5429 2513 4178 4938

TL C

SB25 ZK2272

4400 ± 180 3640 ± 150

– 4014 ± 400

Human bones

14

ZK2273

1730 ± 150

1644 ± 309

Wood charcoal

14

C

ZK254

3840 ± 95

4214 ± 235

Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Pottery shards Wood

TL TL TL TL TL TL TL 14 C

SB93 SB94 SB95 SB96 SB168 SB169 SB170 ZK225

4150 4320 4070 3940 3480 3030 3750 3455

– – – – – – – 3721 ± 260

Pottery shards

TL

SB442

3310 ± 330

2

3

Songze

Fuquanshan

4

Tangmiaocun

5

Siqian

6 7

Zhelin Tinglin

Late Majiabang stage (6200–5800 cal. yr BP) Songze period (5800–5000 cal. yr BP) Early Liangzhu stage (5000–4800 cal. yr BP) Early Maqiao stage (3900–3700 cal. yr BP) Late Maqiao stage (3500–3300 cal. yr BP)

Late Majiabang stage (6200–5800 cal. yr BP) Mid-late Songze stage (5600–5000 cal. yr BP) Early Maqiao stage (3900–3700 cal. yr BP)

Late Songze stage (5400–5000 cal. yr BP) Mid-late Liangzhu stage (4800–4000 cal. yr BP) Early-mid Songze stage (5800–5400 cal. yr BP) Mid-late Liangzhu stage (4800–4000 cal. yr BP) Early Maqiao stage (3900–3700 cal. yr BP)

Late Liangzhu stage (4400–4000 cal. yr BP) Late Liangzhu stage (4400–4000 cal. yr BP) Maqiao stage (3900–3300 cal. yr BP)

Pottery shards Human bones

8

Jianghai

Late Liangzhu stage (4400–4000 cal. yr BP) Early Maqiao stage (3900–3700 cal. yr BP)

C

14 14

C C

14

14 14

14

14

C

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

± ± ± ±

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

120 322 318 359 90 105 80 65 160 220 90 80 105

105 75 75 105

360 350 320 180 300 270 290 105

–

± 307

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

± ± ± ±

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

238 241 168 141 406 611 139 162 276

203 146 158 202

507 152 220 109 156 209 272 131

Zhou and Chen (2002) Y. Zhang (2002) Zheng (2005) Zheng (2005) Y. Zhang (2002) Zheng (2005) Zhang et al. (1979) M.H. Zhang (2002), Y. Zhang (2002) Zheng (2005) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1989) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1989) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1977) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1979) M.H. Zhang (2002) (continued on next page)

86

L. Wu et al. / Catena 114 (2014) 78–89

Table (continued) A.1 (continued) No.

Name of site

Archaeological ages (determined by excavated relics)

Materials dated

Dating types

Lab. ID

Dating results (yr BP)

2σ calibrated age (cal. yr BP)

Reference

9

Maqiao

Mid-late Liangzhu stage (4800–4000 cal. yr BP) Maqiao period (3900–3300 cal. yr BP)

Wood

14

ZK2895

2644 ± 90

2712 ± 251

Wood

14

ZK2896

1975 ± 80

1926 ± 198

Wood

14

ZK2897

2242 ± 159

2270 ± 353

Pottery shards Pottery shards Wood Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Wood Pollen Wood charcoal Wood

TL TL 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C 14 C AMS14C AMS14C AMS14C AMS14C AMS14C AMS14C AMS14C 14 C

SB101 SB102 ZK242 SB9320 SB9322 20,003 2003 IT044628 IT044675 IT0446100 IT0446105 NZA26016 NZA26011 NZA26017 ZK292

4260 4410 4330 3075 4005 3770 3780 1070 2710 4110 4600 945 2057 2453 4080

190 230 95 80 109 60 60 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 100

– – 4942 ± 152 3260 ± 197 4527 ± 300 4138 ± 164 4142 ± 160 999 ± 91 2815 ± 64 4626 ± 105 5407 ± 61 860 ± 67 2033 ± 87 2454 ± 93 4614 ± 231

Wood

14

T64

4505 ± 145

5161 ± 324

The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1997) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1996) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1996) Wang and Xia (1990) Wang and Xia (1990) Zheng (2005) Yu et al. (2000) Yu et al. (2000) Zhang et al. (2003) Zhang (2006) Li et al. (2006) Li et al. (2006) Li et al. (2006) Li et al. (2006) Itzstein-Davey et al. (2007) Itzstein-Davey et al. (2007) Itzstein-Davey et al. (2007) The Institute of Archaeology, CASS (1978) Sun (1998)

