Holocene reef growth in the tropical southwestern Atlantic: Evidence for sea level and climate instability

Quaternary Science Reviews 218 (2019) 365e377

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Holocene reef growth in the tropical southwestern Atlantic: Evidence for sea level and climate instability Belinda Dechnik a, *, Alex C. Bastos a, Laura S. Vieira a, Jody M. Webster b, Stewart Fallon c, Yusuke Yokoyama d, Luke Nothdurft e, Kelsey Sanborn b, Joao Batista a, Rodrigo Moura f, Gilberto Amado-Filho g a

Department of Oceanography, Federal University of Espirito Santo, Vitoria, ES-CEP-29075-910, Brazil Geocoastal Research Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, ACT, 0200, Australia d Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan e School of Earth, Environment and Biological Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, QLD, 4000, Australia f Instituto de Biologia and SAGE/COPPE, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21944-970, Brazil g ^nico do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22460-030, Brazil Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Bota b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 21 January 2019 Received in revised form 2 June 2019 Accepted 28 June 2019

The Holocene epoch offers a potential analogue for understanding future sea-level variability as both SST's and Global Mean Sea Levels (GMSL) were at times higher than observed today. However, GMSL can differ significantly from Relative Sea Level (RSL), even at far-field sites remote from margins of former ice sheets. Much of this spatial variability has been shown to be consistent with the predictions of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) models. Whilst it is generally accepted that RSL at far-field sites reached its maximum during the mid-Holocene, there have been many interpretations of sea level fall following the highstand from ~6 ka. Here, we present a RSL history from several tectonically stable, far-field sites in eastern Brazil, derived from 17 microatoll and 45 fossil reef flat ages. Our results show evidence for two periods of RSL instability during the Holocene which differ from GIA predictions, including a hiatus in reef growth ~3.7e2.5 ka. These results are broadly synchronous with several other locations in the Southern Hemisphere suggesting global rather than regional climatic forcing mechanisms are responsible. Variations in SST and southern hemisphere ice sheet dynamics are proposed as possible controlling mechanisms for the observed RSL oscillations beginning at ~3.7 ka and 2 ka respectively. We suggest that these global processes combined with increased precipitation (and higher sediment flux) from several regional climatic forces created inhospitable conditions for reef growth, contributing to the observed hiatus and reduced reef flat accretion during the late Holocene (~2 ka to present). © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sea level Microatoll Reef hiatus Holocene Abrolhos Fossil reef

1. Introduction The majority of the world's megacities are situated in low lying coastal environments and are therefore threatened by future sealevel rise (Neumann et al., 2015). Understanding the rate, magnitude and causes of past sea level provides a firm foundation on which to base projections of future sea-level change (Woodroffe, 2009). However, significant uncertainty exists over the magnitude and stability (smooth vs oscillating) of RSL over the last ~ 6 ka

* Corresponding author. Department of Oceanography, Federal University of Espirito Santo, Vitoria, ES-CEP-29075-910, Brazil. Tel.: þ61 407396861. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Dechnik). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.039 0277-3791/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

(Lambeck and Nakada, 1990; Angulo et al., 2006; Woodroffe, 2009; Lewis et al., 2013; Meltzner et al., 2017; Hallmann et al., 2018). This is in part due to discrepancies in differing sea-level proxies used in various studies, including uncertainty in the relationship between the vertical range of bio-indicators and the sea-level datum and how that range may vary with changes in morpho-dynamics (e.g. change in wind/wave regime etc). (Angulo et al., 2006; Lewis et al., 2008; Lewis et al., 2013). Distinguishing between relative versus global (eustatic) sea-level signals is further complicated by uncertainties in the contribution of tectonics and isostatic components at geographically divergent sites (Milne and Mitrovica, 2008). More recent investigations have focused on using coral microatolls from tectonically stable regions, far from former ice-sheets (Lewis et al., 2008; Leonard et al., 2016, 2018). Microatolls are

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considered one of the most reliable sea-level proxies as their upper surface is constrained by Mean Low Water Spring (MLWS), providing precise vertical paleo errors (Smithers and Woodroffe, 2000; Lewis et al., 2008). These investigations show significant deviations from the general eustatic model for far field sites which support a smoothly falling sea level following a peak highstand in the mid-late Holocene (Lambeck and Nakada, 1990; Milne et al., 2005). Instability of ice sheets, glacial advances and variations in regional SST has been invoked as a possible mechanisms for high frequency centennial to millennial sea level oscillations observed (Baker and Haworth, 2000; Lewis et al., 2008; Leonard et al., 2016, 2018). Conversely, a review of more than 1000 observations of sea level data suggests there is no evidence for a global oscillation greater than 0.2 m extending beyond a ~200-year duration (Lambeck et al., 2014). Divergent interpretations thus remain, even amongst locations distant from former ice sheets about whether relative sea level fell smoothly from highstand levels or underwent a series of oscillations throughout the mid to late Holocene. The mid Holocene is also seen as period of significant reef flat demise across the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean, including eastern Australia (Perry and Smithers, 2011; Dechnik et al., 2017), Hawaii (Grigg, 1998) and Panama (Toth et al., 2017). Reef flat hiatuses in response to regional forcing mechanisms (e.g. El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), thermal expansion and contraction, declining water quality, cyclone activity) have resulted in various phases of reef flat turn on and off (Baker et al., 2005; Smithers et al., 2006; Hamanaka et al., 2012; Dechnik et al., 2017; Toth et al., 2017; Ryan et al., 2018). Thus, understanding the timing and nature of reef flat development at tropical far field sites has implications for interpreting potential environmental and/or climatic shifts at regional scales. It further provides greater insight into the persistence (or not) of reef growth through time, allowing us to better recognise when changes in reef health were in response to natural or anthropogenic forces (Pandolfi and Kiessling, 2014). Eastern Brazil represents a tectonically stable region in the tropical southwestern Atlantic far from previous major glaciation (Milne et al., 2005). Despite the numerous sea-level curves that exist for the Brazilian region (Angulo et al., 2006), relatively few investigations have utilized fossil reefs as proxies for past sea level. Only two isolated long cores have been drilled along the inner ~o et al., 1985; Bastos et al., 2016). As recently continental shelf (Lea demonstrated by Webb et al. (2016) and Dechnik et al. (2017) only closely spaced reef core transects can accurately constrain the timing of when reefs first approached sea level and the subsequent direction and rate of lateral reef flat accretion. Furthermore, many of the previous investigations have focused on a range of fixed biological indicators which have been identified as inaccurate in both time and space (Angulo et al., 2006). To address these problems directly, we collected and dated 17 microatolls in conjunction with 45 reef flat ages, across several reef flat transects from two tectonically stable sites in eastern Brazil (i.e. Abrolhos, Bahia and Anchieta, Espirito Santo). Our specific objectives were to 1) undertake a detailed chronological analysis of closely spaced ages across these reefs to establish the timing of when they first approached sea level and 2) identify and constrain any observed RSL oscillations and/or reef flat hiatuses and attribute any potential response to global climatic or regional environmental changes.

