Human interactions with the sandstone landscape of central Sudetes

Applied Geography 42 (2013) 206e216

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Human interactions with the sandstone landscape of central Sudetes
*, Agnieszka Latocha Piotr Migon University of Wrocław, Institute of Geography and Regional Development, Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wrocław, Poland

a b s t r a c t Keywords: Geomorphology Sandstone landscapes Landscape archaeology Human impact Sudetes

The paper examines the history of human interactions with the specific plateau and cuesta morphology developed upon Cretaceous sedimentary sequences in the Middle Sudetes, Central Europe (Poland, Czech Republic). Lithological contrasts influence relief at regional and local scale, providing diverse opportunities and limits to human activities since medieval times until the present. As a result a complex cultural landscape underpinned by geomorphology evolved through time, illustrating the concept of ‘sandstone phenomenon’. The following interactions with the physical landscape are identified: avoidance, adaptation, modification, and withdrawal. Although early modifications occurred in the late medieval period, adaptation rather than direct human impact typified the area until the mid-18th century. The expansion of settlement network in later times, along with forest clearance, development of quarrying and growth of tourism have led to substantial modifications of the geomorphological landscape and the origin of a suite of anthropic landforms. Depopulation of the region, particularly on the now Polish side, amplified after World War II, resulted in land use changes and renaturalization of many areas. Many previously occupied areas have been abandoned and various forms of nature and landscape protection now provide limitations to further development. Modification is tightly controlled, while re-adaptation is preferred and promoted, driven not by physical constraints anymore but by changing attitudes and increasing environmental awareness. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction The geomorphology of sandstone terrains, due to its distinctiveness and diversity, has long been the subject of attention. After decades of a predominantly descriptive approach and a focus on landform identification and classification, new research fields have been opened, directed towards more thorough understanding of processes, rock properties that control them, structural geological and sedimentological background (see Young, Wray, & Young, 2009, 304 pp.). These studies, often highly illuminating in terms of basic geomorphological research, are however largely disassociated from the human factor. This is paradoxical since many excellent examples can be provided of very close interactions between people and sandstone landscapes, in which characteristics of the latter were used for the benefits of the former. The examples are essentially from each continent and include, but are not limited to, the ‘red rock city’ of Petra, large parts of it having been carved in sandstone (Paradise, 2005), Anasazi settlements and shelters within the sandstone cliffs of the Colorado Plateau (Kantner, 2004,

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ48 71 3752295; fax: þ48 71 3435184.
), E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (P. Migon [email protected] (A. Latocha). 0143-6228/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.03.015

324 pp.), sandstone terrains of central and northern Australia with various Aboriginal associations, particularly with rock art (Chippindale & Taçon, 1998), or the spectacular Danxia landscapes of south China, among which various philosophical and art schools flourished over centuries (Fang, Qingheng, Xiaojun, Wenge & Zhonghua, 2007). In certain places linkages between people, their spiritual values and beliefs, location and shape of the physical terrain were or are so strong that specific sandstone geomorphic features attained the status of ‘sacred places’, of which the arkosic sandstone inselberg of Uluru in Australia is the prime example. Another area where interactions between people, human activity and sandstone terrain are both protracted in time and manifold, is Central Europe. In the northern part of the Bohemian Massif (Czech Republic, parts of Germany and Poland e see Fig. 1) an extensive sandstone tableland occurs, subject to human impact since prehistory. However, except for specific places and the recent decades, human alterations of the natural environment were relatively modest and adjustment rather than far-reaching reshaping has been the norm. In this paper, we intend to investigate the nature of these relationships, on the example of the north-eastern extremity of the Cretaceous sandstone tableland of the Bohemian Massif, at the Czech/Polish boundary, in the central part of the Sudetes Mountains. The very specific morphology of sandstone plateaus and escarpments exerted a profound influence on the


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Fig. 1. Location of the study area (black rectangle) in Central Europe.

range of activities undertaken by humans since medieval times, and adaptation rather than severe human impact has typified the area until the present-day. Hence, geomorphology has provided an essential background to the development of a cultural landscape.