10

Guangfulin

Mid-late Liangzhu stage (4800–4000 cal. yr BP)

11

Fengxi

Middle Liangzhu stage (4800–4400 cal. yr BP)

12

Guoyuancun

Early Liangzhu stage (5000–4800 cal. yr BP) Late Liangzhu stage (4400–4000 cal. yr BP)

C C C

C

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

Table A.2 Radiocarbon ages of shell ridges investigated in this study from the Shanghai Area. No. Name of site

Chenier Ridges

Depth below the Elevation relative Materials dated to m.s.l. present surface (m WSD) (m)

Lab. ID

14

1

Linjiacao

Waigang

2.0

1

Oyster shuck

ZK3431

5875 ± 185 6738 ± 421

2

Dayiqiao

Waigang

2.0

3

Oyster

CG232

4020 ± 100 4534 ± 293

3

Gongpuqiao

Qiangang

1.1–1.2

1.8

Oyster

SH77

6510 ± 70

4

Zhangjiazhai

Shagang

0.6

3.4

Oyster

HL81028 5385 ± 140 6181 ± 288

5

Heijianong

Shagang

0.3–0.6

4.4

Shell fragments

SH46

5290 ± 75

6068 ± 148

6

Heijianong

Shagang

0.3–0.6

4.4

Oyster

SH47

5100 ± 75

5808 ± 148

7

Maqiaoshaji

Shagang

0.7–1.0

5.29

Shell

SH45

5890 ± 75

6660 ± 132

8

Jianlong

Shagang

0.2–0.4

6.6

Shell

SH50

6080 ± 75

6971 ± 194

9

Caojingshaji

Shagang

0.8

6.2

Shell

HL81005 6590 ± 100 7469 ± 157

10

Gaozhaiji

Shagang

0.5–0.6

6.4

Blue clam

SH65

6805 ± 65

7678 ± 111

11

Chenjiatang

Zigang

0.5–1.0

5

Shell

SH40

5880 ± 80

6694 ± 199

12

Chenjiatang

Zigang

0.4–0.5

5.5

Shell

SH39

5870 ± 80

6690 ± 198

13

Chujiazhuang

Zhugang

0.7–1.1

4.9

Shell fragments

SH48

5725 ± 75

6534 ± 143

14

Chujiazhuang

Zhugang

0.5

5.5

Shell fragments

SH68

5665 ± 70

6441 ± 132

15

JianghaiCaojing

Zhugang

0.6–0.7

5.3

Shell

SH51

4285 ± 70

4915 ± 131

16

Maqiao

Zhugang

1.60–1.79

3.21

Clam fragments ZK3441

5680 ± 180 6542 ± 368

17

Yutang

Zhugang

2.1–2.7

3.3

Shell fragments

ZK344I

5520 ± 180 6298 ± 382

18

Yutang

Zhugang

2.7

3.3

Shell fragments

CG244

6150 ± 120 7025 ± 283

19

Yutang

Zhugang

2.7

3.3

Shell

CG243

3670 ± 105 3999 ± 299

20

Zhujiadadui

Zhugang

0.2

3.8

Shell fragments

CG234

3820 ± 110 4178 ± 272

21

Zhujiadadui

Zhugang

0.6

3.4

Shell fragments

CG235

6835 ± 80

7707 ± 141

22

Zhuanqiaocaojing Hengjinggang 0.3–0.6

3.4

Shell

SH44

3240 ± 70

3490 ± 147

C age (yr BP)

2σ calibrated Testing institution age (cal. yr BP)

7398 ± 119

The Institute of Archaeology, CASS Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration SKLEC, East China Normal University The Second Institute of Oceanography, SOA SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University The Second Institute of Oceanography, SOA SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University SKLEC, East China Normal University The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration SKLEC, East China Normal University

L. Wu et al. / Catena 114 (2014) 78–89

87

Table A.3 Radiocarbon ages of buried palaeotrees investigated in this study from the Shanghai Area. No.