2. Methods 2.1. Study sites The coastal zone of Eastern Brazil receives substantial riverine ~o & Ginsburg, 1997) and is input and terrigenous sedimentation (Lea

subjected to a low disturbance regime sheltered from storms, subtropical cyclones or hurricanes creating unique oceanographic conditions that deviate from typical clear water Indo-Pacific and Caribbean reefs ((Bastos et al., 2018). Brazilian turbid-zone reefs, including the two sites addressed herein, encompass impoverished biological assemblages dominated by stress-tolerant species. Of the 18 species of Scleractinia coral which occur in the region six are endemic to Brazil including; Mussismilia braziliensis, M. hispida, M. harttii, Favia leptophylla, F. gravida and Siderastrea stellata. 2.1.1. Abrolhos reefs The Abrolhos Continental Shelf (ACS) (Fig. 1) is a 200 km wide mixed carbonate-siliciclastic platform that encompasses the largest and most complex reefs in the South Atlantic (Moura et al., 2013; Bastos et al., 2015). The three sampled sites, Coroa Vermelha, ~o Gomes and Pedra Grande, are located 10e15 km offshore Sebastia on the inner reef arc and are periodically exposed during low tide ~o et al., 2003). Coroa Vermelha is the only reef in the ACS to (Lea have a carbonate coral cay located in its centre. Coroa Vermelha and ~o Gomes are individual bank reefs, whilst Pedra Grande is Sebastia part of a larger reef complex composed of semi-coalesced mush~es) (Fig. 1). Tides are semi-diurnal room-shaped pinnacles (chapeiro with a spring tidal range of 2.6 m. Mean Sea Level (MSL) is 1.6 m above lowest astronomical tide for the Port of Caravelas, MLWS water level is 1.3 m and mean low water neap (MLWN) is 0.6 m ~o, 2017). relative to MSL (Diretoria De Hidrografia and Navegaça Dominant winds during summer (OctobereFebruary) are from the north-east, strong south-east winds can occur during winter storms (between May and August) (Diretoria De Hidrografia and Navegaç~ ao, 2017). The Brazilian Current is the dominant current in the region and flows southward at an average speed of ~0.7 knots ~o et al., 2003). Five small rivers (Jucuruçu, Itanhe m, Peruípe, (Lea Mucuri and Caravelas) are located adjacent to the inner arc reefs, where their cumulative freshwater flow can substantially affect the reefs during high rainfall in the summer months (Leipe et al., 1999). 2.1.2. Anchieta fringing reef Anchieta is a nearshore turbid fringing reef in the southeast state of Espirito Santo, located approximately 300 km south of the ACS shelf (Fig. 1). The reef flat itself is dominated by crustose coralline algae with outcrops of ferruginous rocks (“laterites”) present throughout (Martin et al., 1997). The dominant hydrodynamic and climatic conditions are similar to the ACS, however, Anchieta has a smaller spring tidal range of 1.4 m and is more exposed to cold front-associated storms. MSL is 0.8 m above lowest astronomical tide for the Port of Vitoria, MLWS is 0.7 m, MLWN ~o, is 0.2 m relative to MSL (Diretoria De Hidrografia and Navegaça 2017). 2.2. Microatoll and core collection Twenty-four short cores ~1e1.5 m in length were collected from the ACS using a hand held hydraulically driven rotary drill (Fig. 2A). ~o Four sites were drilled at Coroa Vermelha, three sites at Sebastia Gomes and one at Pedra Grande. A transect of three cores per site were drilled, approximately 10 m apart to better constrain reef growth during the Holocene still stand (Dechnik et al., 2016; Webb et al., 2016). Cores were drilled in the highest observed fossil microatolls or coral heads at each site in order to capture the Holocene highstand (Fig. 2B, D). Nineteen short cores were collected from Anchieta through the fossil reef flat, with an additional nine microatolls sampled using a hammer and chisel across 5 transects (Fig. 1). Whilst we attempted to core the full extent of the Anchieta reef flat, we observed that part of the upper flat located closest to

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Fig. 1. Location of study sites along eastern Brazil. Bathymetry of continental shelf after Bastos et al. (2015), A) Location of the three inner arc reefs on the Abrolhos continental shelf, ~o Gomes. B) Anchieta fringing reef showing the five-reef core transects. Orange circles represent individual cores/micro-atolls, C) Coroa Vermelha, D) Pedra Grande and E) Sebastia Each site represents a transect of 3 closely spaced (~10 m) reef cores. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

the beach had been covered by significant amounts of sand prograding over the flat (Fig. 2E). Specifically, we were unable to sample large Mussismilia harttii corals that were evident on our first expedition, as the upper reef flat had been prograded over following a series of storms from May to July 2017 (Fig. 2F). This is evident when looking at satellite imagery from Google Earth Pro which documents the dynamic behaviour of this reef flat, revealing that since 2003 approximately 30 m of the upper reef flat has been prograded by beach sediments (Digitalearthglobe, 2018). Hence, at

this site we are not confident we were able to capture the maximum Holocene high stand. Nevertheless, both sites are in open-water environments (as opposed to moated environments), therefore, we consider the elevation of the fossil microatolls to represent paleo-MLWS. The Abrolhos reef flats are heavily infilled with muddy sediments with no living reef or living coral colonies observed across the flats at any of the drilling sites (Fig. 2C). However, live reef growth occurs on the reef edges in deeper water ~o & Ginsburg, 1997; Lea ~o et al., 2003; Francini-Filho et al., (Lea