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to deeply dissected ‘rock cities’. Relative relief within the latter comes to 100 m. Second, these vertical outcrops occur adjacent to very gentle or even flat terrain that follows structure. Hence, stepped topography and extreme contrasts in slope gradients characterize sandstone tablelands of the Bohemian Massif. Third, although the rock mass strength of sandstone is high, it is so due to the very wide spacing of discontinuities (Remisz, 2008). The intact strength of sandstone is moderate and the rock is easily cut and dressed. This provided an opportunity to modify natural rock outcrops to suit people’s purposes. Fourth, the weathering pattern of Cretaceous sandstone is such that the rock breaks down into sand which can be easily eroded away. In consequence, the weathering mantle is very thin and erodible, and soils developed upon it are shallow and poorly suited to agriculture. Fifth, at the rock mass scale, sandstone outcrops tend to release huge blocks defined by widely spaced joints. Hence, block talus deposits occur below cliff lines and may extend far onto the footslope. It needs to be noted that the above-mentioned features in the Sudetes are almost endemic to the Cretaceous sandstone terrain. The remaining parts of the mountain area, although hugely diversified in terms of rock type and age, do not show any geomorphological parallels to the sandstone tablelands and escarpments
, 2011). Moderately steep all-slopes topography (sensu (Migon Twidale, 1982, 372 pp.), with occasional rock outcrops and widespread fine-grained regolith, is the dominant physical landscape.

Background e Sandstone phenomenon

Study area

The close relationships between rocks, landscapes and humans in sandstone terrains are included within the general term of ‘Sandstone phenomenon’. This notion was first coined by Cílek and Kopecký (1998) in a conference proceedings collection from a meeting in the Czech Republic and simply defined as ‘(.) the sum of all abiotic and biotic constituents associated with specific type of sandstone relief’ (p. 9). It was also commented that the term particularly applies to ‘(.) cases of interactive feedbacks among the substrate, microclimate, vegetation and fauna’ (op. cit.). Subsequently, however, the concept was broadened and refined, providing background for the comprehensive evaluation of sandstone terrains. It was realized that close relationships exist not only between sandstone and vegetation, but that humans play an
, and important role too. Thus, Cílek, Williams, Osborne, Migon Mikulás (2007) observed that ‘[sandstone areas] often attract settlement or act as refuges, and may include ‘art galleries’ of previous civilisations (.). Possibly nowhere among Earth’s landscapes can we observe such a close relationship between “stone and life” as in sandstone areas’ (p. 34). Consequently, the sandstone phenomenon was redefined as a case where ‘(.) the substrate, climate, life and human activity all participate in creating a single system intertwined by a complex network of feedbacks and interrelationships at multiple levels’ (Härtel, Cílek, Herben, Jackson & Williams, 2007, p. 9). Adamovic, Mikulás, and Cílek (2010, 460 pp.) provided numerous examples of direct human associations with sandstone morphology, ranging from small-scale rock carvings and rock art to extensive rock-hewn castles and quarries, while Jen c and Pesa (2007) and Belisová (2007) explored the theme how people used natural resources in the sandstone area of the northern Czech Republic through time. Among various natural attributes and features of the sandstone terrain subject to this study the following assume particular significance in the context of human interactions with landforms and landscapes. First, bare rock outcrops are numerous and occur in a variety of forms and shapes, from hoodoo rocks a few metres high through tors of curious shapes, solitary columns and towers, buttes and mesas, extensive cliff lines around plateaus or inside canyons,

The study area is located in the central part of the Sudetes range e a mountainous terrain of complex morphology, striking NWeSE along the boundary of the Czech Republic and Poland. Although the Sudetes as a whole constitute a block-faulted massif, with numerous second-order horst and graben structures delimited by normal faults active in the late Cenozoic (Zuchiewicz, Badura, &
ski, 2007), in the central part of the Sudetes the impact of Jarosin differential tectonics was relatively minor. The gross features of relief are the outcome of long-term differential erosion acting upon sedimentary formations spanning the period from Carboniferous to Cretaceous (Tásler, 1979). They form a large structural unit known as the Intra-Sudetic Trough. Our focus in this paper is on the youngest formations within the trough, laid down during several transgressiveeregressive cycles in the Late Cretaceous, between Cenomanian and Coniacian (Wojewoda, 1997). In fact, at that time the former intramontane trough was connected with the sedimentary realm in the present-day Bohemian Cretaceous Basin. Subsequent separation of these two areas of Cretaceous rock occurrence is due to uplift and erosion along the regionally important Hronov e Pori cí fault zone (Valenta, Stejskal, & e pan St cíková, 2008). The Cretaceous sequence includes various sedimentary rocks, from quartz sandstone and locally conglomerate through arkosic and glauconitic sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, calcareous and siliceous marl, to claystone (Tásler, 1979; Wojewoda, 1997). Among them, sandstones are the strongest and support rock escarpments and structural plateaus, with a range of subordinate medium and minor landforms. Local differences in lithology, structure and magnitude of uplift account for geographical divisions of the area. Consequently, a few distinct sub-regions are distinguished (Fig. 2). The Sto1owe (Table) Mountains constitute the highest part of the central Sudetic sandstone tableland, peaking at 919 m a.s.l. (Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki). The main terrain unit is an elevated plateau underlain mainly by fine-grained sedimentary rocks, while massive arkosic sandstones make the northern rim, with vertical rock faces up to 40 m high in the upper slope. Above the main plateau level remnants of an upper level rise, including two more extensive

