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How can we promote renewable energy and energy efficiency in Central Africa? A Cameroon case study
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How can we promote renewable energy and energy efficiency in Central Africa? A Cameroon case study ⁎
Joseph Kenfacka, , J. Lewetchou K.b, Olivier Videme Bossouc, E. Tchaptchetb a b c
National Advanced School of Engineering, Yaounde, Cameroon University of Dschang, Cameroon University of Maroua, Cameroon
A R T I C L E I N F O
A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Renewable energy promotion Energy efficiency Central Africa Remote area Cameroon
Central Africa possesses important renewable energy potential that continues to suffer from poor development. The primary cause of the poor use of renewable energy is the poor commitment and dedication among the region's governments who have not taken the necessary measures to support the sector. The primary purpose of this paper is to emphasize the renewable energy resources of Central Africa that they may be used optimally. The report also describes the availability of renewable energy resources and suggests actions to promote and sustain their development by improving access to sustainable, environmentally friendly, and affordable energy services, making significant improvements to energy infrastructure in Central Africa, and promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. The work presents the potential for solar, biomass and hydropower, indicating where development is available. Next, the identified obstacles of clean energy promotion are targeted. Finally, suggestions are offered to help countries develop a vision aimed at developing good clean energy policy that increases the status of environmentally friendly energy. A Cameroon case study is examined as an illustration. Several documents are cited from institutions in the region and abroad.
1. Introduction Central Africa possesses important renewable energy potential, namely, hydro, tidal, solar and biomass sources. This important potential continues to suffer from poor development and carbon energy remains the primary power source. There are many reasons for the poor commitment and dedication among governments to promote clean energy. The purpose of this paper is to address the issue of clean energy promotion in the Central African context with respect to ongoing energy policy. Because the region is experiencing power shortages from the electrical grid in remote areas and in cities, thermal plants are among the solutions that are planned or under construction. This solution is currently being implemented in Cameroon and other countries in the region, although is not environmentally friendly and hence is not a long-term solution. 2. Methodology This report describes the availability of renewable energy resources and suggests actions to promote and sustain their development. Based on the knowledge of the Central African energy sector, this paper will
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identify actions for improved access to sustainable, friendly, and affordable energy services to consumers as well as suggest significant improvements to energy infrastructure in Central Africa and the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency. This work will first show the potential for three primary renewable energy sources, solar, biomass and hydro, indicating where development is available. Then, the identified obstacles for the promotion of clean energy will be targeted. The proposed solution is recommended given the purchasing power and socioeconomic environment of the region. Finally, suggestions will be made to help the countries develop a vision aimed at developing good clean energy policy to increase the status of the renewable energy sector and better contribute to confronting climate change. The Cameroon case study presented is very interesting because the country has a large variety of renewable energy potential and can develop and export energy to neighboring countries. The state of development of Cameroon's energy sector is presented. Based on ongoing projects and strategic documents adopted by the country, the direction taken towards specific actions is suggested. Provided an overview and assessment of the institutional structural reform of Cameroon's power sector, based on the weaknesses of the
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Kenfack).
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Please cite this article as: Kenfack, J., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.108
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institutions, specific suggestions are made for the enhancement of renewable energy resources to support energy access and security nationwide and in remote areas in particular, where the fight against poverty is more challenging. We obtained data directly from particular stakeholders in each country in the region, and we also used several documents from institutions in the region and abroad, as well as available websites and maps. At the regional level, we obtained data from the International Commission of Congo-Oubangui-Sangha (CICOS), the Economic Community of Central African States (CEMAC), the Central African Power Pool (CAPP), Ministries and utilities when travelling in the region. We also collected data from the World Bank, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and research institutes in Europe via the Internet. Based on the data collected and the experiences of countries with successful policies on renewable energy promotion (Europe, America, and Asia), we offer suggestions.
Table 2 Installed hydro capacity and hydro potential of Central African countries Source: [3–7] Country
Installed hydro capacity (MW)
Potential (MW)
Installed thermal plants (MW)
Democratic republic of the CONGO Cameroon Gabon Republic of the Congo Central African Republic Equatorial Guinea CHAD
2 584
100 000
37
725 311 135 19
20 000 6 000 2 500 2 800
547 176 471 24
121 0
2 400 0
38 200
4.2. Wind potential According to the GEOS-1 satellite measurements from NASA (Fig. 1), from July 1983 to June 1993, the wind potential of the region is poor along the equator. Chad is the only country with an average wind speed above 5 m/s throughout the entire country, indicating the possibility for wind development.
3. General information on Central Africa Central Africa (Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is situated between latitude 13°S and 22°N and longitude 8°E and 22°E and has the data depicted in Table 1 below.
4.3. Geothermal potential Some hot water sources are identified in the region, but a detailed study for the assessment of geothermal potential has not yet been conducted in Central Africa, although one important volcano (Mount Cameroon) is still active. The eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo might have important geothermal potential because it is part of the Indian Ocean's ring of fire (Fig. 2).
4. Renewable energy potential in Central Africa 4.1. Hydro potential The overall hydro potential in Central Africa is estimated to be 133 GW, and less than 3% is developed thus far. In the Republic of the Congo, more than 471 MW of thermal plants are installed at 61 sites, whereas 209 MW [1] of hydro capacity is installed at 3 sites (Imboulou, Moukoukoulou and Djoué). In Gabon, the 275 MW thermal plants located in Port Gentil and Owendo are under development compared to the 261 MW in hydro plants that under development (Grand Poubara, Fe II, and Chutes de l′Impératrices). In Cameroon, 547 MW of thermal plants (some located in Kribi, Yassa, and Limbe) are operating or are under development compared to 242 MW [2] of hydro plants that are under construction (Memve’ele, Mekin and Lom Pangar). Equatorial Guinea has just completed a 120 MW hydro plant at Djibloho and is constructing another 200 MW plant on the Wele River. The thermal installed capacity is approximately 40 MW. All thermal plants mentioned in Table 2 below are fossil-fuel plants (using gas, light or heavy fuel oil).
4.4. Solar potential As depicted in Fig. 3, Africa is situated along the Equator, making the continent one of the sunniest in the world. Based on the data from the Solar Radiation project [10], the lowest daily mean radiation ranges from approximately 4 kWh/day/m2 (wet forest) to above 8 kWh (dry desert in Chad). The modified map below from SolarGIS shows the average solar radiation of the entire continent in general and the region in particular. It appears that Central Africa has great solar potential.
4.5. Biomass potential Central Africa possesses nearly one-quarter of the world's tropical forests. This forest is the second largest tropical forest in the world after the Amazon forest. Its mosaic of ecosystems regulates local climate and the flow of water. The forest covers an important area, from the Albertine Rift (Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda) to the Gulf of Guinea (Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Cameroon) and harbors a variety of forests. It is one of the few places where wild dense forests can still be found in the world, with an area of approximately 500 million acres, spanning the boundaries of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo (Fig. 4). Inadequate and improper forest management practices are a threat to the long-term viability of these forests, significantly reducing their economic potential and resulting in negative social and environmental impacts. Over 50% ([13]) of the Congo Basin's forests are under commercial logging leases. Despite several sustainable forest management programs, Central African tropical forests are disappearing at an alarming rate ([14] [15] [16]).