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Fig. 2. A) Drill used to collect fossil coral material, B) Fossil coral heads of M. braziliensis buried within muddy sediments, C) Representative section of Coroa Velmelha reef flat showing significant sediment infill and no modern reef growth, D) Example of fossil micro-atoll (M. cavernosa) used in this study, E) Pink dotted line showing prograding sand overlying fossil reef flat at Anchieta, F) M. hartii fossils evident on the first expedition to Anchieta which were subsequently prograded over before sampling had begun, G) Example of fossil micro-atoll (M. braziliensis) showing distinctive round, flat topped morphology, H) Surface morphology of Siderastrea stellate microatoll demonstrating radiation of corallites from the centre of the colony. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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2013). Similarly, the Anchieta reef flat is heavily infilled by sediments with active growth limited to small Siderastrea colonies in sparse tidal pools across the reef flat. Surface elevations of all samples were determined using a Trimble-Real-Time KinematicGlobal Navigation Satellite System (RTK-GNSS) with a positional and vertical accuracy of ±11 mm. 2.3. Radiocarbon dating Fossil corals were defined to their lowest taxonomic level based on taxonomic guides (Castro, 1994; Veron, 2016) and comparisons with modern species. Corals were classified as either In-situ (IS), Not Enough Information (NEI) or Not In-Situ (NIS) based on criteria established in Humblet and Webster (2017). Only IS corals were chosen for further analysis. Sixty-two samples free of obvious diagenetic alteration and other detrital contamination were chosen for X-ray diffraction (XRD) and subsequent radiocarbon dating (Table 1). Approximately 1e2 mg of graphite was measured using a Single Stage Accelerator Mass Spectrometer at the Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan (Hirabayashi et al., 2017) and at the Australian National University (ANU), Australia (Fallon et al., 2010). Ages were calibrated using Calib 7.1 available at http://calib. qub.ac.uk/calib. The Marine13 calibration curve was applied assuming a global marine reservoir effect of 400 years and a Delta R of 85 ± 25, accounting for regional correction (Alves et al., 2015). For XRD samples, between 0.1 and 0.7 g were hand ground to a powder in an agate mortar and pestle under ethanol. Samples were front-pressed into low background circular holders. To examine for diagenesis on the fossil corals and possible contamination of the radiocarbon ages XRD patterns were collected using a PANalytical X'Pert Pro diffractometer using a cobalt source operating at 40 kV and 40 mA. Patterns were acquired from 5 to 90  2q at a step size of 0.0167 over 1 h. Incident optics included an iron Kb filter, 0.04 rad Soller slits, 15 mm beam mask, fixed 0.25 divergence slit, and 1 anti-scatter slit. Receiving optics before the X'Celerator detector included 0.04 rad Soller slits and a 5.0 mm anti-scatter slit. Samples were spun during analysis. Phase identification was performed using PDF4þ (ICDD) database in Jade (MDI, V6.8) and X'Pert Highscore Plus (PANalytical, V4.5). Rietveld refinement was used to determine phase abundances for the phases identified in TOPAS (Bruker, V5). An instrument function from SRM660A (LaB6, NIST) was used to model the intrinsic peak shapes. 3. Results 3.1. AMS dating results Fourteen of the sixty-two ages reported greater than 3% high Mg calcite, despite all ages occurring in chrono-stratigraphic order. Specifically, two samples (SG2 and PG2.2) were subjected to additional cleaning to assess the possible influence of calcite contamination on the ages. However, these samples (SG2.1.1 and P.G2.2.1) returned ages that are within error of the first measurements despite showing significant variations in calcite (0%/6.6% and 1.3%/ 15.5% respectively) (Table 1). This suggests that these ages are unlikely to have been significantly altered despite their higher percentage of high Mg calcite identified in the coral skeleton. Nevertheless, we have placed lesser importance on these ages and represented them with open symbols in Figs. 3e5 for easy comparison. 3.2. Age/elevation of fossil corals As both sites occur in open water environments we consider the elevation of the fossil microatolls to represent paleo-MLWS, with

369

MLWN the upper limit of microatoll growth, represented by the solid grey vertical error bars in Figs. 3 and 4 (Smithers and Woodroffe, 2000; Lewis et al., 2013; Harris et al., 2015). The elevation of fossil coral heads are less well constrained, however, previous studies along the eastern Brazilian coast have assigned a paleodepth error ranging from 0 to 2.9 m for individual corals and 1 m for corals heavily encrusted by thick coralline algae and vermetid gastropods (dashed grey vertical error bars, Figs. 3 and 4D) (Martin et al., 2003; Angulo et al., 2006). Elevations were originally reduced to meters relative to modern site specific Mean Low Water Spring (MLWS), the level to which microatolls are constrained by the air-sea interface (Smithers and Woodroffe, 2000) (Fig. 3). However, for easy comparison to previously published sea level curves from the region, age-elevation data was then plotted relative to meters above present MSL and referred to herein (Fig. 4D). Microatoll data from Anchieta suggests that the reef flat reached Present Mean Sea Level a(PMSL) by 5.68 ± 0.11 ka (Fig. 4D). Reef growth continued to grow laterally above PMSL between 5.3 ± 0.13 ka to 5.1 ± 0.15 ka. RSL were þ0.4 m to þ0.56 m above PMSL during this period (based on an offset from MLWS tidal level to fossil microatoll elevation) (Fig. 4D). A distinct hiatus in reef growth was observed from 5.1 ± 0.15 ka to 4.36 ± 0.13 ka at Anchieta during which time Coroa Vermelha first approached sea level (4.76 ± 0.01 ka) at þ0.5 m above PMSL. Reef flat growth continued at both sites reaching a maximum Holocene highstand of þ0.63 m until 3.73 ± 0.12 ka, when significant reef flat growth appears to have turned off. Following a 1 ka hiatus, minor reef growth was observed during both sites at 2.48e2.63 ka at lower elevations of 1.03 ~o Gomes and Pedra Grande first to 0.58 m below PMSL. Sebastia approached present RSL during this same period (~2.8e2.0 ka) at similar depths. A small rise in RSL was observed beginning ~2.3e2.5 ka. Relative sea level errors suggest a maximum possible highstand of þ1.2e1.24 m at Pedra Grande from 2.33 ± 0.16 to 1.99 ka ± 0.11. However, we suggest it is more likely to be closer to the lower bound of the paleo-water depth error (~þ0.4 m), based on the more ~o Gomes precisely constrained microatoll data from Sebastia (Fig. 4).

