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Houston Teaching Academy: Partnership in developing teachers
Trochrng & Teosher Educorron. Pnnred m Great Bream
Vol.
6. No. 4. pp. 35s365,
HOUSTON TEACHING
JANE
1990
ACADEMY: PARTNERSHIP _ TEACHERS
A. STALLINGS,
JOAN University
BOSSUNG, of Houston,
and ANNA
IN DEVELOPING
MARTIN
U.S.A.
Abstract -The need for excellent teachers to teach at-risk inner-city children is well documented. Too often new teachers who have received their field experience in the suburbs are hired to teach in multicultural inner-city schools with little preparation to serve this population of children and families. Changing the history of failure for this population of teachers and their students to an experience of success was the primary goal of the partnership between the Houston Independent School District and the University of Houston’s College of Education. The structure of the Houston Teaching Academy (HTA) includes four collaborative decisionmaking councils. Representatives from the school and college serve on each of the councils. Shared weekly seminars for supervising teachers, student teachers, and college supervisors are led by school teachers or college supervisors. Methods courses are taught at the HTA, and the students serve as tutors in the classrooms. Several graduate college courses requested by teachers are offered at the HTA. Concurrent with the development of the HTA, a formative and summative evaluation has monitored the progress of the HTA toward its goals. The HTA graduates have been followed into their first years of teaching. Interviews with their principals indicate that 77% are effectively teaching in inner-city and multicultural settings.
The need for excellent teachers to teach disadvantaged inner-city children in the U.S.A. is well documented. Too often new teachers who have received their field experience in the suburbs are hired to teach in multi-cultural innercity schools with little preparation to serve this population of children and families. The dropout rate of new teachers assigned to inner-city schools is double that of other teachers (approximately 40% in Houston Independent School District). Teachers with seniority prefer to teach in the “better” schools, leaving the new teachers to teach the children who need the best instruction, often in the worst-equipped schools and classrooms. A primary purpose of the Houston Teaching Academy (HTA) is to change this history of failure of first-year teachers to one of success by training student teachers in a supportive innercity school environment. Primary goals of the HTA are to develop teachers who choose to teach in inner-city schools, are effective 35.5
teachers in inner-city schools, are self analytical, and share in the decision-making responsibility for carrying out the goals of the program. Goals for children in the school include active participation in their own education. The longrange goal is to improve the instruction of teachers and student teachers so that inner-city students will prosper academically. Background, Framework
Foundation, and Theoretical
The research literature reporting findings from experiments with models of preparing and supervising student teachers is very sparse. However, a number of studies indicate that although student teaching experiences are often reported to have more impact than other education courses, even the student teaching experience is often reported as insufficient. One point of concern is that student teachers do not receive adequate feedback or supervision during
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A. STALLINGS
their field experience (Cronin, 1983; Sykes, 19S3; Waxman & Walberg, 1986). McIntyre and Killian (1986) report that cooperating teachers in their study gave very little feedback to student teachers. Tom (1972) found a lack of continuity between supervisory visits. Zeicher and Liston (1987) found that supervisors often failed to provide opportunities for reflective analysis, even in a program purporting to emphasize reflective thinking. Kennedy (1987) discusses deliberate actions as a loop combining analysis with action. In developing the concept of deliberate action, Kennedy draws upon the work of Schon (1987) and the role of the critical mentor in fostering reflective thinking. The HTA was organized and designed to promote shared decision making: reflectivity, and self analysis among its parttctpants. The problem of recruiting, selecting. and retaining teachers for urban schools is addressed by Haberman (1987), who states that the future of urban education will depend on a new form of urban teacher education. University teacher preparation programs should be completed where the pupils are in urban schools. New pre-service preparation should occur outside the university setting and should include selected university professors and master classroom teachers. (p. 10)
A current proposal from the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Human Relations recognizes the need for different preparation for inner-city teachers and proposes forming Professional Development Academies to develop and motivate teachers to work in urban schools with the at-risk population. The proposed structure described by Senator Edward Kennedy (1990) is a combination of Teacher Corps and the Peace Corps with appropriate incentives to attract and keep good people in teaching. Suffice it to say that the problems addressed by the HTA are recognized as national problems. Collaborative Decision-Making the Program Operates
Councils:
How
The HTA’s organization and management plan is illustrated in Figure 1. Because of the complexity of the organization at the school district and university levels, it is necessary to have clear communication channels at all levels for decisions regarding the HTA to be shared. At
et al.
the inception of the program in winter 1987, administrative leaders from the Houston Independent School District and the University of Houston’s College of Education met to form the Teaching Academy Council. Participants in this group are shown in Figure 1. This council established policy for the HTA. For example, it sought and received school board approval to close a school and create a professional development school for teachers (i.e., the HTA). This council decided upon the qualifications for the principal and the teachers to teach at the HTA, and details of the budget. The HTA school site council meets each week. These meetings are frank and open discussions of issues and problems such as the match or mismatch of student teachers and teachers, managing the number of visitors and observers in the school, and modifying the program based on summative and formative evaluations. The college advisory council includes faculty who teach courses at the HTA and those involved in the placement or supervision of student teachers at the HTA. The HTA principal and coordinator also meet with this group monthly. Mathematics method student tutors have been successfully placed at the HTA, and teachers are also requesting reading/language arts methods tutors. Such requests require extensive discussion and sometimes reorganization of programs by the college faculty. Statement
of the Problem
As is typical in most student teaching programs, the students have been allowed to select the school district in which they wish to do their student teaching. Their first choices are most often made according to proximity to their homes, and school districts reputed to have good working conditions and higher salaries. Following this custom for placement of student teachers resulted in a scattering of students to 52 locations. College supervisors often spent more time on the road than actually supervising students (e.g., 60minutesgetting there; 50 minutes observing; 50 minutes giving feedback; 60 minutes going home). The result has been inadequate, costly supervision with students sometimes placed with teachers who were not good role models. The college supervisors were
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HOUSTON
357
Teachers
TEACHING
ACADEMY
Dean,College of Educatlon,Unwerslty of Houston General Superintendent, Houston I School Dlstrlct
I I
1 TEACHING FIELD PLACEMENT/ RECORDS
ACADEMY
COUNCIL 1
Deputy Superintendent of Instruction Distruzt Supermtendent School Prmclpal UH Director Dlrector,Unwerslty/School Dlstrxt Relations
UH ADVISORY
HTA ADVISORY
UH Dlrector UH Faculty UH Coordinator HTA Coordlnotor HTA Primpal
HTA Coordmator UH Coordinator UH DIrector
Figure
1. Houston
Teaching
Academy
often recruited at the last moment, and they were not given supervision training. Consequently, the “capstone” experience of teacher preparation had little consistency with the reflective inquiry philosophy of the initial teacher education program. The primary purpose of the university’s involvement in the academy school was to develop a pilot school site close to the university where 10 or more student teachers could be placed each semester so that well-planned, consistent supervision could be provided. An innercity multi-cultural school was desirable since many of our students eventually teach in these schools. An additional purpose of the academy school for the university was to collaborate in providing on-site seminars which would be consistent with the college’s reflective inquiry teacher education philosophy. The college supervisors, supervising teachers, and student teachers attend the seminars. This process facilitates coordination and purpose between the school and the university. The school site, one mile from the centre of Houston, Texas, was chosen for the diversity of its population and program. The elementary section of the school, grades pre-kindergarten
organization
and management
plan.