Table 1 Data on Central Africa. Source: Wikipedia, January 2015 Name
Capital
Official languages
Area (km2)
Population
Angola Cameroon
Luanda Yaoundé
1,246,700 475,442
20,609,294 20,129,878
Central African Republic Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Equatorial Guinea
Bangui
Portuguese French, English Sango, French
622,984
4,576,000
N'Djamena Kinshasa
French, Arabic French
1,284,000 2,344,858
11,274,106 69,575,000
Brazzaville Malabo
French Spanish, French French
342,000 28,051
4,366,266 740,000
267,668
1,576,665 132,847,209
Gabon Total
Libreville
2
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Fig. 1. Average speed of wind in the world from July 1983 to June 1993 [8].
Fig. 2. World geothermal potential [9].
human health has been assessed by the World Health Organization [17]. The studies carried out show that nearly 4 million people die prematurely from illnesses attributable to household air pollution caused by cooking with solid fuels – one death every 8 s (2014 data). Among these deaths,
4.6. Impact of carbon energy consumption As shown above, Central Africa is endowed with an abundance of renewable energy resources but the region is still expecting to face the challenge of harnessing its resources effectively and efficiently. The region still has a vast dependence on fossil fuels and biomass. The use of fuel wood for lighting and cooking is still very familiar in the region given the poor income of the population and the ready availability of biomass. This leads to indoor smoke, which negatively impacts the environment and causes infant mortality from acute respiratory illness associated with the inhalation of wood smoke. The use of firewood and/or charcoal occurs mostly indoors (in the kitchen). It produces greenhouse gas emissions, namely carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, dust, dioxin and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, thus polluting the air. Gases generated by wood or charcoal from energy production, therefore, have an important impact on the quality of the ambient air. This particularly affects human health. The impact of indoor air pollution and household energy on
• • • • •
2% are due to pneumonia 34% from stroke 26% from ischemic heart disease 22% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and 6% from lung cancer.
More generally, indoor pollution (smoke) inflames the airways and lungs, impairing the immune response and reducing the oxygencarrying capacity of the blood. There is also evidence of links between indoor air pollution and low birth weights, Tuberculosis, ischemic heart disease, and nasopharyngeal and laryngeal cancers. The amount of each type of gas is given for some species in Table 3.
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Fig. 3. Solar radiation in Africa and the Middle East [11].
leading to frequent power outages. The country has developed more than 250 MW of thermal plants over a couple of years to address the electricity shortage issue. The growth in demand is estimated to be greater than 5% per year, amounting to more than 50 MW per year. A number of mining projects are awaiting government clearance before being started [22]. The Republic of the Congo currently meets most of its power demand, but important urban network rehabilitation, reinforcement and new network construction is still need to increase the electricity access rate. In 2000, the electricity demand in the Democratic Republic of the Congo was growing at the rate of 4.5% per year. The situation has since changed, but the electrification rate is still very low, leaving room for business opportunities. This country has the highest hydro potential of the continent. With less than 800 000 inhabitants Equatorial Guinea can produce enough energy for the entire population. However, there is poor network coverage in some areas. Mining projects and the determination to export electricity are also encouraging the state to develop more power plants. Total energy generation in Central Africa in 2008 was 10 537 MWh (including Angola), with a consumption per capita of 109 kWh [23].
The exact data on carbon dioxide and other gases is not available for all the species found in the region, but the same pollutants are responsible for the diseases. This indicates that there is a need to develop efficient, sustainable and safe technologies to relieve poor populations from such a burden. 4.7. Electricity demand The electrification rate in Central Africa (excluding the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is 15% [19]. This region as a whole has, therefore, one of the lowest electrification rates of the continent. The deficit is as much as 270 MW [20], and the overall growth of electricity consumption in the region (excluding the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is 4.6% 1990–2008). The gap should be filled before meeting the regular demand linked to the growth of the population and economic activities. The demand varies from one country to another. Gabon has experienced 4.3% growth from 2000 to 2008. The country is engaged in important hydro projects to sustain forthcoming mining activities. The total installed capacity in Gabon, which is approximately 550 MW will be extended to approximately 1 039 MW by the year 2020 [21]. Cameroon experiences significant deficits in the electricity sector, 4
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Fig. 4. Map of the Congo Basin forests in Central Africa [12].
in Central Africa. Micro hydro can still be developed for small communities [25].
Table 3 Biomass pollutants’ emissions, source: [18]. Charcoal
wood
SO2 (g/GJ) NOx (g/GJ) Non-methane volatile organic compounds (g/GJ) CO (g/GJ) Dust (g/GJ) Dioxin (ng i-TEQ /GJ) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), (μg/GJ)
20 50 1522 6417 358 100 328 000
5. The Region's energy sector The energy sector differs from one country to another, depending on the available potential. Some countries have decentralized the sector and others are in the process. Each country has its own energy sector management process and regulations. Countries in the region anticipate having trans-border regulations, which will facilitate grid interconnection and the sustainable management of energy sources. All of the countries have developed important thermal plants. To sustain the energy sector's development, it is very important to address the issues raised by sustainable development and the promotion of renewable energy. This requires assessing and developing an adequate energy policy as demonstrated by International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) for the United States [26], Craig Morris, Martin Pehnt for Germany [27] for Poland and the European Commission [28] and IRENA [29] for the European Union.
The demand forecast by 2025 as assessed by the Central African Power Pool (CAPP) is 13 052 MWh. The International Commission of CongoOubangui-Sangha has developed a strategic plan for hydropower development in the Congo Basin [24]. The CAPP has also assessed the demand in the region in terms of the capacity to be constructed and identified 23 hydro plants to be developed by the year 2025 whose total capacity is 5 970 MW. Provided the importance of the hydrographic network, tidal energy can also be envisaged, as well as ocean energy along the Gulf of Guinea.
6. Energy efficiency The issue of energy efficiency in the region suffers from poor information on and the dissemination of energy efficiency technologies. The contributions in Central Africa should primarily be oriented towards building capacity and information dissemination on energy efficiency technologies. The major objective of such an initiative is to alleviate the economic burdens of the countries in the region, thereby improving the quality of life. Because of their more affordable prices, most of the region's countries are using less efficient equipment in their industrial, transportation and household sectors (e.g., generators, wood, petrol). Most of this equipment, which may be used (from developed countries), obsolete or technologically inefficient (e.g., inefficient stoves or incandescent light bulbs), is less efficient than the latest models being used currently and, therefore, consumes more energy. These inefficient apparatuses often produce more air pollutants that can cause environmental destruction and human health risks.