4. Discussion Over the past few decades there has been significant debate about height, magnitude and stability (smooth vs oscillating) of RSL along the Brazilian coast (Suguio & Martin, 1982; Martin et al., 1986; Dominguez et al., 1987; Angulo et al., 1999; Baker and Haworth, 2000; Bezerra et al., 2003; Martin, 2003; Martin et al., 2003; Milne et al., 2005; Angulo et al., 2006; Suguio et al., 2013; De Jesus et al., 2017). Whilst peak RSL elevation during the maximum Holocene highstand varies from approximately 2 to 5 m above present sea level, most studies agree it occurred between 5.7 and 5.1 ka (Angulo et al., 2006; Suguio et al., 2013; De Jesus et al., 2017). The difference in elevation has largely been attributed to variations in Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) along the coast, with the northern Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro regions obtaining slightly higher peak mean sea levels (þ4e5 m) than the southern Santa Caterina region (þ2e3 m) (Milne et al., 2005). The maximum inferred RSL highstand at Abrolhos and Anchieta reefs are significantly lower (þ0.40e0.63 m) than previous studies (Fig. 4a) (Bezerra et al., 2003; Le~ ao et al., 2003; Martin et al., 2003; Angulo et al., 2006). This could be the result of several factors: 1) discrepancies in elevation surveys which use a range of different datums and inferred palaeo-sea levels, 2) microatoll sea-level reconstructions are on average 0.5 m lower than other common fixed biological indicators due to site specific environmental conditions (e.g. wave height) (Lewis et al., 2008; Leonard et al., 2016)

370

Table 1 Results of new AMS-C14 ages from the Abrolhos Continental Shelf and Anchieta fringing reef. Reef

Sample ID

Elevation relative to MSL (m)

14 C Age (14C years BP)

Median Calibrated Age (Yr BP)

2s Error (Calender Years)

XRD % Calcite

Coral Genera

Context

Vertical paleodepth error (m)

55027 55029 55030 55031 55111 55112 55113 YAUT-036704 55114 55116 55118 55125 55126 55134 55120 YAUT-036406 YAUT-036409 YAUT-036703 55121 55119 55117 55127 55129 55130 55131 55132 55133 YAUT-036411 YAUT-036412 YAUT-036705 YAUT-043626 YAUT-036416 55032 55124 YAUT-036413 55123 YAUT-043625 YAUT-036415 55019 55020 55021 55023 55024 55025 55026 55033 55035 55106 55107 55109 55110 YAUT-036706 YAUT-036802

Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha Coroa Vermelha ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia ~o Gomes Sebastia Pedra Grande Pedra Grande Pedra Grande Pedra Grande Pedra Grande Pedra Grande Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta

CV-8.2 CV-4 CV-14.2 CV-14.1 CV-13.1 CV-13.2 CV-13.3 CV-9.1 CV-9.2 CV-9.3 CV-7 CV-12.2 CV-10 CV-6 CV-11 CV-5 CV-12.1 CV-8 SG-5.2 SG-4 SG-2.2 SG-1 SG-3.2 SG-3.1 SG-8.3 SG-8.2 SG-8.1 SG-5.1 SG-9 SG-2.1 SG-2.1.1 SG-7 PG-1.2 PG-1.1 PG-2.1 PG-2.2 PG-2.2.1 PG-3 SC-16 SC-7.1 SC-17.1 SC-14 SC-15.2 SC-4 SC-9 MA-2 MA-15 MA-16 SC-10.3 MA-9 SC-5 MA-12 MA-13

0.98 0.97 0.62 0.092 þ0.07 0.41 0.6 0.4 0.7 1.26 0.91 0.86 0.61 0.549 0.98 1.03 0.2 0.75 0.9 1.02 0.59 0.65 1.3 0.63 1.83 1.4 1.11 0.69 1.28 0.29 0.29 1.637 0.58 þ0.24 þ0.2 0.92 0.92 0.11 0.08 0.58 0.2 0.21 0.57 þ0.03 0.02 þ0.03 þ0.03 þ0.01 0.05 0.10 0.11 þ0.03 þ0.03

4049 ± 41 3875 ± 32 4519 ± 33 4290 ± 33 4185 ± 27 4355 ± 27 4447 ± 29 4321 ± 22 4395 ± 26 4493 ± 28 4116 ± 26 4723 ± 27 4110 ± 26 4241 ± 27 4367 ± 27 2963 ± 23 4505±28 3964±22 3132 ± 25 3182 ± 25 2719 ± 26 2765 ± 25 2882 ± 26 2766 ± 25 2819 ± 25 2816 ± 25 2854 ± 27 2844 ± 25 2961 ± 26 2588 ± 21 2559 ± 27 2836 ± 25 25292 ± 31 2446 ± 27 2733 ± 42 2790 ± 25 2721 ± 26 2626 ± 23 4227 ± 35 2813 ± 31 4058 ± 33 5138 ± 35 5398 ± 34 5042 ± 34 3862 ± 33 4333 ± 33 4001 ± 43 3949 ± 26 711 þ 24 5026 ± 27 5313 ± 29 4279 ± 26 3857 ± 28

3962 3729 4630 4284 4143 4381 4511 4326 4436 4566.5 4044.5 4877.5 4032.5 4236 4394.5 2627 4758.5 3840 2823 2865 2311.5 1270.5 2543.5 2390.5 2467.5 2465.5 2506 2496.5 2623 2179 2142 2478.5 2105 1989 2329.5 2421 2308.5 2212 4218.5 2464.5 3966 5411.5 5682.5 5167.5 3713 4355.5 3905 3821.5 389 5300.5 5578.5 4278.5 3711

3822 þ 4102 3609 þ 3849 4479 þ 4781 4158 þ 4410 4008 þ 4278 4261 þ 4501 4395 þ 4627 4221 þ 4432 4322 þ 4550 4426 þ 4707 3920 þ 4169 4790 þ 4965 3910 þ 4155 4104 þ 4368 4277 þ 4512 2518 þ 2736 4749 þ 4768 2721 þ 3958 2737 þ 2909 2761 þ 2969 2191 þ 2432 2293 þ 2480 2402 þ 2685 2292 þ 2489 2331 þ 2604 2330 þ 2601 2358 þ 2654 2349 þ 2644 2510 þ 2736 2.068 þ 2.289 2013 þ 2274 2342 þ 2615 1967 þ 2243 1881 þ 2097 2176 þ 2483 2305 þ 2537 2197 þ 2437 2117 þ 2307 4076 þ 4361 2322 þ 2607 3839 þ 4093 5298 þ 5525 5576 þ 5789 5191 þ 5144 3592 þ 3834 4225 þ 4486 3748 þ 4062 3702 þ 3941 411 þ 367 5176 þ 5427 5482 þ 5675 4159 þ 4398 3597 þ 3825