Name of site

Materials dated

Layer

14

C age (yr BP)

2σ calibrated age (cal. yr BP)

Testing institution

1 2 3

Tinglin Tinglin Tinglin

Trunk segments Trunk segments Carbonized wood

– – Grey soil layer in T2

3730 ± 95 3840 ± 95 4320 ± 71

4085 ± 234 4214 ± 235 4938 ± 132

4

Tinglin

Wood

3455 ± 105

3721 ± 260

5

Tinglin

Wood

3355 ± 105

3614 ± 238

The Institute of Archaeology, CASS

6

Maqiao

Trunk

4200 ± 95

4741 ± 228

The Institute of Archaeology, CASS

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Maqiao Maqiao Maqiao Maqiao Maqiao Maqiao Fengxi

Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood

Ash of early impressed pottery culture Ash of early impressed pottery culture 2.2 m below the present surface H107 ash in T621 H107 ash in T621 3B layer in T819 3B layer in T819 3F layer in T620 3F layer in T620 4th layer

The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments The Institute of Archaeology, CASS

1975 1919 2242 2179 2644 2569 4080

1926 1877 2270 2183 2712 2580 4614

14

Fengxi

Wood

4th layer

3965 ± 100

4404 ± 257

15

Fuquanshan

Carbonized wood

4730 ± 80

5456 ± 147

16

Fuquanshan

Carbonized wood

4600 ± 80

5262 ± 222

17

Fuquanshan

Carbonized wood

5010 ± 80

5758 ± 152

18

Fuquanshan

Carbonized wood

4870 ± 80

5603 ± 152

19 20 21

Fuquanshan Fuquanshan Siqian

Round wood Round wood Block

3.6 m below the present surface 3.6 m below the present surface 3.65 m below the present surface 3.65 m below the present surface T10 T10 7th layer in T810

4955 ± 80 4815 ± 80 4820 ± 70

5745 ± 160 5555 ± 112 5556 ± 109

22

Siqian

Batten

7th layer in T809

6350 ± 250

7173 ± 507

23 24 25 26

Songze Songze Songze Tangmiaocun

Wood Wood Wood Wood

3rd layer – Grey–black soil layer in T3 –

5360 5150 5305 2365

6118 5874 6074 2427

The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS The Institute of Archaeology, CASS Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Museum Shanghai Museum Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Municipal Commission for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments Shanghai Museum Shanghai Museum Shanghai Museum Shanghai Museum

± ± ± ± ± ± ±

± ± ± ±

80 80 159 159 90 90 100

105 74 74 50

± ± ± ± ± ± ±

± ± ± ±

198 185 353 364 251 219 231

202 157 145 116

Table A.4 Radiocarbon ages of peat investigated in this study from the Shanghai Area. No.

Name of site

Depth below the present surface (m)

Elevation relative to m.s.l. (m WSD)

14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Sijing Caojing Banxiangchang Hongkou Maqiao Zhaoxiang Zhaoxiang Wujincheng Beiwaitan Beiwaitan Shisanzuqiao Shisanzuqiao

1.8 9.6 0 20 1.97–2.00 14 12.98 3.46 3.93 1.6 0.3 1

1.2 −2.6 5 −11 4.305 −11.33 −10.31 0.54 −0.93 1.4 2.7 2

2950 2950 4075 7330 7240 8140 7980 5710 7130 3875 4615 4660

13 14

Dongjing Dongjing

2.2 3.6

−1.2 −2.6

2950 ± 60 2950 ± 60

3111 ± 162 3111 ± 162

15 16 17

Dongjing Dongjing Dongjing

0.7 0.7 1

0.3 0.3 0

3001 ± 70 3370 ± 80 3407 ± 74

3177 ± 187 3639 ± 194 3657 ± 184

18 19 20

Dongjing Xiaofengyang Fengjing

1 0 0

0 3.0 2.8

3719 ± 64 4750 ± 70 4901 ± 130

4064 ± 185 5517 ± 83 5680 ± 235

C age (yr BP) ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

60 60 70 280 85 35 50 80 80 70 70 70

2σ calibrated age (cal. yr BP)

Reference

3111 3111 4577 8156 8069 9072 8847 6494 7932 4291 5347 5434

Yang (1985) Jing (1985) Jing (1985) Zhu et al. (1984) Yu et al. (1998) Cai et al. (2001) Cai et al. (2001) Zhu et al. (1980) Zhu et al. (1980) Zhu et al. (1980) Zhu et al. (1980) Chen and Stanley (1998) Zhu et al. (1980) Chen and Stanley (1998) Zhang (1991) Zhang (1991) Chen and Stanley (1998) Zhang (1991) Jing (1989) Jing (1985)

± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

162 162 154 570 141 67 155 176 140 154 134 154

88

L. Wu et al. / Catena 114 (2014) 78–89

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