4.8. Recommended renewable options in the region Provided the poor wind potential, the absence of (or unknown) geothermal potential and the threat to forests from inadequate and improper forest management, solar and hydro are unquestionably the recommended options for the region. The potential of these two energy sources is high; however, solar power plants have a very poor availability factor. Pump storage is often used to mitigate the problem. Unfortunately, the cost to develop a pump storage plant, coupled with the cost to develop a large solar plant, makes this solution very expensive for countries in the region. Where there are no hydro resources, in remote areas for instance, solar plants can still be developed, especially where demand is low. Because of their low cost per unit, high installed capacity and high availability, hydro plants are undeniably the first option to address the issue of electricity generation 5
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According to the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the electrification rate in central Africa is 15% [10]. To meet the renewable energy and energy efficiency objectives, effective leadership is a key issue for the attainment of objectives within Central Africa. At the national and regional levels, political authorities should be involved and support the cause. This would lead to a generation of champions. Other important points to meet the defined objectives are:
Many countries in Central Africa are oil producers. The availability of fossil fuels is, therefore, not an important issue. Energy efficient technology could help reduce the negative environmental impacts of human activities by decreasing the consumption of fossil fuels, and thereby yield the same results as renewable energy sources. Actions should be taken to ameliorate and sustain a lower value of energy intensity. Introducing high efficiency technologies into Central Africa is predicted to lessen the overall economic burden by reducing the total conventional fuel consumption, electricity costs and the high deforestation rates, thus improving these technologies’ productivity. Given the high level of biomass consumption (80% of the household energy in Cameroon [30], energy efficiency is predicted to reduce desert encroachment and thus climate change. The issue of implementing hybrid renewable energy systems, namely solar, hydro, biomass and wind, can also be imagined.
• • • • • • • •
7. Barriers to renewable energy and energy efficiency implementation There are significant barriers to further implementing renewable energy that must be addressed. The key issues include the following:
• • • • • • • • •
•
Biomass, hydro, solar and wind energy technologies remain expensive (high capital costs), compared to fuel wood, charcoal, petrol and gas energy supplies; A poor assessment of all renewable energy resources exists; Support of renewable energy projects to become profitable is poor or limited; Consumer awareness on the benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions is lacking; Decentralized solutions for energy services (e.g., generation and distribution) are poor; Financial, legal, regulatory and organizational barriers need to be overcome to implement renewable energy technologies and develop markets; Specific access to key energy infrastructure, such as the national electricity grid, is lacking; Availability of funds for the development of renewable energy is limited; The sector's organization and institutions are weak.
Enforce energy policy at the regional level; Promote and develop power trade and ancillary services; Increase access to clean energy among populations and reduce poverty; Create a free regional energy market, and improve energy system reliability and quality of supply in the entire region; Initiate pilot projects funded to help develop the sustainable energy market; Create favorable regulatory and policy frameworks; Promote innovative finance and business models to activate the private sector; Develop and support policy-maker networks at the regional level with initiatives in the field of energy efficiency, sustainable energy regulation, renewable energy and a regional regulatory board; Disseminate the mirroring of well-reasoned input.
8.2. Enabling environment Given the purchase power of the population and the economic constraints, renewable energy requires an environment that enables its promotion. As mentioned above, the initial capital cost for renewable energy is high compared to conventional energy sources. This can only lead to making renewable energy commercially uncompetitive in the short- to medium-term. To overcome this barrier, specific actions need to be taken at several levels, at the fiscal, financial, social and legislative levels. This includes the commitment and dedication of individuals for good leadership and the encouragement of champions. National and international institutions hosting development agencies based in each country should also work together to attain the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency targets. The full implementation of free trade within the ECCAS will facilitate regional programs and the collaboration among states. Addressing the human resource issue is a key point for attaining these objectives. The region has poor human resources in the area of design, and the evaluation and implementation of renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. Good governance and good regulation in the sector are also very important for promoting and enabling an environment for scaling up investments and mobilizing public and private initiatives. The real potential and benefits of all renewable energy sources is still to be assessed. Because some studies are not conducted or not fully complete, the costs for developing renewable energy tend to be very high and there is a reluctance to invest in what are sometimes considered risky investments.
8. Suggestions 8.1. Vision The region needs to develop a vision that leads to strategies and programs as in other countries with lessons learned from countries such as South Korea. This vision should be politically sustained to mitigate the poor leadership and poor renewable energy and energy efficiency policy formulation in the sector. To sustainably confront climate change, strategic action plans should be developed, or reviewed where available, to align with the clean development mechanism. This should be accomplished through capacity building and the capacity enhancement of stakeholders in the region. Central Africa in suffers from a poor vision on the issue of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Very few countries in the region have developed a vision on this issue and others are still in the process. Strategies and programs do exist in some countries, and these should match the vision and meet the objectives. The region should identify an actionable long-term perspective on the issue of promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. Where no vision is established on this issue, it is important to focus on stakeholder capacity to define and adopt a long-term perspective on renewable energy and energy efficiency. If needed, capacity building and/or capacity enhancement should be developed prior to the formulation of the vision.
8.3. Role of financial instruments The profitability of renewable energy is subject to discussion in a market-driven energy economy. To address this issue, many countries in Europe have adopted different specific renewable power generation approaches (e.g., feed-in tariff, certificates, and fixed tariff). To achieve the stated targets, the introduction of renewable energy technologies into a market-driven energy economy will require the allocation of funding to assist in overcoming the initial high capital cost. This could be accomplished through government bodies, government supported private institutions or simply through dedicated funds (e.g., budgetary allocation, subsidies, or incentives). The process should be discontin6
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has as objective to transport electric energy and manage transmission network on behalf of the State. It is a State corporation with the State as the "sole share holder". The sector was decentralized in 1998. The goal of decentralization was to attract private sector investments to help the country develop its power sector. The generation, transmission, distribution and sales of power are submitted to a concession agreement, license or authorization, declaration regime, free regime and a special regime for rural electrification.
ued as soon as the renewable energy technologies become competitive and are driven by market forces alone. Other actions to be attempted include:
• • • •
Establishment of a good organizational framework and robust energy policy and strategy; Public sensitization; Promotion of efficient techniques and marketing strategies (4Ps); Knowledge management and networking with other partners and projects, and governmental and private sector partnerships.
9.3. Renewable energy promotion The utility is obliged to buy electricity from renewable sources. Apart from that obligation, no specific action dedicated to the promotion of renewable energy has been assumed thus far. To fully implement the utility's obligation will require feed-in tariffs. Programs to promote efficient stoves and energy efficiency are in process but many other issues must still be addressed. The country also has a rural electricity fund for the promotion of rural electricity but funds have yet to be allocated. Strategic actions to boost the energy sector throughout the country are still being formulated by the Ministry of Energy and Water. One division is created since 2012 for this purpose. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency are among these actions. However, given the poor experience of the stakeholders, pilot projects should be initiated and disseminated.
9. Cameroon case study Cameroon has a hydroelectric potential of 19 GW. The average solar radiation is above 4 kWh/day, and the Cameroon power sector relies heavily on hydropower with 721 MW of hydro schemes over a total installed capacity that is greater than 1400 MW. According to the World Bank Investment Climate Assessment, limited access to reliable electricity is among the 5 top obstacles to doing business in Cameroon. It is estimated that the lack of reliable energy services in Cameroon accounts for approximately a 2% reduction in the gross domestic product. To rehabilitate existing power stations, as well as the transmission and distribution networks, the electricity utility ENEO secured a 260 million euro loan to finance its five-year investment program. To secure energy supplies for the country, the Government of Cameroon commissioned an economic power sector development plan (PDSE 2030), which has been updated. Given the time required for the studies, and the development and funding of the hydro plants, the country has been obliged to take emergency measures based on thermal solutions to cover the current and expected energy shortages in the short term. If the funding is not secured, measures taken for emergency electricity production may become permanent, producing more than one million tons of carbon dioxide per year.