0 38.4 2.5 17.7 0 0 0 0 3.5 0 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.3 0 0 1.2 1 12.8 0 0 0.7 0 0.6 1 36 63.6 0.6 32.7 6.6 0 47.6 57.1 3 0.9 15.5 1.3 38.3 0 0.9 1.1 0 5.4 0.5 1.3 0 1.5 0 0 0 1 1.2 0

Mussismilia Siderastrea Millepora Mussismilia Mussismilia Mussismilia Mussismilia Mussismillia Mussismilia Mussismilia Mussismilia Montastrea Mussismillia Montastrea Montastrea Porites Montastrea Mussismillia Siderastrea Millepora Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Millepora Siderastrea Siderastrea Millepora Mussismilia Mussismilia Millepora Millepora Mussismilia Millepora Millepora Millepora Millepora Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Bryozoan Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea

Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Micro-atoll Micro-atoll Reef Flat Reef Flat Micro-atoll Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Micro-atoll Reef Flat Micro-atoll Reef Flat Micro-atoll Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Micro-atoll Micro-atoll Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Micro-atoll Micro-atoll Micro-atoll Reef Flat Micro-atoll Reef Flat Micro-atoll Micro-atoll

1 1 1 0.7 0.7 1 1 0.7 1 1 1 1 0.7 1 0.7 1 0.7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.7 0.7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5

B. Dechnik et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 218 (2019) 365e377

Lab Code

Lab code beginning with YUAT analysed at the University of Tokyo. Lab code beginning with 55 analysed at the Australian National University.

YAUT-036707 YAUT-036711 YAUT-036713 YAUT-036715 YAUT-036716 YAUT-036712 YAUT-036717 YAUT-036718 55239

Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta Anchieta

MA-7 MA-18 SC-6 SC-15.1 SC-17.2 SC-8.2 SC-7.2 SC-2 MA-6

þ0.06 0.41 0 þ0.02 0.75 0.35 1.03 0.18 0.13

4890 ± 27 3934 ± 25 5189 ± 25 4924 ± 23 4159 ± 22 3901 ± 26 2843 ± 21 2580 ± 25 3974 ± 25

5101.5 3800.5 5358 5144 4105 3758 2482.5 5547 3759

4955 3686 5342 5017 3958 3646 2349 5465 3725

þ þ þ þ þ þ þ þ þ

5248 3915 5374 5271 4225 3870 2616 5629 3792

0 0 1.1 0.9 0.9 4.2 0 1 0

Siderastrea Favia Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea Porites Siderastrea Siderastrea Siderastrea

Micro-atoll Micro-atoll Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Reef Flat Micro-atoll

0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5

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and 3) the timing of when the reefs from different regions first approached present RSL (i.e. the Abrolhos reefs may have still been catching up to sea level during the peak maximum highstand). Furthermore, it is possible that the peak maximum highstand at Anchieta occurred during the hiatus between 5.1 and 4.36 ka as is common for most other Brazilian sites, and we simply were not able to capture it, being buried under sand. We have considered several other factors which could explain this possible hiatus including tectonics, cyclone activity, RSL variations and climatic changes. Apart from the north-eastern region, the eastern and south-eastern coastline of Brazil is considered relatively tectonically stable (Angulo et al., 2006; Bezerra et al., 2011). Similarly, the region is not subjected to extreme sub-tropical cyclone or hurricane activity ~o et al., 2003; Pezza and Simmonds, 2005; Evans and Braun, (Lea 2012; Bastos et al., 2018) and major climatic shifts (including regional variations in ENSO, SST, Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), South American Southern Dipole (SASD) and Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)) occurred after ~4 ka (Marchant and Hooghiemstra, 2004), the details of which are explored below. Whilst RSL oscillations at similar southerly latitudes have been identified and related to global glacial advance and/or Holocene cooling events (Hamanaka et al., 2012; Hallmann et al., 2018; Leonard et al., 2018), they occur ~500 years earlier than observed at Anchieta. Hence, we consider the hiatus between 5.1 and 4.36 ka to be a sampling bias and not a true reef growth hiatus. Nevertheless, our data suggests that reef flat continued to laterally accrete until ~3.7 ka before abruptly turning off at both sites. This was likely due to: 1) reduced accommodation as a result of falling sea level and/or 2) exhausting all available lateral accommodation space, completely covering optimum foundations for reef flat progradation. Whilst we are unable to constrain the magnitude of the RSL fall during the hiatus from 3.73 to 2.87 ka, ~o Gomes suggests RSL remained at age/elevation data from Sebastia or below PMSL until ~2.5 ka when RSL began to rise again peaking at þ0.4 m above PMSL, ~2.3e2 ka (Fig. 3). Only one reef flat age exists after 2 ka, suggesting sea level likely began to fall again, consistent with other RSL curves from the region (Milne et al., 2005; Angulo et al., 2006; Suguio et al., 2013) and other far-field sites (Lewis et al., 2013; Khan et al., 2015). Thus, excluding the earlier hiatus at Anchieta our results show two inconsistencies from the glacio-isostatic predictions for the area (Milne et al., 2005). First, our data shows a significant fall in sea level from ~3.7 ka and second a small sea level rise between ~2.5 and 2 ka, consistent with other late Holocene RSL oscillations recorded at similar southern latitudinal locations (Baker and Haworth, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 2008). The late Holocene RSL oscillations observed in this study are out of phase with previous investigations that identified two distinctive high-frequency oscillations at 4.3e3.5 ka and 2.7e2.1 ka along the Brazilian coast (i.e our study suggests a sea level fall when their study suggests a rise and vice-versa) (Suguio & Martin, 1982; Martin et al., 1986; Martin et al., 1992; Martin, 2003) (Fig. 4A). However, many of the paleo sea-level proxies used to define these high frequency oscillations are imprecise (in time and space) and/or misinterpreted (see Angulo et al. (2006) review for full discussion). Two other studies from northern (De Jesus et al., 2017) and southern (Angulo et al., 1999) Brazil suggest a smooth and gradually falling sea level for the Brazilian region over the last 7 ka, consistent with proposed GIA models (Milne et al., 2005). However, these studies fitted linear regressions or polynomial functions to ageelevation data, an approach that can give a false sense of accuracy to sea-level curves (Bezerra et al., 2003). When the raw data from both studies is plotted against our data the same hiatus in reef growth is observed (Fig. 4C). Revisiting all available sea-level data