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Fig. 2. Morphology of the central part of the Sudetes and location of geographical units discussed in this paper (CZ e Czech Republic, PL e Poland). White line indicates the extent of the Cretaceous sequence. Sz e Szczeliniec Wielki, O e Ostas, H e Hejda.

fragments and the twin isolated mesa of Mt. Szczeliniec. Thick series of quartz sandstone act as caprock to the slopes below connecting with the main plateau. The altitude difference between the upper and middle level varies from 50 to 150 m. At a lower elevation, in turn, discontinuous benches in glauconitic sandstone occur. The Sto1owe Mountains owe their stepped topography to the negligible dip of the sandstone deposits, while many fine geomorphic details reflect lithological variation, strength variation,
, and jointing pattern (Dumanowski, 1961; Kasprzak and Migon 2012; Pulinowa, 1989, 218 pp.). The north-western extension of the northern rim of the Sto1owe ny. Morphological Mountains is the classic cuesta of Broumovské ste change in this direction results from structural change. The nearly horizontal dip of the arkosic sandstone unit is replaced by a SW dip of 15e20 . The upper rim is at 650e700 m a.s.l., overlooking the northern foreland cut across Permian red beds by 200e250 m. Here too, the escarpment is crowned by 20e30 m high cliffs in the upper part. The gently inclined backslope is dissected by a network of canyons. Further north the cuesta continues but loses height and lacks continuous rock outcrops below the rim. This is because the caprock is both thinner and weaker, and in some sections sandstones give way to siliceous marls. Sandstone cliffs reappear along the western border of the sandstone tableland, in the Zawory ridge, but are only 10 m high and directly underlain by Triassic soft sandstones. The curved course of the cuesta reflects the geometry of the large syncline. The inner part of the syncline represents a different type of morphology. In the south, around the town of Police n. Metují, the physical landscape is typified by a low cuesta with scarce or no rock outcrops and extensive low-gradient backslopes. Two mesas interrupt this gentle relief, Ostas (700 m a.s.l.) and Hejda (628 m a.s.l.), both capped by quartz sandstones. Rivers tend to flow in deeply incised valleys. The most diverse relief occurs in the northern part of the syncline, between the town of Teplice nad Metují and the village of Adrspach. It is long known as the ‘rock cities’ of Teplice and Adrspach and represents an intricately and deeply dissected

remnant of the upper plateau, c. 7  4 km in size. Individual sandstone towers and cliffs reach 80 m high, their shapes and outlines being controlled by fractures. Canyons are numerous, their rock-cut floors often hidden under thick talus deposits. The highest point of the plateau is 786 m a.s.l. From the land use point of view, the central Sudetes are a mosaic of forest and open terrain, used as arable fields, pastures and meadows. While the Sto1owe Mountains are largely under forest whatever the local slope inclination is, in the remaining part of the study area there is a distinct correlation between steepness of terrain and land cover. Coniferous and mixed forests occupy steep slopes of escarpments and mesas, as well as thrive within the ‘rock cities’. Backslopes and level terrain have long been deforested and are used for agricultural purposes. Built-up areas follow river courses and at the present-day relatively few settlements extend toward high-elevation localities. Currently, the study area is divided between Poland and Czech Republic by the state border established after the World War II. It is identical with the pre-1945 border between Germany and Czechoslovakia, and the 1763e1918 border between Prussia and the Austrian Empire. However, despite the changing political framework the pathways of socio-economic development were similar throughout the region from the beginning of the settlement period in medieval times up to the year 1945. Only in the post-war period have the demographic and economic trends diverged on both sides of the border, which has resulted in diverse environmental changes. This topic will be discussed later in the paper. Humans and sandstone landscapes through time The beginnings The first written sources on human occupation in the study area date back to the 13e14th century, which was the main period of the development of the settlement pattern in the entire Sudetes Mts.
ski, Michalkiewicz & D1ugoborski, 1960e19 (Inglot, 1979; Maleczyn 85). The local economy was based mainly on agriculture and forestry, therefore the villages were located in places suitable for land cultivation. Flat and gently sloping terrains at lower altitudes were favoured, as were broad valleys with permanent drainage. Low-relief surfaces underlain by mudstones, marls and finegrained sandstones were preferred for two reasons. First, they offered better soils; second, water resources were easier to access. Especially the areas close to the lithological contact between sandstone and mudstone/marl outcrops were chosen due to the occurrence of the spring lines developed below the permeable sandstone layers (Kowalski, 1980). In terms of geomorphology, structural benches and cuesta backslopes were settled first. During this period sandstone plateaus, mesas and cuesta faces remained a wilderness, covered with dense forests, which made access even more difficult. Apparently, few people ventured into the maze of canyons and gorges, or explored rock cliffs. According to local folk tales, they were used occasionally, as places of refuge during various political and religious upheavals common in the medieval period, e.g. during the Hussite Wars in the early 15th century. No conclusive tangible evidence of these activities persisted and it is not even known whether various events really took place or are romantic inventions from much later periods of cultural development. Roughly in this period, however, people started to take advantage of the specific sandstone relief with precipitous rocky bluffs, isolated towers and narrow defiles. Sandstone escarpments formed natural defensive barriers and offered good vantage points over wider countryside. Hence, castles and military outposts were built at the edges of sandstone plateaus and perfectly integrated with the