9.4. Identified regulatory barriers to renewable energy Challenges (regulatory and others) to sustainable energy in Cameroun include:
• • • • •
9.1. Primary current and future thermal plants From 2004–2013, the thermal power plant capacity from fossil fuels has increased fourfold. Several thermal plants are permanently in operation. The most important are the Limbe thermal plant and the Yassa thermal plant, with an installed capacity of 85 MW each. The construction of the Kribi thermal (gas) plant, with a capacity of 216 MW, is already completed and will be extended to 300 MW. To meet expected energy shortages in the country in the short term, the government has developed 100 MW of additional thermal (fuel oil) capacity in the cities of Bamenda (20 MW), Ebolowa (10 MW), Mbalmayo (30 MW) and the capital city, Yaounde (40 MW). To manage growth in demand that is estimated to be greater than 50 MW per year, important reforms and midterm development plans have been created. Nevertheless, four hydro plants are under construction (205 MW at Memve'ele, 12 MW at Mekin, 30 MW at Lom Pangar and 3 MW at RUMPI area). As demonstrated above, renewable energy is far from being the first solution for addressing energy shortage issues in Cameroon.
• •
The restructuring of the electricity utility, ENEO's mission – separating production, transport and distribution; Establishment of connection charges and tariffs from renewable sources; Modernization and implementation of low cost solutions and safety standards for rural electrification; Encouragement of the ongoing policy for entrepreneurs willing to enter the electrical service contracting business; Consolidation of the provision of incentives to encourage the entry of new electricity retailers in cities and rural areas through the rural electrification fund; Promotion of energy efficiency; Dissemination of best practices.
The mission of the electricity utility should be restructured to encourage energy derived from renewable sources through attractive connection charges and feed-in tariffs. To boost the sector, the rural electricity fund should promote the development of hydro and solar plants where needed and disseminate information about champion renewable energy producers. 9.5. Weaknesses of the institutions The country will experience for the first time the management of new operators, for only two licenses have been granted thus far. All the projects are currently faced with poor visibility in terms of transport and feed-in tariffs. Therefore, the electricity regulatory agency (ARSEL) that was created in the decentralization framework has limited experience. For each of the ongoing projects, there will be specific negotiations if necessary measures concerning regulations are not taken in time. The sector also suffers from a lack of trans-border regulation for the interconnection among countries because Cameroon is able to be a net electricity exporter. Options for encouraging decentralized solutions in remote areas are currently in process through a rural electricity fund but the experience is still limited. To address these issues,
9.2. Institutional reform Prior to the current state, electricity in Cameroon was supplied by a single vertically integrated company that was responsible for power production, transmission, distribution and retail sale [31]. The country established a sector regulator (ARSEL), a rural electrification agency (AER) and also created the Electricity Development Corporation (EDC), which, as the Government of Cameroon's asset holding company, is responsible for the management of public sector assets in the power sector, in particular, hydropower assets, as well as the regulation of power flows. Created by Presidential Decree of October 08, 2015, the National Electricity Transport Company (SONATREL), 7
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Africa-and-Middle-East-en.png〉;[ accessed 12.12.15. [12] 〈http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/the_ area/〉; [accessed 12.12.15. [13] Wanders T. Tropical Forest Foundation; 2008. [14] Behrendt H, Megevand C, Sander K. Deforestation trends in the Congo Basin. The World Bank; 2013. [15] Cooney D. Deforestation rates double in the Congo Basin: Report. Center for International Forestry Research; 2010. [16] Akinwande B. Under Threat: Deforestation pressure on Congo Basin forests increasing. Center for International Forestry Research 2012. [17] 〈http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/〉, 16th September 2013 [18] 〈http://www.citepa.org/fr/pollution-et-climat/la-france-face-a-ses-objectifs〉; 21st September 2013 [19] Johanson TB, Patwardhan A. Global energy assessment. USA: International Institute for applied systems Analysis; 2012. [20] 〈http://www.institut-numerique.org/12-deficite-en-energie-electrique-facteurlimitant-la-croissance-economique-51fba1b21d7c6〉,[ accessed 12.12.15] [21] 〈http://www.gabon-infos.com〉; 16th August 2014 [22] Ministry of Energy and Water of Cameroon. Long term development plan for electricity sector PDSE2030; 2008. [23] mekondongo JC. Central African power pool forum Eurafric partners, Lyon (France); 2012. [24] Kenfack J, Tondo BL, Amie Assouh A, Lejeune AGH. Hydro potential of the Congo basin. Int J Hydropower Dams 2011(6). [25] Kumar Mishra Mukesh, Nilay Khare, Bani Agrawal Alka. Small hydro power in India: current status and future perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;51:101–15, [November]. [26] International Renewable Energy Agency. Renewable energy Prospects. United States of America; 2015 [27] Morris Craig, Pehnt Martin. Energy transition. Heinrich Böll Foundation; 2015. [28] European Commision, Directive 2009/28/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council; 2007 [29] International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Evaluating policies in support of the deployment of renewable power; 2014 [30] Ministry of Energy and Water – Cameroon. Energy information system report 2007. [31] Kenfack J, Hamandjoda O. Overview of institutional structure reform of the cameroon power sector and assessments. In: Sayigh A, editor. . Comprehensive Renewable Energy, 6. Oxford: Elsevier; 2012. p. 129–51.
Cameroon is developing several strategic action plans. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency, therefore, still has a long way to go. 10. Conclusions Central Africa is a region with considerable renewable energy potential, a place where almost all renewable energy sources can be found. The region possesses the greatest hydro potential for the continent, the second largest tropical forest in the world and has significant solar radiation throughout the year. Despite the great renewable energy potential, the region exhibits very poor renewable energy and energy efficiency promotion. Although some actions are in progress, more specific actions in the region are needed at several levels to meet the growing energy demand. Suggestions are offered to help the region develop a worthy vision to address the issue and take the necessary measures at all levels for promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. References [1] Iwandza JM. Ministry of Energy and Hydraulics. Forum Eurafric Brazzaville; 2010 [2] Kenfack J, Fogue M, Tamo Tatietse T; T, H Lejeune AG. Assessing the hydro potential of central Africa. Int J Hydropower Dams 2009:62–5. [3] CICOS. Elaboration of scenarios related to large hydroinfrastructures; 2010. [4] The International journal on Hydropower & $2Dams; 2012, Word atlas and industry guide. [5] UNEP. Renewable energy in Democratic Republic of Congo; 2011. [6] Ministry of Mines energy. Petrol and hydraulic resources of Gabon; 2010. [7] SONEL. Atlas of Cameroon hydropower potential, Sine loco; 1983. [8] 〈https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/documents/SSE6Methodology.pdf〉, [accessed 12.12.15]. [9] 〈http://www.soda-is.com/eng/index.html〉; [accessed 12.12.15]. [10] 〈http://www.soda-is.com/eng/index.html〉; [accessed 12.12.15]. [11] 〈http://solargis.info/doc/_pics/freemaps/1000px/ghi/SolarGIS-Solar-map-
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How can we promote renewable energy and energy efficiency in Central Africa? A Cameroon case study ⁎
Joseph Kenfacka, , J. Lewetchou K.b, Olivier Videme Bossouc, E. Tchaptchetb a b c
National Advanced School of Engineering, Yaounde, Cameroon University of Dschang, Cameroon University of Maroua, Cameroon
A R T I C L E I N F O
A BS T RAC T
Keywords: Renewable energy promotion Energy efficiency Central Africa Remote area Cameroon
Central Africa possesses important renewable energy potential that continues to suffer from poor development. The primary cause of the poor use of renewable energy is the poor commitment and dedication among the region's governments who have not taken the necessary measures to support the sector. The primary purpose of this paper is to emphasize the renewable energy resources of Central Africa that they may be used optimally. The report also describes the availability of renewable energy resources and suggests actions to promote and sustain their development by improving access to sustainable, environmentally friendly, and affordable energy services, making significant improvements to energy infrastructure in Central Africa, and promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. The work presents the potential for solar, biomass and hydropower, indicating where development is available. Next, the identified obstacles of clean energy promotion are targeted. Finally, suggestions are offered to help countries develop a vision aimed at developing good clean energy policy that increases the status of environmentally friendly energy. A Cameroon case study is examined as an illustration. Several documents are cited from institutions in the region and abroad.