through fifth grade, are students from an attendance zone which encompasses the immediate neighborhood. This school population is 60% Black, 35% Hispanic. 1% White, and 3% Asian. In the elementary section of the school, 99% of the children are on the free lunch program. The school also serves middle school grades 6, 7, and 8. This attendance zone from higher income areas expands to all of the downtown Houston area, and students are voluntarily bussed to the school for a middle school Fine Arts Program. Fifty three per cent of the middle school families qualify for the free lunch program. The school faculty includes a principal, two assistant principals, elementary teachers, and 30 secondary teachers. Program Implementation The program was implemented in three phases. Phase I was organizational. Meetings were held with the principal and faculty of the school. Approximately 50% of the faculty wanted to be involved in the HTA. Teachers who did not want to stay in the highly visible school were given first chance at openings in other schools. Meanwhile, at the college, stu-
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A. STALLINGS
dent teachers were being recruited for the HTA. Phase II activities focused on the development and delivery of the weekly triad seminars whose purpose was to breach the gap in communication existing between the college supervisors, the classroom teacher supervisors, and the student teachers. Seldom are the goals and curricula of the college and the goals and curricula of the schools coordinated, and the student teacher is in the difficult position of trying to please two masters. The seminars promoted consistency in supervision by focusing all participants on specific problems. During the first year of program implementation, the college faculty provided the seminar agendas and materials and facilitated the meetings. Each Tuesday the student teachers met at 2.00 p.m. with their college supervisor to discuss lessons plans and problems. At 3.15 p.m. the supervising teachers joined the group. With the triad present, the seminars focused on working with the neighborhood children and their families, managing classrooms, using positive behavior management, evaluating children’s strengths, planning appropriate lessons which include children’s background experience, higher order questions, and a wide range of cognitive activities. The adults learned new strategies by participating in cooperative group activities and by observing each other. Each seminar began with the participants sharing new instructional ideas they had tried during the previous week. Student teachers and their supervising teachers identified problems they encountered and discussed possible solutions. Meetings ended with a written commitment to try something new in their classroom the next day. This was followed by “Pluses” (something they liked about the session) and “Wishes” (something they would like to be different the next time). This formative feedback shaped the ensuing seminars. The seminar materials for teachers and student teachers included a binder of articles from the research on teaching. Depending on the problems raised in the weekly seminars, other current materials were added. Another essential component of the program was the observation of student teachers and supervising teachers at the beginning and end of each semester. Participants were taught to analyse their own observation profiles of be-
et al.
havior, and they set goals for behavior change. (The basis for the profiles is explained in the evaluation section.) At the end of the semester they assessed their own change in behavior and set new goals. Courses taught at the HTA included English as a second language, introduction to computers, classroom management, and a mathematics methods course. The professor teaching the mathematics methods class collaborated with the classroom teachers to adapt instructional strategies which complement the school district’s curriculum and the state required essential elements. The 30 college students enrolled in the class served as tutors in the classrooms under the teachers’ supervision. Phase III focused on an effort to institutionalize the program and provide more opportunities for the professional growth of HTA teachers. To this end, a three-week intensive graduate course was offered at the university in summer 1989. Ten HTA teachers enrolled in a course to learn how to conduct the lap-top computer observations and a course in adult learning theory. This course incorporated how to teach adults and to facilitate the seminars. In the beginning of the third year, the teachers completing the course collected the student teachers’ and supervising teachers’ observation data. They also taught the seminars collaboratively with the college faculty. Next year, these teachers will be available to start the program in other schools. Evaluation Design and Methods of Analysis Each semester, the program design included both formative and summative evaluations. The following evaluation questions were asked of data collected in fall 1987, spring 1988, fall 1988, and spring 1989: 1. During the student teaching semester, do Experimental Student Teachers (ESTs) improve their classroom organizing skills, their interactive instructional strategies, and their behavior management skills more than Control Student Teachers (CSTs) do? 2. Do supervising teachers improve their instructional strategies and behavior management during the semester? 3. Is a modelling effect observed between the
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supervising teachers and their student teachers’ instructional behavior? 4. Does the academy school prepare the ESTs so that they are more likely to choose to teach in an inner-city school than CSTs are? 5. According to principals’ reports, do ESTs rate higher in their first year of teaching than other first-year teachers? 6. Do supervising teachers grow professionally and choose to remain at the HTA? 7. Is the behavior and the academic performance of the children at the HTA positively or negatively affected by so many student teachers and tutors?
ranged from 3 to 41 years. Seven had student teachers at other times during their teaching careers. Twelve of the 32 teachers had student teachers for two or more semesters. The college’s HTA director and the coordinator, who facilitated the seminars, also served as the college supervisors of the elementary and secondary student teachers. These faculty members had taught in the introductory education courses and were trained in the reflective inquiry procedures. Given these multiple roles, linkage was provided between the several components of the teacher preparation program.
Sample
Instruments and Procedures
The sample included 44 ESTs. Twenty ESTs had baccalaureates in subjects other than education and returned to complete courses required for certification. For most of the postbaccalaureate students this was their second or third career. Their ages ranged from 21 to 59. Whereas most of the elementary ESTs were volunteers, the secondary ESTs were a bit more reluctant and were encouraged by their supervisors to accept an assignment in an inner-city middle school. Secondary student teachers typically prefer a placement in high school. Consequently, we had four or five secondary ESTs each semester whereas there were six to eight elementary ESTs. It must be noted that two additional student teachers assigned to the HTA were found unsuited to teaching and were counseled out of teaching. A weakness in this study is the fact that there were no other student teachers in inner-city schools with whom we could match our ESTs. Furthermore, we could not achieve a random sample of student teachers who were willing to serve as controls. The 25 CSTs we were able to recruit were selected from those who volunteered to be observed as a part of the study. The incentive for being a CST was their observation profiles at the end of the semester. CSTs were matched as nearly as possible for grade level and subject area with the ESTs. The CTs were assigned to urban and suburban schools serving primarily middle-class, multi-cultural populations. Ages of CSTs ranged from 22 to 49. The supervising teachers ranged in age from 25 to 61. Their experience in years of teaching
The instruments included objective observations, questionnaires, interviews, journals, and ethnographic records. An ethnographer was on site one day each week during each semester. Stallings Observation Instrument. Since a primary goal of the experiment was to see how classroom teachers and student teachers change their classroom behavior during the semester, it was necessary to observe how time was used in the classroom at the beginning and end of the semester. To measure classroom behavior change, the Stallings Observation Instrument (SOI) was used. The SO1 was developed for evaluating the implementation of Head Start and FollowThrough models in the 1970s (Stallings & Kaskowitz, 1974). The validity and reliability of the SOI was reported by Stallings and Geison (1977). In 1978, through a Federal School Improvement Grant, the SOI was modified and validated for use in evaluating secondary classrooms. The SOI provides a sample of how teachers and students spend their classroom time. In addition, 40 interaction variables were summarized in three major factors: classroom organization, interactive instruction, and student behavior management. The factors are made up of such variables as the percentage of instructional stateorganizing statements, ments, three levels of questions, praise/support, and three types of correction. In 1987, software was developed so that classroom observations could be recorded on a lap-top computer rather than on an optically
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JANE A. STALLINGS
scanned paper form. The observation software was designed to prohibit errors in data entry (there are built-in error traps for all the common observer entry errors). This innovation has vastly improved accuracy and speeded up data retrieval. Observers were selected from a pool of 50 applicants responding to an advertisement. Of the seven used to collect data in this study, four were substitute school teachers and three were doctoral students. Observers were trained to use the SO1 in a seven-day training session. To be hired as observers, they had to pass a written test of procedures, accurately code a written vignette, and code a criterion videotape. Interrater agreement in a classroom had to be at least 85% with a trainer. The observers were blind to the experiment and were assigned to collect data in both experimental and control classrooms. Each teacher was observed by more than one observer. Each teacher and student teacher in the study was observed early in each semester during the same class period for three consecutive days. From the observations, a comprehensive profile of teachers’ and students’ behaviors was developed. Each teacher and student teacher compared their behaviors on these profiles with the national criterion established for effective teaching in multiple research studies linking instruction to achievement scores (Stallings, 1980; Stallings, 1986; Stallings, Fairweather, & Needels, 1978; Stallings & Krasavage, 1986; Stallings, Needels, & Stayrook, 1979). Based upon analysis of their profiles, teachers and student teachers set goals for improved classroom management, interactive instruction, and behavior management. At the end of the semester, participants were observed again and given a second profile of behavior. To evaluate their behavior change, teachers compared their first profile with the second to see if they had met their goals. Interviews. Interviews with the former student teachers examined their attitudes toward teaching and plans for the future. In interviews, principals were asked to compare the Academy School first-year teachers to other first-year teachers. The interviews were conducted by two doctoral students and a college faculty member. The interviews were conducted in fall 1988 and
et al.