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natural relief. Upstanding rock formations provided foundations for outlook towers, whereas local structural benches were used to erect residential and service buildings. The relatively soft nature of sandstone allowed the excavation of cellars and rooms directly in rock. Access was difficult, often requiring steep ascent towards sandstone cliffs, and well guarded. Three ‘rock castles’ e Adrspach, Skály (Fig. 3) and Strmen e were built on the perimeter of the most extensive, heavily dissected sandstone plateau near Teplice and Adrspach, while a few smaller fortifications were dispersed across the remaining part of the region (Durdík, 2000). Late medieval and early modern times The period from the late medieval times until the mid-18th century did not witness any large-scale alterations in the evolution of the settlement pattern and local economy. An increase in the number of inhabitants was slow and temporarily reduced, mainly as an effect of the 30-years War (1618e1648). The repeated military actions and occupation by enemy armies, followed by the spread of hunger, diseases, robberies and general anarchy resulted in the decline of the local population in the region by 30% in the mid-17th century (Inglot, 1979). The reduction of population resulted in the abandonment of many settlements and the decline of agricultural activity for many years, which contributed to local re-generation of forests on formerly settled and managed areas. Only after 1648 the trend reversed. The area remained within the boundaries of the Austrian Empire whose rulers were devoted catholics and supported counter-reformation. This religious movement, lasting until the 1740s, had important implications for human interactions with the sandstone terrain. Activities undertaken to strengthen the role of the Catholic church included erection of various symbols of faith in the landscape. They ranged from monumental churches in large pilgrimage centers, such as in Wambierzyce (‘Silesian Jerusalem’) at the foot of the sandstone escarpment of the Sto1owe Mountains, through more modest chapels standing at road crossings and pilgrimage paths, to sculptures, roadside stone crosses and Stations of the Cross. Local sandstone has been extensively used as building and ornamental stone. Some religious symbols were cut directly in sandstone outcrops or sculpted in loose sandstone boulders. A significant number of those religious and artistic expressions is still visible (Fig. 4). The period of religious fever contributed to further ‘domestication’ of the sandstone landscape. Pilgrimage paths and roads in order to reach Wambierzyce had to cross the uninhabited central plateau of the Sto1owe Mountains and the canyon-riddled forested cuesta of  ste ny. Broumovske