1. Introduction Central Africa possesses important renewable energy potential, namely, hydro, tidal, solar and biomass sources. This important potential continues to suffer from poor development and carbon energy remains the primary power source. There are many reasons for the poor commitment and dedication among governments to promote clean energy. The purpose of this paper is to address the issue of clean energy promotion in the Central African context with respect to ongoing energy policy. Because the region is experiencing power shortages from the electrical grid in remote areas and in cities, thermal plants are among the solutions that are planned or under construction. This solution is currently being implemented in Cameroon and other countries in the region, although is not environmentally friendly and hence is not a long-term solution. 2. Methodology This report describes the availability of renewable energy resources and suggests actions to promote and sustain their development. Based on the knowledge of the Central African energy sector, this paper will
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identify actions for improved access to sustainable, friendly, and affordable energy services to consumers as well as suggest significant improvements to energy infrastructure in Central Africa and the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency. This work will first show the potential for three primary renewable energy sources, solar, biomass and hydro, indicating where development is available. Then, the identified obstacles for the promotion of clean energy will be targeted. The proposed solution is recommended given the purchasing power and socioeconomic environment of the region. Finally, suggestions will be made to help the countries develop a vision aimed at developing good clean energy policy to increase the status of the renewable energy sector and better contribute to confronting climate change. The Cameroon case study presented is very interesting because the country has a large variety of renewable energy potential and can develop and export energy to neighboring countries. The state of development of Cameroon's energy sector is presented. Based on ongoing projects and strategic documents adopted by the country, the direction taken towards specific actions is suggested. Provided an overview and assessment of the institutional structural reform of Cameroon's power sector, based on the weaknesses of the
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Kenfack).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.108
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Please cite this article as: Kenfack, J., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.108
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institutions, specific suggestions are made for the enhancement of renewable energy resources to support energy access and security nationwide and in remote areas in particular, where the fight against poverty is more challenging. We obtained data directly from particular stakeholders in each country in the region, and we also used several documents from institutions in the region and abroad, as well as available websites and maps. At the regional level, we obtained data from the International Commission of Congo-Oubangui-Sangha (CICOS), the Economic Community of Central African States (CEMAC), the Central African Power Pool (CAPP), Ministries and utilities when travelling in the region. We also collected data from the World Bank, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and research institutes in Europe via the Internet. Based on the data collected and the experiences of countries with successful policies on renewable energy promotion (Europe, America, and Asia), we offer suggestions.
Table 2 Installed hydro capacity and hydro potential of Central African countries Source: [3–7] Country
Installed hydro capacity (MW)
Potential (MW)
Installed thermal plants (MW)
Democratic republic of the CONGO Cameroon Gabon Republic of the Congo Central African Republic Equatorial Guinea CHAD
2 584
100 000
37
725 311 135 19
20 000 6 000 2 500 2 800
547 176 471 24
121 0
2 400 0
38 200
4.2. Wind potential According to the GEOS-1 satellite measurements from NASA (Fig. 1), from July 1983 to June 1993, the wind potential of the region is poor along the equator. Chad is the only country with an average wind speed above 5 m/s throughout the entire country, indicating the possibility for wind development.
3. General information on Central Africa Central Africa (Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is situated between latitude 13°S and 22°N and longitude 8°E and 22°E and has the data depicted in Table 1 below.
4.3. Geothermal potential Some hot water sources are identified in the region, but a detailed study for the assessment of geothermal potential has not yet been conducted in Central Africa, although one important volcano (Mount Cameroon) is still active. The eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo might have important geothermal potential because it is part of the Indian Ocean's ring of fire (Fig. 2).
4. Renewable energy potential in Central Africa 4.1. Hydro potential The overall hydro potential in Central Africa is estimated to be 133 GW, and less than 3% is developed thus far. In the Republic of the Congo, more than 471 MW of thermal plants are installed at 61 sites, whereas 209 MW [1] of hydro capacity is installed at 3 sites (Imboulou, Moukoukoulou and Djoué). In Gabon, the 275 MW thermal plants located in Port Gentil and Owendo are under development compared to the 261 MW in hydro plants that under development (Grand Poubara, Fe II, and Chutes de l′Impératrices). In Cameroon, 547 MW of thermal plants (some located in Kribi, Yassa, and Limbe) are operating or are under development compared to 242 MW [2] of hydro plants that are under construction (Memve’ele, Mekin and Lom Pangar). Equatorial Guinea has just completed a 120 MW hydro plant at Djibloho and is constructing another 200 MW plant on the Wele River. The thermal installed capacity is approximately 40 MW. All thermal plants mentioned in Table 2 below are fossil-fuel plants (using gas, light or heavy fuel oil).
4.4. Solar potential As depicted in Fig. 3, Africa is situated along the Equator, making the continent one of the sunniest in the world. Based on the data from the Solar Radiation project [10], the lowest daily mean radiation ranges from approximately 4 kWh/day/m2 (wet forest) to above 8 kWh (dry desert in Chad). The modified map below from SolarGIS shows the average solar radiation of the entire continent in general and the region in particular. It appears that Central Africa has great solar potential.
4.5. Biomass potential Central Africa possesses nearly one-quarter of the world's tropical forests. This forest is the second largest tropical forest in the world after the Amazon forest. Its mosaic of ecosystems regulates local climate and the flow of water. The forest covers an important area, from the Albertine Rift (Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda) to the Gulf of Guinea (Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Cameroon) and harbors a variety of forests. It is one of the few places where wild dense forests can still be found in the world, with an area of approximately 500 million acres, spanning the boundaries of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo (Fig. 4). Inadequate and improper forest management practices are a threat to the long-term viability of these forests, significantly reducing their economic potential and resulting in negative social and environmental impacts. Over 50% ([13]) of the Congo Basin's forests are under commercial logging leases. Despite several sustainable forest management programs, Central African tropical forests are disappearing at an alarming rate ([14] [15] [16]).