spring 19S9. Interviews and questionnaires were also conducted with Academy School administrators and teachers to delineate expectations and change in attitudes. Ethnographic records. Records and reports of the weekly and monthly school-college council meetings were kept by the ethnographer. Reports from teachers and college faculty at these meetings provided formative evaluation for the program. Documentation of parent involvement and community relations was also kept. Descriptive statistics. Change in the organizational structure of the school, including the number of administrators, counselors, and teaching assignments was reported. Student demographics and test scores were also a part of the descriptive database. Data analysis. Observations captured on floppy discs in the lap-top computers were merged on an IBM personal computer. Group means, standard deviations, and minimums and maximums were computed for the supervising teachers, experimental student teachers, and control student teachers at the beginning and end of each semester. To examine for significant change, t-tests were used to examine the difference in mean score change. The level of significance was set at .05 probability. Inferential statistics were used to examine the difference in the experimental and control student teachers after their exit from the teacher preparation program. Results To answer question 1 regarding the differences between experimental and control student teachers, observation data were analyzed. These data indicated that ESTs significantly changed their behavior on all instructional behavior variables tested (see the mean difference column, Table 1). Academic statements were increased by 10%. At the post observation, the ESTs were as high as the nationally established criteria of 80% for using academic statements during the class period. The criteria were established for these variables in three national studies (Stallings et al., 1978; Stallings et al., 1979; and Stallings, 1986). All three levels of
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questions were significantly increased by the ESTs, and met the national criteria of 3% on clarifying questions at the post observation. The only statistical change for the CSTs was a reduction in clarifying questions (Table 1). Two variables addressing supportive feedback to student response also increased significantly for the ESTs: These are praise/support and guided correction. Both of these variables met the national criteria at the post observation for the ESTs. Research on low-achieving students indicates a need for frequent, clear, and positive acknowledgement or correction for student efforts. This feedback guides the students to succeed rather than fail. The CSTs were higher than the ESTs at the beginning of the semester, but reduced their use of positive feedback and guided corrections. The organizational statements were reduced by 9.1% (p<.OOl), indicating more efficient organizational procedures being used by the ESTs. At the post observation, the national criterion of 15% or less for management interactions was reached by the ESTs. Students in the classrooms of experimental student teachers (ESTs) significantly reduced off-task behavior. The average off-task rate for EST classrooms was 21.9% pre-observation, and 12.4% post-observation. The mean for offtask behavior at the beginning of the semester for students in the CST’s classrooms was quite low (11%). Thus, they did not have as much room to improve as did the ESTs. The CSTs were teaching in carefully selected schools, where the students may not have been as distractable as the inner-city at-risk children. At pre-observation, the highest off-task rate for a CST’s classroom was 22%, which was reduced by 4%. This can be compared to the highest for an EST’s classroom of 65% off-task, which was reduced by 21% during the semester. The average of the CSTs remained approximately the same from pre- to post-observation on all variables. This observation suggests that most CSTs entered student teaching with good student management skills and generally maintained their skills, whereas the ESTs went into a teaching environment where they had difficulty initially and improved significantly. This result relates to the purpose of the program-to help teachers learn to teach effectively in inner-city schools.
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The second research question about change in supervising teachers was also addressed through the observation data. Teachers who supervised ESTs and attended the weekly seminars improved their classroom instructional strategies as much as teachers in other sites who were not in the role of supervising student teachers. Further, the teachers in this study performed above the national criteria on seven out of eight variables. The supervising teachers significantly changed on six of eight variables examined (see Table 1). Asking direct questions and providing praise did not change, but they were within the national criteria range at the pre-observation. The off-task rate was reduced significantly so that at the post-observation on the average the children were engaged in their academic tasks 95% of the observed time. Teacher responses, recorded during weekly evaluation of the seminars, indicated that having a student teacher made them feel more professional and required them to examine their instructional practices daily. Receiving the profiles of their instructional behavior was also reported to be helpful in setting specific goals for improvement. Even the best teachers found they had improved on such variables as asking higher-order questions and providing more guided corrective feedback to students. The third question regarding the modelling effect of supervising teachers on their student teachers was examined by comparing the rank order of supervising teachers and the rank order of student teachers on the percent of academic interactions used and students’ off-task rates. Teachers’ rank orders at the beginning of the semester matched nearly perfectly the ESTs’ rank order at the end of the semester observation (r=.84). Although it could be argued that this is a spurious finding to be accounted for by the classroom children’s characteristics, the teachers, for the most part, did not shift rank order from the beginning to the end of the semester. The student teachers did. All classrooms had both high and low achieving children, and children with known behavior problems were distributed among the teachers. Some teachers were more successful than others in managing student behavior. The ESTs shifted the way in which they managed student behavior; for example, those who initially had
Studentsoff-task Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Ademicstatements Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Organizingstatements Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Direct questions Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Clwifyingqucstions Experimental ST Control S’I Tcachcrs I ligher order questions Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Praise and support Experimental ST Control ST Te;lchers Guitlctl correction I~xperimcnl;~l SI Conlrol S’I‘ ‘Teachers
Variables
16 I3 14.4
I3 10 14.6 7 0 5.3
x 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 1.7
I 0
2 IO 5 tl 0 0 0 0 0
4 2.2 0 0 0
I
0.2
2 4 5.3
6 1 1.9
2 2 2
I8 6 5.x
20 21 1X
49 3s 35
IO s 11.5
I I.6
I4 3
28 20 23
35 28 2x
YI 97
94
1 0 0
x7 0s 97
4’) 66 68
I 45 58 49
44 31 28
0 I 0 65 22 34
Maximum Pre Post % ‘%
0 0
Minimum Pre Post ‘% %
I .Y 2.2 2.3
5.6 6.5 7.1
0.4 0.1 0.3
1.4 I .6 1.2
11.7 14.8 12.9
23.6 15.7 16
71.7 80.7 79.3
21.9 II.1 IO.5
Pre “I0
Mean
3.2 I .6 3.4
7.1 S.Y x.3
0.‘) 0.4 1.1
3.3 0.X 3
14.4 13.3 14
14.5 16.4 11.6
81 .o 7x.x 85
12.4 IO.8 5.5
Post ‘X,
I .I 1.5 1.3
2.x I.‘) 3.0
1.2 0.2 0.5
3.2 I.7 I..5
4.1 3.1 3.1
9.4 7.3 8.6
8.Y X.1 11.1
13.9 5.6 7.x
Standard Pre ‘%a
1.X 1.2 2.2
2.6 2.4 2.7
0.7 0.7 1.4
3.1 0.Y 3.1
4.3 3.4 3.9
6.3 5.7 6.7
Y.2 5.5 7.8
10.2 6.5 5.4
deviation Post ‘%
+I.3 -0.6 +1.1
+2.1 -0.6 + 1.2
+0.5 +0.3 +0.8
+ I.0 -0.x + I.8
+2.7 -1.5 +1.2
-9.1 +O.7 -4.4
+‘).3 -1.1) i-5.7
-Y.5 -0.3 -5.0
1.3 I.1 2.1
2.6 2.0 3.3
1.1 0.8 1.4
4.7 I.3 2.2
3.5 3.x 3.3
8.8 7.7 6.2
X.Y 7.8 7.3
10.9 X.1 4.0
Mean SD differencedifference
Chmge in Experitnen/al (n =44) NIM~ Control (n=25) Student Teachers’, rend Supervising Teuchers’ (n=32) lns~ruc~ionul Behavior
Table 1
5.x 2.4 3.0
4.5 1.5 I.0
2.6 1.8 3.0
2.2 2.9 3.3
4.3 I.‘) 1.8
5.7 0.4 4.1
4.7 1.2 4.4
4.8 0.2 4.7
I-score
.(X)1 .05 ,005
.oo I .I4 .07
.Ol .09 .oos
.05 .Ol .WB
.07
. 06
.OOl
,001 .tXl .oOO
,001 .23 .oOO
.x4 .tw1I
.ool
”
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high off-task behavior and another teacher who was superior in managing students reduced the off-task behavior of their students substantially. Other student teachers who did not have good models for behavior management did not change during the semester. In one case, an EST’s ability to manage behavior was less good at the end of the semester. This suggests that student teachers changed their instructional strategies and behavior management in the direction of their supervising teachers’ behaviors. The fourth question regarding ESTs’ choice to teach in inner-city schools was examined through exit questionnaires, interviews, student teacher journals, and follow-up telephone interviews. In an exiting questionnaire given each semester, student teachers were asked if they would choose to teach in an inner-city school if offered the opportunity. Ninety per cent indicated they would welcome such an assignment. All of the 44 ESTs graduating from the HTA were reached by phone for an interview during their first year of teaching. The ESTs tended to stay in contact with each other, with their supervising teacher, and with the college supervisor. The interview data indicated that two are finishing master’s of education course requirements; one has returned to his profession as a geologist; one has become a stockbroker; one has her own day-care business. The other 39 are employed in the teaching profession. Twenty-four (55% of the HTA graduates) have been employed by the Houston school district, four of whom were hired at the HTA. Ten (23%) are employed in other multi-cultural low economic-level schools not in the inner-city. Five are working in middle to upper-class schools. On the existing questionnaires, 93% of the experimental student teachers gave high ratings to the school-based seminars also attended by college supervisors and supervising teachers. They especially liked the time allocated to small groups of student teachers for discussing common problems. They also liked the time spent with the group of supervising teachers, who allowed them the opportunity to learn from more than one teacher. Having their college supervisors available on the school campus more of the time was also appreciated. One former EST felt her appreciation for the HTA had increased one-hundred-fold now that she