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Fig. 3. Relative sea level curve for the Abrolhos and Anchieta reef flats relative to site specific MLWS. Paleo sea level errors are represented by the solid grey vertical error bars for micro atolls and dotted grey vertical error bars for reef flat ages. Dotted grey box represents the reef flat hiatus at Anchieta which we interpret as a sampling bias. Faded blue box represents reef growth hiatus observed across both sites. Open symbols represent samples with >3% calcite. Horizontal error bars may be smaller than symbol. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

for the Brazilian region, Angulo et al. (2006) also proposed a smoothly falling sea level since the peak highstand ~5.5 ka (Fig. 4B), with no significant drop in sea level during our proposed RSL fall (~3.7e2.5 ka). This curve is based exclusively on vermetid gastropods which they consider to be the most reliable paleo sea-level reference. However, vermetid gastropods can commonly occur up to 2 m higher than their expected upper limit of formation, particularly in exposed high energy settings (Laborel, 1986; Schiaparelli et al., 2006). Vermetids have a much higher desiccation tolerance to exposure than Scleractinian corals and thrive in environments exposed to strong surf conditions (Taylor, 1968; Littler and Doty, 1975; Hopley, 1986; Steneck et al., 1997). This is particularly evident on reef flats globally where algal ridges heavily encrusted by vermetids form as elevated rims overlying corals on outer reef flats (Montaggioni, 2005; Montaggioni and Braithwaite, 2009; Woodroffe and Webster, 2014). These zones are often defined as areas prone to high breakage, desiccation through exposure at low tide and ultra violet light stress (Hibbert et al., 2016). Hence, a fall in sea level during this period may have been masked by the higher exposure tolerance of vermetids and their ability to thrive in the sublittoral (Schiaparelli et al., 2006). This is further highlighted when previous calibrated coral reef flat ages ~o et al., 1985) are plotted from fringing reefs of northern Bahia (Lea on the Angulo et al. (2006) sea level curve (Fig. 4B), as only one coral age falls within our putative sea level hiatus close to when sea level began to rise again at ~ 3 ka. A more robust sea-level envelope utilizing a range of reliable fixed biological and sedimentary indicators is presented by Bezerra et al. (2003) for the north-eastern region of Brazil and shows a fall at ~4 ka and subsequent rise in sea level at ~ 2.5 ka (Fig. 4A). However, north-west and north-east- trending fault lines cut across the dated Holocene coastal record, which may have resulted in the elevation and sea level offsets detected in this region. It was therefore suggested that the RSL oscillation observed between 4.08 and 2.79 ka may be the result of fault movements resulting in coastal uplift and subsidence along the north-eastern coastline (Bezerra et al., 2003). Further south along the inner arc of the ACS, D'Agostini et al. (2015) identified a sea-level oscillation sometime after 5.6 ka based on interpreted stratigraphic units from seismic profiles. However, further dating is needed to confirm exactly when this proposed oscillation occurred. No major fault lines or neotectonic movement is observed on the ACS and surrounding coastlines, suggesting that this region remained relatively stable throughout the Holocene (Bezerra et al., 2011). Furthermore, the timing of the RSL fall at ~3.7 ka and the subsequent rise at ~2.5e2 ka

has been observed at several other southerly latitudinal locations (Baker and Haworth, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 2008). Specifically, Baker and Haworth (2000) identified several consistent fluctuations in RSL between south-eastern Australia and southeastern Brazil. In both regions d180 values also indicate relatively cooler oceanic temperatures after ~3.8 ka accompanied by a rapid sea level drop followed by a warmer phase at ~2.6 ka in Brazil and ~2 ka in Australia (Fig. 5E). Variations in sea level and d180 were accompanied by sharp boundary changes and/or disappearances of temperature sensitive marker species at both sites, suggesting possible synchronicity of climatic forces in the southern hemisphere. Cooler SST's during the mid-Holocene concurrent with the sea-level fall identified in this study (Fig. 5B) have been observed elsewhere in the sub-tropical and tropical Atlantic (Demenocal et al., 2000; Giry et al., 2012; Arbuszewski et al., 2013). Analogous mid-latitudinal changes in sea level and tropical marker species were observed along the West Australian coast (Baker et al., 2005) whilst Lewis et al. (2008) observed a similar pattern of sea-level change at several sites in north-eastern Australia. A distinct reef flat hiatus is also observed regionally across mid-outer platforms reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) from 3.6 to 1.5 ka (Dechnik et al., 2017), synchronous with the RSL oscillation recorded in the Abrolhos and Anchieta reefs in eastern Brazil. The origin of these oscillations has been linked with global oceanic and climatic changes including glacial advance and meltwater contributions from both the northern hemisphere and Antarctic ice sheets. Such climatic shift could also produce, anomalous changes in SST resulting in ocean expansion and contraction invoking sea level changes of up to 1 m (Willis et al., 2004). However, controversy exists over the synchronicity in timing and magnitude of global melt water contributions with scarce climatic data available for the southern hemisphere (Wanner et al., 2008, 2011; Solomina et al., 2015). This has significantly biased climate interpretations to the northern hemisphere. Nevertheless, the small-scale changes in RSL observed across the southern latitudinal regions (Baker and Haworth, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 2008) correlate well with changes in Antarctic ice volume. Specifically, Goodwin (1998) estimated that the total Antarctic contribution to eustatic sea level lowering between 4 and 2.5 ka was between 1- and 0.67 m, in line with the magnitude of sea-level fall in this study. Sea ice advance and cooler SST's in the Antarctic have also been observed from ~5 ka representing the beginning of the neoglaciation (Crosta et al., 1998; Hodell et al., 2001). Similar cooling events have been observed in the northwest Pacific. Here, the Pulleniatina obliquiloculata minimum event is defined by lower

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Fig. 4. A-C represents the various relative sea level curves from Eastern Brazil relative to mean sea-level. Previously dated radiocarbon ages were re-calibrated where necessary, D) Age/elevation data from this study relative to MSL. Blue line represents our best fit MSL interpretation based on paleo sea level errors from micro atolls (solid grey vertical error bars) and reef flat ages (dotted grey vertical error bars). Grey box represents the true reef flat hiatus observed at the Abrolhos and Anchieta reefs. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

SST between 4.6 ka and 2.7 ka, broadly corresponding to a weakening of the Kuroshio Current in response to enhanced cold winter Asian monsoons and north Atlantic ice-rafting cold events (Baohua et al., 1997; Hamanaka et al., 2012). Centennial scale variability in ice-volume changes were also suggested to be responsible for the

fall in sea level observed across French Polynesia between 3.6 and 1.2 ka (Hallmann et al., 2018). However, no rise in sea level was identified in the late Holocene as seen at other tropical locations in the Southern Hemisphere. Yokoyama et al. (2012, 2016) also identified a relative sea level fall in Japan after 4 ka which they