Table 1 Data on Central Africa. Source: Wikipedia, January 2015 Name
Capital
Official languages
Area (km2)
Population
Angola Cameroon
Luanda Yaoundé
1,246,700 475,442
20,609,294 20,129,878
Central African Republic Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Equatorial Guinea
Bangui
Portuguese French, English Sango, French
622,984
4,576,000
N'Djamena Kinshasa
French, Arabic French
1,284,000 2,344,858
11,274,106 69,575,000
Brazzaville Malabo
French Spanish, French French
342,000 28,051
4,366,266 740,000
267,668
1,576,665 132,847,209
Gabon Total
Libreville
2
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Fig. 1. Average speed of wind in the world from July 1983 to June 1993 [8].
Fig. 2. World geothermal potential [9].
human health has been assessed by the World Health Organization [17]. The studies carried out show that nearly 4 million people die prematurely from illnesses attributable to household air pollution caused by cooking with solid fuels – one death every 8 s (2014 data). Among these deaths,
4.6. Impact of carbon energy consumption As shown above, Central Africa is endowed with an abundance of renewable energy resources but the region is still expecting to face the challenge of harnessing its resources effectively and efficiently. The region still has a vast dependence on fossil fuels and biomass. The use of fuel wood for lighting and cooking is still very familiar in the region given the poor income of the population and the ready availability of biomass. This leads to indoor smoke, which negatively impacts the environment and causes infant mortality from acute respiratory illness associated with the inhalation of wood smoke. The use of firewood and/or charcoal occurs mostly indoors (in the kitchen). It produces greenhouse gas emissions, namely carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, dust, dioxin and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, thus polluting the air. Gases generated by wood or charcoal from energy production, therefore, have an important impact on the quality of the ambient air. This particularly affects human health. The impact of indoor air pollution and household energy on
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2% are due to pneumonia 34% from stroke 26% from ischemic heart disease 22% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and 6% from lung cancer.
More generally, indoor pollution (smoke) inflames the airways and lungs, impairing the immune response and reducing the oxygencarrying capacity of the blood. There is also evidence of links between indoor air pollution and low birth weights, Tuberculosis, ischemic heart disease, and nasopharyngeal and laryngeal cancers. The amount of each type of gas is given for some species in Table 3.
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Fig. 3. Solar radiation in Africa and the Middle East [11].
leading to frequent power outages. The country has developed more than 250 MW of thermal plants over a couple of years to address the electricity shortage issue. The growth in demand is estimated to be greater than 5% per year, amounting to more than 50 MW per year. A number of mining projects are awaiting government clearance before being started [22]. The Republic of the Congo currently meets most of its power demand, but important urban network rehabilitation, reinforcement and new network construction is still need to increase the electricity access rate. In 2000, the electricity demand in the Democratic Republic of the Congo was growing at the rate of 4.5% per year. The situation has since changed, but the electrification rate is still very low, leaving room for business opportunities. This country has the highest hydro potential of the continent. With less than 800 000 inhabitants Equatorial Guinea can produce enough energy for the entire population. However, there is poor network coverage in some areas. Mining projects and the determination to export electricity are also encouraging the state to develop more power plants. Total energy generation in Central Africa in 2008 was 10 537 MWh (including Angola), with a consumption per capita of 109 kWh [23].
The exact data on carbon dioxide and other gases is not available for all the species found in the region, but the same pollutants are responsible for the diseases. This indicates that there is a need to develop efficient, sustainable and safe technologies to relieve poor populations from such a burden. 4.7. Electricity demand The electrification rate in Central Africa (excluding the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is 15% [19]. This region as a whole has, therefore, one of the lowest electrification rates of the continent. The deficit is as much as 270 MW [20], and the overall growth of electricity consumption in the region (excluding the Democratic Republic of the Congo) is 4.6% 1990–2008). The gap should be filled before meeting the regular demand linked to the growth of the population and economic activities. The demand varies from one country to another. Gabon has experienced 4.3% growth from 2000 to 2008. The country is engaged in important hydro projects to sustain forthcoming mining activities. The total installed capacity in Gabon, which is approximately 550 MW will be extended to approximately 1 039 MW by the year 2020 [21]. Cameroon experiences significant deficits in the electricity sector, 4
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Fig. 4. Map of the Congo Basin forests in Central Africa [12].
in Central Africa. Micro hydro can still be developed for small communities [25].
Table 3 Biomass pollutants’ emissions, source: [18]. Charcoal
wood
SO2 (g/GJ) NOx (g/GJ) Non-methane volatile organic compounds (g/GJ) CO (g/GJ) Dust (g/GJ) Dioxin (ng i-TEQ /GJ) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), (μg/GJ)
20 50 1522 6417 358 100 328 000
5. The Region's energy sector The energy sector differs from one country to another, depending on the available potential. Some countries have decentralized the sector and others are in the process. Each country has its own energy sector management process and regulations. Countries in the region anticipate having trans-border regulations, which will facilitate grid interconnection and the sustainable management of energy sources. All of the countries have developed important thermal plants. To sustain the energy sector's development, it is very important to address the issues raised by sustainable development and the promotion of renewable energy. This requires assessing and developing an adequate energy policy as demonstrated by International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) for the United States [26], Craig Morris, Martin Pehnt for Germany [27] for Poland and the European Commission [28] and IRENA [29] for the European Union.
The demand forecast by 2025 as assessed by the Central African Power Pool (CAPP) is 13 052 MWh. The International Commission of CongoOubangui-Sangha has developed a strategic plan for hydropower development in the Congo Basin [24]. The CAPP has also assessed the demand in the region in terms of the capacity to be constructed and identified 23 hydro plants to be developed by the year 2025 whose total capacity is 5 970 MW. Provided the importance of the hydrographic network, tidal energy can also be envisaged, as well as ocean energy along the Gulf of Guinea.
6. Energy efficiency The issue of energy efficiency in the region suffers from poor information on and the dissemination of energy efficiency technologies. The contributions in Central Africa should primarily be oriented towards building capacity and information dissemination on energy efficiency technologies. The major objective of such an initiative is to alleviate the economic burdens of the countries in the region, thereby improving the quality of life. Because of their more affordable prices, most of the region's countries are using less efficient equipment in their industrial, transportation and household sectors (e.g., generators, wood, petrol). Most of this equipment, which may be used (from developed countries), obsolete or technologically inefficient (e.g., inefficient stoves or incandescent light bulbs), is less efficient than the latest models being used currently and, therefore, consumes more energy. These inefficient apparatuses often produce more air pollutants that can cause environmental destruction and human health risks.