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was responsible for a classroom of children. As she reflected upon her experience at the HTA, she attributed the success she is having in her first teaching assignment to her supervising teacher, the systematic feedback from observation profiles, and the many group problem-solving activities provided in the seminars. During a 1989 spring reunion, comments of former HTA student teachers were recorded by the ethnographer. Most frequently heard were comments such as, “I love teaching! I can do it!” “I’m so lucky to have had my training at the Academy. I’m no longer shocked at where these kids come from, what they say, and how they live.” “Helping the kids who can’t speak English to understand what we are doing and how they can succeed makes me feel good.” A serious flaw in the study is the follow-up of the 25 CSTs. Neither the college placement service, alumni records, or their former supervisors could help us find 10 of them, nor could we find their names in any of the local telephone books. Of the 15 contacted, two are pursuing graduate degrees and two are raising small children. Of the 11 now involved in the teaching profession, four are teaching in inner-city schools or multi-cultural settings (27% of the 15 contacted). The other seven are teaching in suburban areas. To answer the fifth question regarding the success of the HTA graduates during their first years of teaching, their principals were interviewed by telephone. Principals were asked to compare other first-year teachers hired during the past 3 years with the HTA-prepared teacher. One principal hired four HTA graduates and gave all four higher rankings than other first-year teachers. The principals’ comments included: “Very sensitive and aware of the students needs.” “Committed to doing a good job of teaching the neighborhood chil“Effective classroom management.” dren.” “Committed to the goals of the school . . . to Eleven principals gave the teach all children.” HTA graduates fives on a five-point scale. Their comments included, “This is not an easy situation. There are many ESL students, yet Miss X is effective. She works well with other faculty and the students. She is eager to learn.” Another principal said, “Mr. H. is very dedicated to these children. He spends a lot of time planning lessons for this special population. He
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is learning fast. He came to us with very good management skills!” Four principals reported giving these first-year teachers extra credit on their Teacher Assessment reports. Seventeen of the principals rated their HTA graduates 4 on the five-point scale. Their comments included: “Very positive.” “Hard working. ” “The children like her.” “Has the skill and patience to work with this type of student.” “Well prepared. ” “Lots of good ideas to make it fun.” “ Good management skills.” “Very dedicated to being a good teacher.” Six principals ranked their HTA first-year teachers 3 on the five-point scale, saying they were about the same as other first-year teachers. One principal rated his HTA teachers 2 commenting, “Mr. Y has to work hard at becoming a teacher. This is his second career and he is learning a lot about middle school children.” Question 6 regarding the HTA teachers’ professional growth and choice to remain at the HTA was examined through interviews, journals, and weekly evaluations of the seminars. Teachers reported professional growth in several areas: Eleven teachers have presented papers at national and regional conferences (e.g., Association of Teacher Educators, American Educational Research Association, Phi Delta Kappa, and regional mathematics conference); all teachers were enrolled in university courses offered at the school site which are leading to advanced degrees; and university courses in clinical supervision and observation have allowed the supervising teachers to take leadership in the seminars and conduct the laptop computer observations. When the school was reorganized in spring 1988, all teachers were offered the opportunity to transfer to other schools. All of the teachers who had taken part in the Academy School program chose to remain in the school. Question 7 regarding the positive or negative effects of the HTA on the children in the school was examined by testing for differences in student off-task rates and comparing grade level achievement test scores from one year to the next. Some school officials worried that students’ academic achievement would be negatively affected by having so many student teachers providing instruction. Clearly students’ off-task rates were reduced, as previously
et al.
reported. Scores on the Texas Education Assessment of Minimal Skills for the middle school were higher than they had been at this school. The scores for the written section were low for the elementary school, as they were for most schools in the district. In the third and fifth grades in which the mathematics tutors were assigned, student scores on the mathematics test were higher. Implications and Conclusions Although this study is flawed by the inadequate control group, the change data collected over four semesters for the experimental group can contribute to the generation of hypotheses which can be further tested. These data do suggest that groups of students can be prepared to teach successfully in inner-city school settings when several conditions are present. The school environment must be safe and supportive. (The worst fears were not realized; teachers were not harmed or student threatened.) The school must have a principal and faculty committed to their own growth and to preparing new professionals for the field. The college faculty must be willing to collaborate with the school teachers in developing new approaches to teaching methods classes and providing student teacher seminars at the school site. The significant change identified in the experimental student teachers’ and the supervising teachers’ classroom instruction and their students’ reduced off-task behavior is likely to be related to the weekly triad seminars which promoted reflectivity and commitment to change in all participants. The long-term impact of the HTA on student teacher graduates and on the children in the school will require at least a three-year follow-up evaluation. Another outcome of the program is that 34 of 44 (77%) of the student teachers trained at the HTA are teaching multi-cultural at-risk children. An end-of-the-year report suggests that all 39 ESTs (89%) now teaching are reasonably successful and expect to return to their assignments: They are not dropping out at the rate reported for other first-year teachers. At a recent superintendents’ meeting, participants were asked, “What would you like for colleges of education to do differently in preparing teachers for your schools?” All in their own
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way defined a need for teachers who could teach children from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Large and small districts have had an influx of immigrant children from South and Central America, as well as from the Pacific Basin. Hodgkinson (1987) predicts that 40% of the children in our schools will be from minority groups. Unfortunately, the American public school curriculum is based singularly on European culture. The James Madison High School curriculum, advocated by William Bennett, the former Secretary of Education, required European and American history and literature, with no mention of Asia or South America. Although teacher education programs may require a course on multi-cultural education, the ideas are seldom integrated across the program. Clearly, models for preparing teachers to work knowledgeably and effectively with diverse populations are needed. The Houston Teaching Academy is a beginning.
References Cronin, J. M. (1983). State regulation of teacher preparation. In L. S. Shulman & G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook of feaching and policy (pp. 171-191). New York, NY: Longman. Haberman, M. (1988). Recruifing and selecring leachers for urban schools. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and Minority Education. (ERIC document reproduction service No. ED 292 942.) Hodgkinson, H. (1987). Today’s curriculum How appropriate will it be in year 2000? NASSP Bulletin, 71, 498, 2-7. Kennedy, M. (1987). Establishing professional schools for teachers. Paper commissioned by the American Federation of Teachers.
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Kennedy, E. (1990). Improving schools in the 90’s: Better teacher training. Teacher, l(S), 77-80. McIntyre, D. J.. & Killian. J. E. (1986). Students’ interactions with pupils and cooperating teachers in early field experiences. The Teacher Educaror, 22(2), 2-9. Schon, D. A. (1987). Educaring the reflecrive pracririoner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stallings, J. A., & Kaskowitz, D. (1974). Foollow rhrough classroom observation evaluation 1972-73. (Report to U.S. Office of Education.) Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Stallings, J. A., & Geison, P. (1977). The study of reliability in observational data. Phi Delta Kappa Occasional Paper 19, February. Stallings, J. A., Fairweather. I. J., & Needels, M. (1978). A study of teaching basic reading skills in secondary schools. (Final Report for National Institute of Education.) Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Stallings, J. A., Needels, M. & Stayrook. N. (1979). How to change the process of teaching basic reading skills in secondary schools, phase II and phase 111. (Final Report for National Institute of Education.) Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Stallings, J. A. (1980). Allocated academic learning time or beyond time on task. Educational revisited, Researcher, 9, 11-16. Stallings, J. A. (1986). Effective use of time in secondary reading programs. In J. Hoffman (Ed.). Effecfive teaching of reading: Research and practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Stallings. J. A., & Krasavage, E. M. (1986). Program implementation and student achievement in a four-year Madeline Hunter follow-through project. Elemenuzry School Journal, 87, 117-138. Sykes, G. (1983). Public policy and the problem of teacher quality: The need for screens and magnets. In L. S. Shulman & G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook of reaching and policy (pp. 97-125). New York: Longman. Tom, A. R. (1972). Selective supervision. The Teucher Educator, 8, 23-26. Waxman, H. C., & Walberg, H. J. (1986). Effects of early field experiences. In J. D. Raths & L. G. Katz (Eds.). Advances in teacher educarion, Vol. 2 (pp. 165-184). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Zeichner, K., & Liston. D. (1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educarion Review, 57(l). 2348. Received
6 April
1990 0
Vol.