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Fig. 5. A) South American Southern Dipole index proxy showing increased variability since the mid Holocene (Wainer et al., 2014), B) SST variations from the West (pink line) (Arbuszewski et al., 2013) and East Atlantic (blue line) (Demenocal et al., 2000), C) Sedimentary record of % clay from El Junco Crater Lake, in the Galapagos Islands, D) Percent of titanium in a deep-sea core from Cariaco Basin (Haug et al., 2001) E) Absolute dO18 values from South-Eastern Brazil and Australia with interpreted palaeo environmental change (Baker et al., 2001), F) Age/elevation data from this study. Grey box represents our observed mid-Holocene relative sea level fall. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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attributed to the cessation of Antarctic meltwater influx. However, no oscillation was identified following the mid-Holocene highstand, the magnitude and timing of which was identified as a function of GIA at a far field location. Similarly, a review of global far-field sea-level proxy data reported no eustatic sea level oscillation greater than 0.2 m in time interval 200 years over the last 6 ka (Lambeck et al., 2014) but vertical uncertainties of these estimates may reach up to several meters. More recent investigations (Hamanaka et al., 2012; Hallmann et al., 2018; Leonard et al., 2018) have linked high frequency RSL oscillations at ~5.5 and ~4.6 ka respectively with northern hemisphere glacial advance, corresponding to north Atlantic Bond cycles and some rapid global cooling events. These earlier hiatuses are not observed in Brazil. However, the fall at ~5.5 ka occurred as our reefs were still approaching sea level, thus making comparisons difficult. The later fall at ~4.6 ka occurred during the hiatus identified at Anchieta, however, as stated earlier this is likely the result of sampling bias. Clearly, further examination of high resolution RSL data is needed to better constrain the timing and mechanisms responsible for these observed changes and their possible links to ice sheet fluctuations and/or other climatic factors before any firm conclusions can be drawn. Nevertheless, the consistent timing of these oscillations across three other southerly locations (i.e western and eastern Australia and south-eastern Brazil) indicates that global climatic changes may have influenced mid-late Holocene sea-level variations. Warmer-to-cooler environmental changes may have invoked the repeated build up and break off of ice sheets throughout the Holocene providing mechanisms for small-scale sea-level rises and falls. Similarly, millennial scale variation in SST may have produced the necessary thermal contraction (expansion) necessary for the observed sea level changes along the eastern Brazilian coastline. Increased variability in ENSO events can also invoke significant changes in sea level. In Pacific Panama, peak La Nina conditions at 3.8e3.2 ka created greater atmospheric pressure over the region lowering RSL's and subjecting corals to more frequent sub-aerial exposure, significantly reducing reef accretion (Toth et al., 2012; Toth et al., 2017). Similarly, in the GBR varying phases of ENSO and SST anomalies throughout the mid-Holocene have been linked to contraction (cooling) of the Indo Pacific Warm Pool (IPWP) providing a possible mechanism for observed sea level oscillations (Lewis et al., 2008; Leonard et al., 2018). However, the effects of wind-stress on sea level from extreme variations in ENSO are significantly reduced in the sub-tropical Atlantic (Pennington et al., 2006). Thus, despite evidence for increase La Nina activity 3.8e3.2 ka (Conroy et al., 2008) (Fig. 5C) sea level elevation in response to wind stress is unlikely to have significantly affected our study sites. However, peak La Nina activity may have significantly increased fluvial and terrestrial runoff in the region creating inimical conditions for reef accretion. During strong El Nino events, anomalously high rainfall is blocked by the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ), producing a bi-polar precipitation effect with increased rainfall in south-eastern Brazil and drought like conditions in the northeast region (Martin et al., 1993; Carvalho et al., 2004). Our study sites are located just north of the SACZ, and are exposed to some climatic variation that is more similar to that of north-eastern Brazil (Wang et al., 2007). Hence, from 3.8 to 3.2 ka when peak La Nina activity was thought to be at its highest (Fig. 5C), they could have experienced greater fluvial discharge, significantly reducing reef accretion and possibly contributing to the observed reef growth hiatus. Similarly, falling sea levels during this period would have enhanced terrestrial runoff in the Abrolhos region, remobilising sediment from the Caravelas bank and the adjacent estuary ~o et al., 2003). Increased fluvial discharge from Benevente river (Lea

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would similarly have affected the Anchieta reef flat. This increase in turbidity combined with reduced accommodation caused by falling RSL, was likely responsible for the reef flat hiatus observed at both sites. The southward migration of the ITCZ (Marchant and Hooghiemstra, 2004) beginning at ~ 4 ka would have also increased precipitation over the region during this period. Sedimentary cores from the Carico basin (Fig. 5D) provide one of the best continuous high-resolution records for this observed change (Haug et al., 2001). Decreased titanium and iron concentrations provide evidence for a significant decrease in precipitation from 3.8 to 2.8 ka, suggesting a southward shift in the mean latitude of the ITCZ synchronous with northern hemisphere SST cooling and a substantially weakened AMOC (Haug et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2007). Enhanced precipitation over north-eastern Brazil (Marchant and Hooghiemstra, 2004; Fontes et al., 2017; Reis et al., 2017), Peru (Mourguiart, 2000; Baker et al., 2001) and the Galapagos (Riedinger et al., 2002) during this same interval provides further support for the southwards displacement of the ITCZ. Highfrequency variability in the South American Southern Dipole (SASD) index, a measure of precipitation and moisture variability is observed during this same period beginning ~ 3.4 ka (Wainer et al., 2014) (Fig. 5A). Interestingly, this shift is not associated with decreased SST as recorded in other sub-tropical/tropical locations during the same period. Thus, despite the high endemism and tolerance for increased ~o & Ginsburg, 1997), the turbidity that Brazilian corals exhibit (Lea combined RSL fall and increased precipitation (and higher sediment flux) from several climatic factors appears to have severely limited reef flat accretion. Whilst reef flat growth at the Abrolhos was able to turn on again once sea levels began to rise ~2.5 ka, Anchieta struggled to re-establish itself. Due to its fringing reef morphology and proximity to the coast Anchieta likely experienced greater terrestrial sediment runoff, causing inhospitable coral growth conditions. Nevertheless, significant reef flat accretion turned off by ~2 ka at both sites, highlighting the sensitivity of these reefs to oscillating RSL and environmental change. Understanding these phases of reef flat turn on and turn off thus provides a longterm context in which to evaluate current declines in fringing and mid-outer reef flat condition. Importantly, while our results demonstrate active reef flat accretion ceased long before anthropogenic influences, current environmental stresses may equal or exceed those that accompanied previous declines in reef flat growth. Specifically, M. braziliensis one of the dominant reef building species in the Abrolhos region has severely declined over the past decade (Francini-Filho et al., 2008). This accelerated decline has been associated with a white plague disease outbreak linked to cyanobacteria outbreaks associated to thermal anomalies (Ribeiro et al., 2018) and decreasing water quality (Bruce et al., 2012) from large scale deforestation in the region since the 1970's (Moura et al., 2013). Thus, despite their ability to thrive in high turbidity environments, the Abrolhos reefs may be dangerously close to their turn-off threshold.