4.8. Recommended renewable options in the region Provided the poor wind potential, the absence of (or unknown) geothermal potential and the threat to forests from inadequate and improper forest management, solar and hydro are unquestionably the recommended options for the region. The potential of these two energy sources is high; however, solar power plants have a very poor availability factor. Pump storage is often used to mitigate the problem. Unfortunately, the cost to develop a pump storage plant, coupled with the cost to develop a large solar plant, makes this solution very expensive for countries in the region. Where there are no hydro resources, in remote areas for instance, solar plants can still be developed, especially where demand is low. Because of their low cost per unit, high installed capacity and high availability, hydro plants are undeniably the first option to address the issue of electricity generation 5
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According to the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the electrification rate in central Africa is 15% [10]. To meet the renewable energy and energy efficiency objectives, effective leadership is a key issue for the attainment of objectives within Central Africa. At the national and regional levels, political authorities should be involved and support the cause. This would lead to a generation of champions. Other important points to meet the defined objectives are:
Many countries in Central Africa are oil producers. The availability of fossil fuels is, therefore, not an important issue. Energy efficient technology could help reduce the negative environmental impacts of human activities by decreasing the consumption of fossil fuels, and thereby yield the same results as renewable energy sources. Actions should be taken to ameliorate and sustain a lower value of energy intensity. Introducing high efficiency technologies into Central Africa is predicted to lessen the overall economic burden by reducing the total conventional fuel consumption, electricity costs and the high deforestation rates, thus improving these technologies’ productivity. Given the high level of biomass consumption (80% of the household energy in Cameroon [30], energy efficiency is predicted to reduce desert encroachment and thus climate change. The issue of implementing hybrid renewable energy systems, namely solar, hydro, biomass and wind, can also be imagined.
• • • • • • • •
7. Barriers to renewable energy and energy efficiency implementation There are significant barriers to further implementing renewable energy that must be addressed. The key issues include the following:
• • • • • • • • •
•
Biomass, hydro, solar and wind energy technologies remain expensive (high capital costs), compared to fuel wood, charcoal, petrol and gas energy supplies; A poor assessment of all renewable energy resources exists; Support of renewable energy projects to become profitable is poor or limited; Consumer awareness on the benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions is lacking; Decentralized solutions for energy services (e.g., generation and distribution) are poor; Financial, legal, regulatory and organizational barriers need to be overcome to implement renewable energy technologies and develop markets; Specific access to key energy infrastructure, such as the national electricity grid, is lacking; Availability of funds for the development of renewable energy is limited; The sector's organization and institutions are weak.
Enforce energy policy at the regional level; Promote and develop power trade and ancillary services; Increase access to clean energy among populations and reduce poverty; Create a free regional energy market, and improve energy system reliability and quality of supply in the entire region; Initiate pilot projects funded to help develop the sustainable energy market; Create favorable regulatory and policy frameworks; Promote innovative finance and business models to activate the private sector; Develop and support policy-maker networks at the regional level with initiatives in the field of energy efficiency, sustainable energy regulation, renewable energy and a regional regulatory board; Disseminate the mirroring of well-reasoned input.
8.2. Enabling environment Given the purchase power of the population and the economic constraints, renewable energy requires an environment that enables its promotion. As mentioned above, the initial capital cost for renewable energy is high compared to conventional energy sources. This can only lead to making renewable energy commercially uncompetitive in the short- to medium-term. To overcome this barrier, specific actions need to be taken at several levels, at the fiscal, financial, social and legislative levels. This includes the commitment and dedication of individuals for good leadership and the encouragement of champions. National and international institutions hosting development agencies based in each country should also work together to attain the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency targets. The full implementation of free trade within the ECCAS will facilitate regional programs and the collaboration among states. Addressing the human resource issue is a key point for attaining these objectives. The region has poor human resources in the area of design, and the evaluation and implementation of renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. Good governance and good regulation in the sector are also very important for promoting and enabling an environment for scaling up investments and mobilizing public and private initiatives. The real potential and benefits of all renewable energy sources is still to be assessed. Because some studies are not conducted or not fully complete, the costs for developing renewable energy tend to be very high and there is a reluctance to invest in what are sometimes considered risky investments.
8. Suggestions 8.1. Vision The region needs to develop a vision that leads to strategies and programs as in other countries with lessons learned from countries such as South Korea. This vision should be politically sustained to mitigate the poor leadership and poor renewable energy and energy efficiency policy formulation in the sector. To sustainably confront climate change, strategic action plans should be developed, or reviewed where available, to align with the clean development mechanism. This should be accomplished through capacity building and the capacity enhancement of stakeholders in the region. Central Africa in suffers from a poor vision on the issue of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Very few countries in the region have developed a vision on this issue and others are still in the process. Strategies and programs do exist in some countries, and these should match the vision and meet the objectives. The region should identify an actionable long-term perspective on the issue of promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. Where no vision is established on this issue, it is important to focus on stakeholder capacity to define and adopt a long-term perspective on renewable energy and energy efficiency. If needed, capacity building and/or capacity enhancement should be developed prior to the formulation of the vision.
8.3. Role of financial instruments The profitability of renewable energy is subject to discussion in a market-driven energy economy. To address this issue, many countries in Europe have adopted different specific renewable power generation approaches (e.g., feed-in tariff, certificates, and fixed tariff). To achieve the stated targets, the introduction of renewable energy technologies into a market-driven energy economy will require the allocation of funding to assist in overcoming the initial high capital cost. This could be accomplished through government bodies, government supported private institutions or simply through dedicated funds (e.g., budgetary allocation, subsidies, or incentives). The process should be discontin6
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has as objective to transport electric energy and manage transmission network on behalf of the State. It is a State corporation with the State as the "sole share holder". The sector was decentralized in 1998. The goal of decentralization was to attract private sector investments to help the country develop its power sector. The generation, transmission, distribution and sales of power are submitted to a concession agreement, license or authorization, declaration regime, free regime and a special regime for rural electrification.
ued as soon as the renewable energy technologies become competitive and are driven by market forces alone. Other actions to be attempted include:
• • • •
Establishment of a good organizational framework and robust energy policy and strategy; Public sensitization; Promotion of efficient techniques and marketing strategies (4Ps); Knowledge management and networking with other partners and projects, and governmental and private sector partnerships.
9.3. Renewable energy promotion The utility is obliged to buy electricity from renewable sources. Apart from that obligation, no specific action dedicated to the promotion of renewable energy has been assumed thus far. To fully implement the utility's obligation will require feed-in tariffs. Programs to promote efficient stoves and energy efficiency are in process but many other issues must still be addressed. The country also has a rural electricity fund for the promotion of rural electricity but funds have yet to be allocated. Strategic actions to boost the energy sector throughout the country are still being formulated by the Ministry of Energy and Water. One division is created since 2012 for this purpose. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency are among these actions. However, given the poor experience of the stakeholders, pilot projects should be initiated and disseminated.
9. Cameroon case study Cameroon has a hydroelectric potential of 19 GW. The average solar radiation is above 4 kWh/day, and the Cameroon power sector relies heavily on hydropower with 721 MW of hydro schemes over a total installed capacity that is greater than 1400 MW. According to the World Bank Investment Climate Assessment, limited access to reliable electricity is among the 5 top obstacles to doing business in Cameroon. It is estimated that the lack of reliable energy services in Cameroon accounts for approximately a 2% reduction in the gross domestic product. To rehabilitate existing power stations, as well as the transmission and distribution networks, the electricity utility ENEO secured a 260 million euro loan to finance its five-year investment program. To secure energy supplies for the country, the Government of Cameroon commissioned an economic power sector development plan (PDSE 2030), which has been updated. Given the time required for the studies, and the development and funding of the hydro plants, the country has been obliged to take emergency measures based on thermal solutions to cover the current and expected energy shortages in the short term. If the funding is not secured, measures taken for emergency electricity production may become permanent, producing more than one million tons of carbon dioxide per year.