6. No. 4. pp. 35s365,
HOUSTON TEACHING
JANE
1990
ACADEMY: PARTNERSHIP _ TEACHERS
A. STALLINGS,
JOAN University
BOSSUNG, of Houston,
and ANNA
IN DEVELOPING
MARTIN
U.S.A.
Abstract -The need for excellent teachers to teach at-risk inner-city children is well documented. Too often new teachers who have received their field experience in the suburbs are hired to teach in multicultural inner-city schools with little preparation to serve this population of children and families. Changing the history of failure for this population of teachers and their students to an experience of success was the primary goal of the partnership between the Houston Independent School District and the University of Houston’s College of Education. The structure of the Houston Teaching Academy (HTA) includes four collaborative decisionmaking councils. Representatives from the school and college serve on each of the councils. Shared weekly seminars for supervising teachers, student teachers, and college supervisors are led by school teachers or college supervisors. Methods courses are taught at the HTA, and the students serve as tutors in the classrooms. Several graduate college courses requested by teachers are offered at the HTA. Concurrent with the development of the HTA, a formative and summative evaluation has monitored the progress of the HTA toward its goals. The HTA graduates have been followed into their first years of teaching. Interviews with their principals indicate that 77% are effectively teaching in inner-city and multicultural settings.
The need for excellent teachers to teach disadvantaged inner-city children in the U.S.A. is well documented. Too often new teachers who have received their field experience in the suburbs are hired to teach in multi-cultural innercity schools with little preparation to serve this population of children and families. The dropout rate of new teachers assigned to inner-city schools is double that of other teachers (approximately 40% in Houston Independent School District). Teachers with seniority prefer to teach in the “better” schools, leaving the new teachers to teach the children who need the best instruction, often in the worst-equipped schools and classrooms. A primary purpose of the Houston Teaching Academy (HTA) is to change this history of failure of first-year teachers to one of success by training student teachers in a supportive innercity school environment. Primary goals of the HTA are to develop teachers who choose to teach in inner-city schools, are effective 35.5
teachers in inner-city schools, are self analytical, and share in the decision-making responsibility for carrying out the goals of the program. Goals for children in the school include active participation in their own education. The longrange goal is to improve the instruction of teachers and student teachers so that inner-city students will prosper academically. Background, Framework
Foundation, and Theoretical
The research literature reporting findings from experiments with models of preparing and supervising student teachers is very sparse. However, a number of studies indicate that although student teaching experiences are often reported to have more impact than other education courses, even the student teaching experience is often reported as insufficient. One point of concern is that student teachers do not receive adequate feedback or supervision during
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their field experience (Cronin, 1983; Sykes, 19S3; Waxman & Walberg, 1986). McIntyre and Killian (1986) report that cooperating teachers in their study gave very little feedback to student teachers. Tom (1972) found a lack of continuity between supervisory visits. Zeicher and Liston (1987) found that supervisors often failed to provide opportunities for reflective analysis, even in a program purporting to emphasize reflective thinking. Kennedy (1987) discusses deliberate actions as a loop combining analysis with action. In developing the concept of deliberate action, Kennedy draws upon the work of Schon (1987) and the role of the critical mentor in fostering reflective thinking. The HTA was organized and designed to promote shared decision making: reflectivity, and self analysis among its parttctpants. The problem of recruiting, selecting. and retaining teachers for urban schools is addressed by Haberman (1987), who states that the future of urban education will depend on a new form of urban teacher education. University teacher preparation programs should be completed where the pupils are in urban schools. New pre-service preparation should occur outside the university setting and should include selected university professors and master classroom teachers. (p. 10)
A current proposal from the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Human Relations recognizes the need for different preparation for inner-city teachers and proposes forming Professional Development Academies to develop and motivate teachers to work in urban schools with the at-risk population. The proposed structure described by Senator Edward Kennedy (1990) is a combination of Teacher Corps and the Peace Corps with appropriate incentives to attract and keep good people in teaching. Suffice it to say that the problems addressed by the HTA are recognized as national problems. Collaborative Decision-Making the Program Operates
Councils:
How
The HTA’s organization and management plan is illustrated in Figure 1. Because of the complexity of the organization at the school district and university levels, it is necessary to have clear communication channels at all levels for decisions regarding the HTA to be shared. At
et al.
the inception of the program in winter 1987, administrative leaders from the Houston Independent School District and the University of Houston’s College of Education met to form the Teaching Academy Council. Participants in this group are shown in Figure 1. This council established policy for the HTA. For example, it sought and received school board approval to close a school and create a professional development school for teachers (i.e., the HTA). This council decided upon the qualifications for the principal and the teachers to teach at the HTA, and details of the budget. The HTA school site council meets each week. These meetings are frank and open discussions of issues and problems such as the match or mismatch of student teachers and teachers, managing the number of visitors and observers in the school, and modifying the program based on summative and formative evaluations. The college advisory council includes faculty who teach courses at the HTA and those involved in the placement or supervision of student teachers at the HTA. The HTA principal and coordinator also meet with this group monthly. Mathematics method student tutors have been successfully placed at the HTA, and teachers are also requesting reading/language arts methods tutors. Such requests require extensive discussion and sometimes reorganization of programs by the college faculty. Statement
of the Problem
As is typical in most student teaching programs, the students have been allowed to select the school district in which they wish to do their student teaching. Their first choices are most often made according to proximity to their homes, and school districts reputed to have good working conditions and higher salaries. Following this custom for placement of student teachers resulted in a scattering of students to 52 locations. College supervisors often spent more time on the road than actually supervising students (e.g., 60minutesgetting there; 50 minutes observing; 50 minutes giving feedback; 60 minutes going home). The result has been inadequate, costly supervision with students sometimes placed with teachers who were not good role models. The college supervisors were
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in Developing
HOUSTON
357
Teachers
TEACHING
ACADEMY
Dean,College of Educatlon,Unwerslty of Houston General Superintendent, Houston I School Dlstrlct
I I
1 TEACHING FIELD PLACEMENT/ RECORDS
ACADEMY
COUNCIL 1
Deputy Superintendent of Instruction Distruzt Supermtendent School Prmclpal UH Director Dlrector,Unwerslty/School Dlstrxt Relations
UH ADVISORY
HTA ADVISORY
UH Dlrector UH Faculty UH Coordinator HTA Coordlnotor HTA Primpal
HTA Coordmator UH Coordinator UH DIrector
Figure
1. Houston
Teaching
Academy
often recruited at the last moment, and they were not given supervision training. Consequently, the “capstone” experience of teacher preparation had little consistency with the reflective inquiry philosophy of the initial teacher education program. The primary purpose of the university’s involvement in the academy school was to develop a pilot school site close to the university where 10 or more student teachers could be placed each semester so that well-planned, consistent supervision could be provided. An innercity multi-cultural school was desirable since many of our students eventually teach in these schools. An additional purpose of the academy school for the university was to collaborate in providing on-site seminars which would be consistent with the college’s reflective inquiry teacher education philosophy. The college supervisors, supervising teachers, and student teachers attend the seminars. This process facilitates coordination and purpose between the school and the university. The school site, one mile from the centre of Houston, Texas, was chosen for the diversity of its population and program. The elementary section of the school, grades pre-kindergarten
organization
and management
plan.
through fifth grade, are students from an attendance zone which encompasses the immediate neighborhood. This school population is 60% Black, 35% Hispanic. 1% White, and 3% Asian. In the elementary section of the school, 99% of the children are on the free lunch program. The school also serves middle school grades 6, 7, and 8. This attendance zone from higher income areas expands to all of the downtown Houston area, and students are voluntarily bussed to the school for a middle school Fine Arts Program. Fifty three per cent of the middle school families qualify for the free lunch program. The school faculty includes a principal, two assistant principals, elementary teachers, and 30 secondary teachers. Program Implementation The program was implemented in three phases. Phase I was organizational. Meetings were held with the principal and faculty of the school. Approximately 50% of the faculty wanted to be involved in the HTA. Teachers who did not want to stay in the highly visible school were given first chance at openings in other schools. Meanwhile, at the college, stu-
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JANE
A. STALLINGS
dent teachers were being recruited for the HTA. Phase II activities focused on the development and delivery of the weekly triad seminars whose purpose was to breach the gap in communication existing between the college supervisors, the classroom teacher supervisors, and the student teachers. Seldom are the goals and curricula of the college and the goals and curricula of the schools coordinated, and the student teacher is in the difficult position of trying to please two masters. The seminars promoted consistency in supervision by focusing all participants on specific problems. During the first year of program implementation, the college faculty provided the seminar agendas and materials and facilitated the meetings. Each Tuesday the student teachers met at 2.00 p.m. with their college supervisor to discuss lessons plans and problems. At 3.15 p.m. the supervising teachers joined the group. With the triad present, the seminars focused on working with the neighborhood children and their families, managing classrooms, using positive behavior management, evaluating children’s strengths, planning appropriate lessons which include children’s background experience, higher order questions, and a wide range of cognitive activities. The adults learned new strategies by participating in cooperative group activities and by observing each other. Each seminar began with the participants sharing new instructional ideas they had tried during the previous week. Student teachers and their supervising teachers identified problems they encountered and discussed possible solutions. Meetings ended with a written commitment to try something new in their classroom the next day. This was followed by “Pluses” (something they liked about the session) and “Wishes” (something they would like to be different the next time). This formative feedback shaped the ensuing seminars. The seminar materials for teachers and student teachers included a binder of articles from the research on teaching. Depending on the problems raised in the weekly seminars, other current materials were added. Another essential component of the program was the observation of student teachers and supervising teachers at the beginning and end of each semester. Participants were taught to analyse their own observation profiles of be-
et al.