5. Conclusions Our results show two RSL inconsistencies from the glacioisostatic predictions for the sub-tropical Atlantic, including; a significant fall in sea level from ~3.7 ka and a small rise in sea level between 2.5 and 2 ka. The consistent timing of these oscillations with other southerly far-field locations indicates that global, rather than regional changes may have influenced mid-late Holocene sea level variations. Warmer-to-cooler environmental changes associated with the build-up and break off of ice sheets throughout the

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mid-late Holocene may have provided the mechanism necessary for small-scale sea-level rises and falls. Declining water quality associated with increased ENSO and SASD variations coupled with the southward shift of the ITCZ and remobilisation of terrestrial sediments may have also contributed to the reef growth hiatus observed between ~3.7 and 2.5 ka. These same inimical climatic and environmental variations combined with reduced accommodation following the highstand are likely responsible for reduced reef growth in the late Holocene observed at both sites. Acknowledgments This research was supported by Science without Boarders program and the International Ocean Discovery ProgramCoordenadoria de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (IODP-CAPES) Brazil 123927/2015-00. We also take this moment to honour Gilberto Amado Filho, who passed away during the reviewing stage of the manuscript preparation. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.039. References Alves, E., Macario, K., Souza, R., Pimenta, A., Douka, K., Oliveira, F., Chanca, I., Angulo, R., 2015. Radiocarbon reservoir corrections on the Brazilian coast from pre-bomb marine shells. Quat. Geochronol. 29, 30e35. Angulo, R.J., Giannini, P.C., Suguio, K., Pessenda, L.C., 1999. Relative sea-level changes in the last 5500 years in southern Brazil (LagunaeImbituba region, Santa Catarina State) based on vermetid 14C ages. Mar. Geol. 159, 1e4, 323-339. Angulo, R.J., Lessa, G.C., De Souza, M.C., 2006. A critical review of mid-to late-Holocene sea-level fluctuations on the eastern Brazilian coastline. Quat. Sci. Rev. 25 (5e6), 486e506. roux, C., Bradtmiller, L., Mix, A., 2013. Arbuszewski, J.A., Demenocal, P.B., Cle Meridional shifts of the Atlantic intertropical convergence zone since the last glacial maximum. Nat. Geosci. 6, 959. Baker, P.A., Seltzer, G.O., Fritz, S.C., Dunbar, R.B., Grove, M.J., Tapia, P.M., Cross, S.L., Rowe, H.D., Broda, J.P., 2001. The history of south American tropical precipitation for the past 25,000 years. Science 291 (5504), 640e643. Baker, R., Haworth, R., 2000. Smooth or oscillating late Holocene sea-level curve? Evidence from the palaeo-zoology of fixed biological indicators in east Australia and beyond. Mar. Geol. 163 (1e4), 367e386. Baker, R.G., Haworth, R.J., Flood, P.G., 2005. An oscillating Holocene sea-level? Revisiting Rottnest island, western Australia, and the fairbridge eustatic hypothesis. J. Coast. Res. 3e14. Baohua, L., Zhimin, J., Pinxian, W., 1997. Pulleniatina obliquiloculata as a paleoceanographic indicator in the southern Okinawa Trough during the last 20,000 years. Mar. Micropaleontol. 32 (1e2), 59e69. Bastos, A.C., Amado-Filho, G.M., Moura, R.L., Sampaio, F.M., Bassi, D., Braga, J.C., 2016. Origin and sedimentary evolution of sinkholes (Buracas) in the Abrolhos continental shelf, Brazil. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. vol. 462, 101e111. Bastos, A.C., Moura, R.L., Moraes, F.C., Vieira, L.S., Braga, J.C., Ramalho, L.V., AmadoFilho, G.M., Magdalena, U.R., Webster, J.M., 2018. Bryozoans are major modern builders of South Atlantic oddly shaped reefs. Sci. Rep. 8 (1), 9638. Bastos, A.C., Quaresma, V.S., Marangoni, M.B., D'agostini, D.P., Bourguignon, S.N., Cetto, P.H., Silva, A.E., Amado Filho, G.M., Moura, R.L., Collins, M., 2015. Shelf morphology as an indicator of sedimentary regimes: a synthesis from a mixed siliciclasticecarbonate shelf on the eastern Brazilian margin. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 63, 125e136. Bezerra, F.H., Barreto, A.M., Suguio, K., 2003. Holocene sea-level history on the Rio Grande do Norte state coast, Brazil'. Mar. Geol. 196 (1e2), 73e89. Bezerra, F.H.R., Do Nascimento, A.F., Ferreira, J.M., Nogueira, F.C., Fuck, R.A., Neves, B.B.B., Sousa, M.O.L., 2011. Review of active faults in the borborema Province, intraplate south America d integration of seismological and paleoseismological data. Tectonophysics 510 (3), 269e290. Bruce, T., Meirelles, P.M., Garcia, G., Paranhos, R., Rezende, C.E., De Moura, R.L., Coni, E.O., Vasconcelos, A.T., Amado Filho, G., Hatay, M., 2012. Abrolhos bank reef health evaluated by means of water quality, microbial diversity, benthic cover, and fish biomass data. PLoS One 7 (6), e36687. Carvalho, L.M., Jones, C., Liebmann, B., 2004. The South Atlantic convergence zone: intensity, form, persistence, and relationships with intraseasonal to interannual activity and extreme rainfall. J. Clim. 17 (1), 88e108. Castro, C.B., 1994. Corals of Southern Bahia: 161-176. In: Hetzel, B., Castro, C.B. (Eds.), Corals of Southern Bahia. Editora Nova Fronteira. Rio de Janeiro.

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