9.4. Identified regulatory barriers to renewable energy Challenges (regulatory and others) to sustainable energy in Cameroun include:
• • • • •
9.1. Primary current and future thermal plants From 2004–2013, the thermal power plant capacity from fossil fuels has increased fourfold. Several thermal plants are permanently in operation. The most important are the Limbe thermal plant and the Yassa thermal plant, with an installed capacity of 85 MW each. The construction of the Kribi thermal (gas) plant, with a capacity of 216 MW, is already completed and will be extended to 300 MW. To meet expected energy shortages in the country in the short term, the government has developed 100 MW of additional thermal (fuel oil) capacity in the cities of Bamenda (20 MW), Ebolowa (10 MW), Mbalmayo (30 MW) and the capital city, Yaounde (40 MW). To manage growth in demand that is estimated to be greater than 50 MW per year, important reforms and midterm development plans have been created. Nevertheless, four hydro plants are under construction (205 MW at Memve'ele, 12 MW at Mekin, 30 MW at Lom Pangar and 3 MW at RUMPI area). As demonstrated above, renewable energy is far from being the first solution for addressing energy shortage issues in Cameroon.
• •
The restructuring of the electricity utility, ENEO's mission – separating production, transport and distribution; Establishment of connection charges and tariffs from renewable sources; Modernization and implementation of low cost solutions and safety standards for rural electrification; Encouragement of the ongoing policy for entrepreneurs willing to enter the electrical service contracting business; Consolidation of the provision of incentives to encourage the entry of new electricity retailers in cities and rural areas through the rural electrification fund; Promotion of energy efficiency; Dissemination of best practices.
The mission of the electricity utility should be restructured to encourage energy derived from renewable sources through attractive connection charges and feed-in tariffs. To boost the sector, the rural electricity fund should promote the development of hydro and solar plants where needed and disseminate information about champion renewable energy producers. 9.5. Weaknesses of the institutions The country will experience for the first time the management of new operators, for only two licenses have been granted thus far. All the projects are currently faced with poor visibility in terms of transport and feed-in tariffs. Therefore, the electricity regulatory agency (ARSEL) that was created in the decentralization framework has limited experience. For each of the ongoing projects, there will be specific negotiations if necessary measures concerning regulations are not taken in time. The sector also suffers from a lack of trans-border regulation for the interconnection among countries because Cameroon is able to be a net electricity exporter. Options for encouraging decentralized solutions in remote areas are currently in process through a rural electricity fund but the experience is still limited. To address these issues,
9.2. Institutional reform Prior to the current state, electricity in Cameroon was supplied by a single vertically integrated company that was responsible for power production, transmission, distribution and retail sale [31]. The country established a sector regulator (ARSEL), a rural electrification agency (AER) and also created the Electricity Development Corporation (EDC), which, as the Government of Cameroon's asset holding company, is responsible for the management of public sector assets in the power sector, in particular, hydropower assets, as well as the regulation of power flows. Created by Presidential Decree of October 08, 2015, the National Electricity Transport Company (SONATREL), 7
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Africa-and-Middle-East-en.png〉;[ accessed 12.12.15. [12] 〈http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/the_ area/〉; [accessed 12.12.15. [13] Wanders T. Tropical Forest Foundation; 2008. [14] Behrendt H, Megevand C, Sander K. Deforestation trends in the Congo Basin. The World Bank; 2013. [15] Cooney D. Deforestation rates double in the Congo Basin: Report. Center for International Forestry Research; 2010. [16] Akinwande B. Under Threat: Deforestation pressure on Congo Basin forests increasing. Center for International Forestry Research 2012. [17] 〈http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/〉, 16th September 2013 [18] 〈http://www.citepa.org/fr/pollution-et-climat/la-france-face-a-ses-objectifs〉; 21st September 2013 [19] Johanson TB, Patwardhan A. Global energy assessment. USA: International Institute for applied systems Analysis; 2012. [20] 〈http://www.institut-numerique.org/12-deficite-en-energie-electrique-facteurlimitant-la-croissance-economique-51fba1b21d7c6〉,[ accessed 12.12.15] [21] 〈http://www.gabon-infos.com〉; 16th August 2014 [22] Ministry of Energy and Water of Cameroon. Long term development plan for electricity sector PDSE2030; 2008. [23] mekondongo JC. Central African power pool forum Eurafric partners, Lyon (France); 2012. [24] Kenfack J, Tondo BL, Amie Assouh A, Lejeune AGH. Hydro potential of the Congo basin. Int J Hydropower Dams 2011(6). [25] Kumar Mishra Mukesh, Nilay Khare, Bani Agrawal Alka. Small hydro power in India: current status and future perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;51:101–15, [November]. [26] International Renewable Energy Agency. Renewable energy Prospects. United States of America; 2015 [27] Morris Craig, Pehnt Martin. Energy transition. Heinrich Böll Foundation; 2015. [28] European Commision, Directive 2009/28/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council; 2007 [29] International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Evaluating policies in support of the deployment of renewable power; 2014 [30] Ministry of Energy and Water – Cameroon. Energy information system report 2007. [31] Kenfack J, Hamandjoda O. Overview of institutional structure reform of the cameroon power sector and assessments. In: Sayigh A, editor. . Comprehensive Renewable Energy, 6. Oxford: Elsevier; 2012. p. 129–51.
Cameroon is developing several strategic action plans. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency, therefore, still has a long way to go. 10. Conclusions Central Africa is a region with considerable renewable energy potential, a place where almost all renewable energy sources can be found. The region possesses the greatest hydro potential for the continent, the second largest tropical forest in the world and has significant solar radiation throughout the year. Despite the great renewable energy potential, the region exhibits very poor renewable energy and energy efficiency promotion. Although some actions are in progress, more specific actions in the region are needed at several levels to meet the growing energy demand. Suggestions are offered to help the region develop a worthy vision to address the issue and take the necessary measures at all levels for promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. References [1] Iwandza JM. Ministry of Energy and Hydraulics. Forum Eurafric Brazzaville; 2010 [2] Kenfack J, Fogue M, Tamo Tatietse T; T, H Lejeune AG. Assessing the hydro potential of central Africa. Int J Hydropower Dams 2009:62–5. [3] CICOS. Elaboration of scenarios related to large hydroinfrastructures; 2010. [4] The International journal on Hydropower & $2Dams; 2012, Word atlas and industry guide. [5] UNEP. Renewable energy in Democratic Republic of Congo; 2011. [6] Ministry of Mines energy. Petrol and hydraulic resources of Gabon; 2010. [7] SONEL. Atlas of Cameroon hydropower potential, Sine loco; 1983. [8] 〈https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/documents/SSE6Methodology.pdf〉, [accessed 12.12.15]. [9] 〈http://www.soda-is.com/eng/index.html〉; [accessed 12.12.15]. [10] 〈http://www.soda-is.com/eng/index.html〉; [accessed 12.12.15]. [11] 〈http://solargis.info/doc/_pics/freemaps/1000px/ghi/SolarGIS-Solar-map-
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