havior, and they set goals for behavior change. (The basis for the profiles is explained in the evaluation section.) At the end of the semester they assessed their own change in behavior and set new goals. Courses taught at the HTA included English as a second language, introduction to computers, classroom management, and a mathematics methods course. The professor teaching the mathematics methods class collaborated with the classroom teachers to adapt instructional strategies which complement the school district’s curriculum and the state required essential elements. The 30 college students enrolled in the class served as tutors in the classrooms under the teachers’ supervision. Phase III focused on an effort to institutionalize the program and provide more opportunities for the professional growth of HTA teachers. To this end, a three-week intensive graduate course was offered at the university in summer 1989. Ten HTA teachers enrolled in a course to learn how to conduct the lap-top computer observations and a course in adult learning theory. This course incorporated how to teach adults and to facilitate the seminars. In the beginning of the third year, the teachers completing the course collected the student teachers’ and supervising teachers’ observation data. They also taught the seminars collaboratively with the college faculty. Next year, these teachers will be available to start the program in other schools. Evaluation Design and Methods of Analysis Each semester, the program design included both formative and summative evaluations. The following evaluation questions were asked of data collected in fall 1987, spring 1988, fall 1988, and spring 1989: 1. During the student teaching semester, do Experimental Student Teachers (ESTs) improve their classroom organizing skills, their interactive instructional strategies, and their behavior management skills more than Control Student Teachers (CSTs) do? 2. Do supervising teachers improve their instructional strategies and behavior management during the semester? 3. Is a modelling effect observed between the
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359
supervising teachers and their student teachers’ instructional behavior? 4. Does the academy school prepare the ESTs so that they are more likely to choose to teach in an inner-city school than CSTs are? 5. According to principals’ reports, do ESTs rate higher in their first year of teaching than other first-year teachers? 6. Do supervising teachers grow professionally and choose to remain at the HTA? 7. Is the behavior and the academic performance of the children at the HTA positively or negatively affected by so many student teachers and tutors?
ranged from 3 to 41 years. Seven had student teachers at other times during their teaching careers. Twelve of the 32 teachers had student teachers for two or more semesters. The college’s HTA director and the coordinator, who facilitated the seminars, also served as the college supervisors of the elementary and secondary student teachers. These faculty members had taught in the introductory education courses and were trained in the reflective inquiry procedures. Given these multiple roles, linkage was provided between the several components of the teacher preparation program.
Sample
Instruments and Procedures
The sample included 44 ESTs. Twenty ESTs had baccalaureates in subjects other than education and returned to complete courses required for certification. For most of the postbaccalaureate students this was their second or third career. Their ages ranged from 21 to 59. Whereas most of the elementary ESTs were volunteers, the secondary ESTs were a bit more reluctant and were encouraged by their supervisors to accept an assignment in an inner-city middle school. Secondary student teachers typically prefer a placement in high school. Consequently, we had four or five secondary ESTs each semester whereas there were six to eight elementary ESTs. It must be noted that two additional student teachers assigned to the HTA were found unsuited to teaching and were counseled out of teaching. A weakness in this study is the fact that there were no other student teachers in inner-city schools with whom we could match our ESTs. Furthermore, we could not achieve a random sample of student teachers who were willing to serve as controls. The 25 CSTs we were able to recruit were selected from those who volunteered to be observed as a part of the study. The incentive for being a CST was their observation profiles at the end of the semester. CSTs were matched as nearly as possible for grade level and subject area with the ESTs. The CTs were assigned to urban and suburban schools serving primarily middle-class, multi-cultural populations. Ages of CSTs ranged from 22 to 49. The supervising teachers ranged in age from 25 to 61. Their experience in years of teaching
The instruments included objective observations, questionnaires, interviews, journals, and ethnographic records. An ethnographer was on site one day each week during each semester. Stallings Observation Instrument. Since a primary goal of the experiment was to see how classroom teachers and student teachers change their classroom behavior during the semester, it was necessary to observe how time was used in the classroom at the beginning and end of the semester. To measure classroom behavior change, the Stallings Observation Instrument (SOI) was used. The SO1 was developed for evaluating the implementation of Head Start and FollowThrough models in the 1970s (Stallings & Kaskowitz, 1974). The validity and reliability of the SOI was reported by Stallings and Geison (1977). In 1978, through a Federal School Improvement Grant, the SOI was modified and validated for use in evaluating secondary classrooms. The SOI provides a sample of how teachers and students spend their classroom time. In addition, 40 interaction variables were summarized in three major factors: classroom organization, interactive instruction, and student behavior management. The factors are made up of such variables as the percentage of instructional stateorganizing statements, ments, three levels of questions, praise/support, and three types of correction. In 1987, software was developed so that classroom observations could be recorded on a lap-top computer rather than on an optically
360
JANE A. STALLINGS
scanned paper form. The observation software was designed to prohibit errors in data entry (there are built-in error traps for all the common observer entry errors). This innovation has vastly improved accuracy and speeded up data retrieval. Observers were selected from a pool of 50 applicants responding to an advertisement. Of the seven used to collect data in this study, four were substitute school teachers and three were doctoral students. Observers were trained to use the SO1 in a seven-day training session. To be hired as observers, they had to pass a written test of procedures, accurately code a written vignette, and code a criterion videotape. Interrater agreement in a classroom had to be at least 85% with a trainer. The observers were blind to the experiment and were assigned to collect data in both experimental and control classrooms. Each teacher was observed by more than one observer. Each teacher and student teacher in the study was observed early in each semester during the same class period for three consecutive days. From the observations, a comprehensive profile of teachers’ and students’ behaviors was developed. Each teacher and student teacher compared their behaviors on these profiles with the national criterion established for effective teaching in multiple research studies linking instruction to achievement scores (Stallings, 1980; Stallings, 1986; Stallings, Fairweather, & Needels, 1978; Stallings & Krasavage, 1986; Stallings, Needels, & Stayrook, 1979). Based upon analysis of their profiles, teachers and student teachers set goals for improved classroom management, interactive instruction, and behavior management. At the end of the semester, participants were observed again and given a second profile of behavior. To evaluate their behavior change, teachers compared their first profile with the second to see if they had met their goals. Interviews. Interviews with the former student teachers examined their attitudes toward teaching and plans for the future. In interviews, principals were asked to compare the Academy School first-year teachers to other first-year teachers. The interviews were conducted by two doctoral students and a college faculty member. The interviews were conducted in fall 1988 and
et al.
spring 19S9. Interviews and questionnaires were also conducted with Academy School administrators and teachers to delineate expectations and change in attitudes. Ethnographic records. Records and reports of the weekly and monthly school-college council meetings were kept by the ethnographer. Reports from teachers and college faculty at these meetings provided formative evaluation for the program. Documentation of parent involvement and community relations was also kept. Descriptive statistics. Change in the organizational structure of the school, including the number of administrators, counselors, and teaching assignments was reported. Student demographics and test scores were also a part of the descriptive database. Data analysis. Observations captured on floppy discs in the lap-top computers were merged on an IBM personal computer. Group means, standard deviations, and minimums and maximums were computed for the supervising teachers, experimental student teachers, and control student teachers at the beginning and end of each semester. To examine for significant change, t-tests were used to examine the difference in mean score change. The level of significance was set at .05 probability. Inferential statistics were used to examine the difference in the experimental and control student teachers after their exit from the teacher preparation program. Results To answer question 1 regarding the differences between experimental and control student teachers, observation data were analyzed. These data indicated that ESTs significantly changed their behavior on all instructional behavior variables tested (see the mean difference column, Table 1). Academic statements were increased by 10%. At the post observation, the ESTs were as high as the nationally established criteria of 80% for using academic statements during the class period. The criteria were established for these variables in three national studies (Stallings et al., 1978; Stallings et al., 1979; and Stallings, 1986). All three levels of
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questions were significantly increased by the ESTs, and met the national criteria of 3% on clarifying questions at the post observation. The only statistical change for the CSTs was a reduction in clarifying questions (Table 1). Two variables addressing supportive feedback to student response also increased significantly for the ESTs: These are praise/support and guided correction. Both of these variables met the national criteria at the post observation for the ESTs. Research on low-achieving students indicates a need for frequent, clear, and positive acknowledgement or correction for student efforts. This feedback guides the students to succeed rather than fail. The CSTs were higher than the ESTs at the beginning of the semester, but reduced their use of positive feedback and guided corrections. The organizational statements were reduced by 9.1% (p<.OOl), indicating more efficient organizational procedures being used by the ESTs. At the post observation, the national criterion of 15% or less for management interactions was reached by the ESTs. Students in the classrooms of experimental student teachers (ESTs) significantly reduced off-task behavior. The average off-task rate for EST classrooms was 21.9% pre-observation, and 12.4% post-observation. The mean for offtask behavior at the beginning of the semester for students in the CST’s classrooms was quite low (11%). Thus, they did not have as much room to improve as did the ESTs. The CSTs were teaching in carefully selected schools, where the students may not have been as distractable as the inner-city at-risk children. At pre-observation, the highest off-task rate for a CST’s classroom was 22%, which was reduced by 4%. This can be compared to the highest for an EST’s classroom of 65% off-task, which was reduced by 21% during the semester. The average of the CSTs remained approximately the same from pre- to post-observation on all variables. This observation suggests that most CSTs entered student teaching with good student management skills and generally maintained their skills, whereas the ESTs went into a teaching environment where they had difficulty initially and improved significantly. This result relates to the purpose of the program-to help teachers learn to teach effectively in inner-city schools.
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The second research question about change in supervising teachers was also addressed through the observation data. Teachers who supervised ESTs and attended the weekly seminars improved their classroom instructional strategies as much as teachers in other sites who were not in the role of supervising student teachers. Further, the teachers in this study performed above the national criteria on seven out of eight variables. The supervising teachers significantly changed on six of eight variables examined (see Table 1). Asking direct questions and providing praise did not change, but they were within the national criteria range at the pre-observation. The off-task rate was reduced significantly so that at the post-observation on the average the children were engaged in their academic tasks 95% of the observed time. Teacher responses, recorded during weekly evaluation of the seminars, indicated that having a student teacher made them feel more professional and required them to examine their instructional practices daily. Receiving the profiles of their instructional behavior was also reported to be helpful in setting specific goals for improvement. Even the best teachers found they had improved on such variables as asking higher-order questions and providing more guided corrective feedback to students. The third question regarding the modelling effect of supervising teachers on their student teachers was examined by comparing the rank order of supervising teachers and the rank order of student teachers on the percent of academic interactions used and students’ off-task rates. Teachers’ rank orders at the beginning of the semester matched nearly perfectly the ESTs’ rank order at the end of the semester observation (r=.84). Although it could be argued that this is a spurious finding to be accounted for by the classroom children’s characteristics, the teachers, for the most part, did not shift rank order from the beginning to the end of the semester. The student teachers did. All classrooms had both high and low achieving children, and children with known behavior problems were distributed among the teachers. Some teachers were more successful than others in managing student behavior. The ESTs shifted the way in which they managed student behavior; for example, those who initially had
Studentsoff-task Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Ademicstatements Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Organizingstatements Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Direct questions Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Clwifyingqucstions Experimental ST Control S’I Tcachcrs I ligher order questions Experimental ST Control ST Teachers Praise and support Experimental ST Control ST Te;lchers Guitlctl correction I~xperimcnl;~l SI Conlrol S’I‘ ‘Teachers
Variables
16 I3 14.4
I3 10 14.6 7 0 5.3
x 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 1.7
I 0
2 IO 5 tl 0 0 0 0 0
4 2.2 0 0 0
I
0.2
2 4 5.3
6 1 1.9
2 2 2
I8 6 5.x
20 21 1X
49 3s 35
IO s 11.5
I I.6
I4 3
28 20 23
35 28 2x
YI 97
94
1 0 0
x7 0s 97
4’) 66 68
I 45 58 49
44 31 28
0 I 0 65 22 34
Maximum Pre Post % ‘%
0 0
Minimum Pre Post ‘% %
I .Y 2.2 2.3
5.6 6.5 7.1
0.4 0.1 0.3
1.4 I .6 1.2
11.7 14.8 12.9
23.6 15.7 16
71.7 80.7 79.3
21.9 II.1 IO.5
Pre “I0
Mean
3.2 I .6 3.4
7.1 S.Y x.3
0.‘) 0.4 1.1
3.3 0.X 3
14.4 13.3 14
14.5 16.4 11.6
81 .o 7x.x 85
12.4 IO.8 5.5
Post ‘X,
I .I 1.5 1.3
2.x I.‘) 3.0
1.2 0.2 0.5
3.2 I.7 I..5
4.1 3.1 3.1
9.4 7.3 8.6
8.Y X.1 11.1
13.9 5.6 7.x
Standard Pre ‘%a
1.X 1.2 2.2
2.6 2.4 2.7
0.7 0.7 1.4
3.1 0.Y 3.1
4.3 3.4 3.9
6.3 5.7 6.7
Y.2 5.5 7.8
10.2 6.5 5.4
deviation Post ‘%
+I.3 -0.6 +1.1
+2.1 -0.6 + 1.2
+0.5 +0.3 +0.8
+ I.0 -0.x + I.8
+2.7 -1.5 +1.2
-9.1 +O.7 -4.4
+‘).3 -1.1) i-5.7
-Y.5 -0.3 -5.0
1.3 I.1 2.1
2.6 2.0 3.3
1.1 0.8 1.4
4.7 I.3 2.2
3.5 3.x 3.3
8.8 7.7 6.2
X.Y 7.8 7.3
10.9 X.1 4.0
Mean SD differencedifference
Chmge in Experitnen/al (n =44) NIM~ Control (n=25) Student Teachers’, rend Supervising Teuchers’ (n=32) lns~ruc~ionul Behavior
Table 1
5.x 2.4 3.0
4.5 1.5 I.0
2.6 1.8 3.0
2.2 2.9 3.3
4.3 I.‘) 1.8
5.7 0.4 4.1
4.7 1.2 4.4
4.8 0.2 4.7
I-score
.(X)1 .05 ,005
.oo I .I4 .07
.Ol .09 .oos
.05 .Ol .WB
.07
. 06
.OOl
,001 .tXl .oOO
,001 .23 .oOO
.x4 .tw1I
.ool
”
Partnership
in DevelopingTeachers
high off-task behavior and another teacher who was superior in managing students reduced the off-task behavior of their students substantially. Other student teachers who did not have good models for behavior management did not change during the semester. In one case, an EST’s ability to manage behavior was less good at the end of the semester. This suggests that student teachers changed their instructional strategies and behavior management in the direction of their supervising teachers’ behaviors. The fourth question regarding ESTs’ choice to teach in inner-city schools was examined through exit questionnaires, interviews, student teacher journals, and follow-up telephone interviews. In an exiting questionnaire given each semester, student teachers were asked if they would choose to teach in an inner-city school if offered the opportunity. Ninety per cent indicated they would welcome such an assignment. All of the 44 ESTs graduating from the HTA were reached by phone for an interview during their first year of teaching. The ESTs tended to stay in contact with each other, with their supervising teacher, and with the college supervisor. The interview data indicated that two are finishing master’s of education course requirements; one has returned to his profession as a geologist; one has become a stockbroker; one has her own day-care business. The other 39 are employed in the teaching profession. Twenty-four (55% of the HTA graduates) have been employed by the Houston school district, four of whom were hired at the HTA. Ten (23%) are employed in other multi-cultural low economic-level schools not in the inner-city. Five are working in middle to upper-class schools. On the existing questionnaires, 93% of the experimental student teachers gave high ratings to the school-based seminars also attended by college supervisors and supervising teachers. They especially liked the time allocated to small groups of student teachers for discussing common problems. They also liked the time spent with the group of supervising teachers, who allowed them the opportunity to learn from more than one teacher. Having their college supervisors available on the school campus more of the time was also appreciated. One former EST felt her appreciation for the HTA had increased one-hundred-fold now that she
363
was responsible for a classroom of children. As she reflected upon her experience at the HTA, she attributed the success she is having in her first teaching assignment to her supervising teacher, the systematic feedback from observation profiles, and the many group problem-solving activities provided in the seminars. During a 1989 spring reunion, comments of former HTA student teachers were recorded by the ethnographer. Most frequently heard were comments such as, “I love teaching! I can do it!” “I’m so lucky to have had my training at the Academy. I’m no longer shocked at where these kids come from, what they say, and how they live.” “Helping the kids who can’t speak English to understand what we are doing and how they can succeed makes me feel good.” A serious flaw in the study is the follow-up of the 25 CSTs. Neither the college placement service, alumni records, or their former supervisors could help us find 10 of them, nor could we find their names in any of the local telephone books. Of the 15 contacted, two are pursuing graduate degrees and two are raising small children. Of the 11 now involved in the teaching profession, four are teaching in inner-city schools or multi-cultural settings (27% of the 15 contacted). The other seven are teaching in suburban areas. To answer the fifth question regarding the success of the HTA graduates during their first years of teaching, their principals were interviewed by telephone. Principals were asked to compare other first-year teachers hired during the past 3 years with the HTA-prepared teacher. One principal hired four HTA graduates and gave all four higher rankings than other first-year teachers. The principals’ comments included: “Very sensitive and aware of the students needs.” “Committed to doing a good job of teaching the neighborhood chil“Effective classroom management.” dren.” “Committed to the goals of the school . . . to Eleven principals gave the teach all children.” HTA graduates fives on a five-point scale. Their comments included, “This is not an easy situation. There are many ESL students, yet Miss X is effective. She works well with other faculty and the students. She is eager to learn.” Another principal said, “Mr. H. is very dedicated to these children. He spends a lot of time planning lessons for this special population. He
364
JANE
A. STALLINGS
is learning fast. He came to us with very good management skills!” Four principals reported giving these first-year teachers extra credit on their Teacher Assessment reports. Seventeen of the principals rated their HTA graduates 4 on the five-point scale. Their comments included: “Very positive.” “Hard working. ” “The children like her.” “Has the skill and patience to work with this type of student.” “Well prepared. ” “Lots of good ideas to make it fun.” “ Good management skills.” “Very dedicated to being a good teacher.” Six principals ranked their HTA first-year teachers 3 on the five-point scale, saying they were about the same as other first-year teachers. One principal rated his HTA teachers 2 commenting, “Mr. Y has to work hard at becoming a teacher. This is his second career and he is learning a lot about middle school children.” Question 6 regarding the HTA teachers’ professional growth and choice to remain at the HTA was examined through interviews, journals, and weekly evaluations of the seminars. Teachers reported professional growth in several areas: Eleven teachers have presented papers at national and regional conferences (e.g., Association of Teacher Educators, American Educational Research Association, Phi Delta Kappa, and regional mathematics conference); all teachers were enrolled in university courses offered at the school site which are leading to advanced degrees; and university courses in clinical supervision and observation have allowed the supervising teachers to take leadership in the seminars and conduct the laptop computer observations. When the school was reorganized in spring 1988, all teachers were offered the opportunity to transfer to other schools. All of the teachers who had taken part in the Academy School program chose to remain in the school. Question 7 regarding the positive or negative effects of the HTA on the children in the school was examined by testing for differences in student off-task rates and comparing grade level achievement test scores from one year to the next. Some school officials worried that students’ academic achievement would be negatively affected by having so many student teachers providing instruction. Clearly students’ off-task rates were reduced, as previously
et al.
reported. Scores on the Texas Education Assessment of Minimal Skills for the middle school were higher than they had been at this school. The scores for the written section were low for the elementary school, as they were for most schools in the district. In the third and fifth grades in which the mathematics tutors were assigned, student scores on the mathematics test were higher. Implications and Conclusions Although this study is flawed by the inadequate control group, the change data collected over four semesters for the experimental group can contribute to the generation of hypotheses which can be further tested. These data do suggest that groups of students can be prepared to teach successfully in inner-city school settings when several conditions are present. The school environment must be safe and supportive. (The worst fears were not realized; teachers were not harmed or student threatened.) The school must have a principal and faculty committed to their own growth and to preparing new professionals for the field. The college faculty must be willing to collaborate with the school teachers in developing new approaches to teaching methods classes and providing student teacher seminars at the school site. The significant change identified in the experimental student teachers’ and the supervising teachers’ classroom instruction and their students’ reduced off-task behavior is likely to be related to the weekly triad seminars which promoted reflectivity and commitment to change in all participants. The long-term impact of the HTA on student teacher graduates and on the children in the school will require at least a three-year follow-up evaluation. Another outcome of the program is that 34 of 44 (77%) of the student teachers trained at the HTA are teaching multi-cultural at-risk children. An end-of-the-year report suggests that all 39 ESTs (89%) now teaching are reasonably successful and expect to return to their assignments: They are not dropping out at the rate reported for other first-year teachers. At a recent superintendents’ meeting, participants were asked, “What would you like for colleges of education to do differently in preparing teachers for your schools?” All in their own
Partnership
in Developing
way defined a need for teachers who could teach children from a variety of cultural backgrounds. Large and small districts have had an influx of immigrant children from South and Central America, as well as from the Pacific Basin. Hodgkinson (1987) predicts that 40% of the children in our schools will be from minority groups. Unfortunately, the American public school curriculum is based singularly on European culture. The James Madison High School curriculum, advocated by William Bennett, the former Secretary of Education, required European and American history and literature, with no mention of Asia or South America. Although teacher education programs may require a course on multi-cultural education, the ideas are seldom integrated across the program. Clearly, models for preparing teachers to work knowledgeably and effectively with diverse populations are needed. The Houston Teaching Academy is a beginning.
References Cronin, J. M. (1983). State regulation of teacher preparation. In L. S. Shulman & G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook of feaching and policy (pp. 171-191). New York, NY: Longman. Haberman, M. (1988). Recruifing and selecring leachers for urban schools. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and Minority Education. (ERIC document reproduction service No. ED 292 942.) Hodgkinson, H. (1987). Today’s curriculum How appropriate will it be in year 2000? NASSP Bulletin, 71, 498, 2-7. Kennedy, M. (1987). Establishing professional schools for teachers. Paper commissioned by the American Federation of Teachers.
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Kennedy, E. (1990). Improving schools in the 90’s: Better teacher training. Teacher, l(S), 77-80. McIntyre, D. J.. & Killian. J. E. (1986). Students’ interactions with pupils and cooperating teachers in early field experiences. The Teacher Educaror, 22(2), 2-9. Schon, D. A. (1987). Educaring the reflecrive pracririoner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stallings, J. A., & Kaskowitz, D. (1974). Foollow rhrough classroom observation evaluation 1972-73. (Report to U.S. Office of Education.) Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Stallings, J. A., & Geison, P. (1977). The study of reliability in observational data. Phi Delta Kappa Occasional Paper 19, February. Stallings, J. A., Fairweather. I. J., & Needels, M. (1978). A study of teaching basic reading skills in secondary schools. (Final Report for National Institute of Education.) Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Stallings, J. A., Needels, M. & Stayrook. N. (1979). How to change the process of teaching basic reading skills in secondary schools, phase II and phase 111. (Final Report for National Institute of Education.) Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Stallings, J. A. (1980). Allocated academic learning time or beyond time on task. Educational revisited, Researcher, 9, 11-16. Stallings, J. A. (1986). Effective use of time in secondary reading programs. In J. Hoffman (Ed.). Effecfive teaching of reading: Research and practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Stallings. J. A., & Krasavage, E. M. (1986). Program implementation and student achievement in a four-year Madeline Hunter follow-through project. Elemenuzry School Journal, 87, 117-138. Sykes, G. (1983). Public policy and the problem of teacher quality: The need for screens and magnets. In L. S. Shulman & G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook of reaching and policy (pp. 97-125). New York: Longman. Tom, A. R. (1972). Selective supervision. The Teucher Educator, 8, 23-26. Waxman, H. C., & Walberg, H. J. (1986). Effects of early field experiences. In J. D. Raths & L. G. Katz (Eds.). Advances in teacher educarion, Vol. 2 (pp. 165-184). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Zeichner, K., & Liston. D. (1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educarion Review, 57(l). 2348. Received
6 April
1990 0