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Expansion of settlement e 18th and 19th century The demographic and economic development, observed in the study area from the mid-18th century up to the end of the 19th century, resulted in the changes of the settlement pattern. The less favourable areas on higher elevation and steeper slopes, avoided by earlier inhabitants, started to be occupied as well. The mid-18th century witnessed the second intense phase of the so-called inner-colonization with new hamlets and colonies of previously existing villages encroaching up the slopes and valleys (Fig. 5). However, the expansion of settlements and agricultural areas into the closer vicinity of the sandstone escarpments and block-covered slopes required more active interactions with the local morphology. Shallow coarse-grained soils, developed upon sandstone bedrock, contained a significant amount of rock debris. Gravitational massmovements on sandstone slopes and escarpments resulted in downslope transport of boulders and enrichment of the foothill soils in coarser material. Ploughing, selective surface wash and frost-heaving apparently resulted in constant re-appearance of debris at the ground surface that had to be collected to facilitate agriculture. The evidence of intense labour undertaken consists of e among others e numerous stone heaps and stone walls. The former are up to 3 m high, the latter may reach a length of 350 m (Fig. 6 A, B). They are common in the more elevated areas and occur mainly at the foot of sandstone cliffs and debris-covered slopes, practically above all villages and hamlets located close to sandstone escarpments. Further landforms connected with farming are agricultural terraces, which are 150e400 m long and up to 1e1.5 m high at the riser, and road gullies. The density of the anthropogenic scarps in the Sto1owe Mts. ranges from 0.7 to 3.2 km/km2 (Latocha,
et al., 2011). 2012; Migon The 18th century was also a period when forest logging reached the wilderness of sandstone labyrinths and remote parts of plateaus. The settlement network expanded further and several villages were founded on the central plateau of the Sto1owe Mountains (Kar1ów, Batorów). To facilitate floating of timber, channel alterations were undertaken in several places, including the inner part of the ‘rock city’ of Adrspach (Pilous, 2011, pp. 38e 41). These developments paved the way for the growth of tourism experienced since the end of the century. Sandstone as a resource The advantages of Cretaceous sandstone as a building and ornamental stone have long been appreciated in Czech lands and the sandstone terrain in the Central Sudetes was not different. It is

Fig. 3. The ‘rock castle’ of Skály is an example of perfect integration of the layout of a medieval castle with geomorphology of a highly fragmented sandstone mesa. A e ground plan (after information board at the ruins), B e remnants of walls attached to the sandstone tower.

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Fig. 4. Religious tangible heritage in the sandstone landscape of the Central Sudetes. A e pilgrimage church in Wambierzyce, with the sandstone mesa of Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki zda chapel built right on the edge of sandstone escarpment of Broumovske  ste ny, C e stone cross at the pilgrimage route to Wambierzyce, D e providing a background, B e Hve sandstone boulder reshaped to the form of a cross.

likely that the early quarrying was for very local purposes and loose boulders strewn across footslopes of sandstone escarpments in the vicinity of settlements rather than solid rock outcrops were the source of stone material (Fig. 6C). Along the sandstone escarpments of the Sto1owe Mountains at least six separate localities have been mapped where the evidence of boulder quarrying is
, 2012, Fig. 5). In some locations, such as above widespread (Migon Radków e Borek, there are more than one hundred individual sites of stone quarrying and dressing, dispersed across the debris slope. The testament of ancient boulder quarrying is revealed in a variety of forms: split boulders, plucked boulder faces, hollows left after complete removal of a boulder, and heaps of small, unused stone. The use of stone was multiple. While the majority was utilised as a building or ornamental stone, some was used to build dry walls in arable grounds which are widespread in the Sto1owe Mountains. It is uncertain when boulder quarrying started but its association with the second phase of settlement expansion and

extension of built-up areas towards sandstone escarpments is likely. Large-scale quarrying at an industrial scale started later, in the mid-19th century, following technical developments. Massive rock faces in the upper sections of sandstone escarpments were preferred as quarry locations (Fig. 5) and they progressively enlarged sideways rather than into the plateau. Hence, some attained dimensions to 450e600 m wide and 25e30 m deep, changing the natural morphology of sandstone escarpments over long distances. The location of most quarries required further terrain engineering in order to reach quarry sites and transport the stone. Paved roads zig-zaging upslope were built, causeways and ramps were cut across the steepest slopes and extensive terrain levelling was undertaken (Fig. 6D). In Adrspach, close to the ‘Adrspach rock city’, sandstone cliffs rise from the level of the valley floor, which was clearly an advantage for the industry. Here, a portion of the plateau c. 400  300 m, has disappeared due to long-


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Fig. 5. Expansion of the settlement network around and onto the sandstone plateau of the Sto1owe Mountains, and the location of quarries and sites of boulder exploitation.

term sandstone exploitation. After the World War II most sites were abandoned and today only two large quarries continue operation, both located within the north-facing escarpment of the Sto1owe Mountains. Sandstone landscape as tourist destination Since the late 18th century human perception of Central Sudetic sandstone terrains, so far considered difficult, harsh and inhospitable, even dangerous, has altered. Along with the advent of romanticism and its dedication to nature, they have begun to be valued for the presence of precisely the same characteristics which slowed down human expansion in the previous periods e the uniqueness of physical landscape, wild nature, difficult access, an aura of awe and mystery. Locations to be visited in the early times of tourism included the sandstone mesa of Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki, B1e˛ dne Ska1y (‘Errant Rocks’) and the ‘rock city’ of Adrspach, followed later by Brouny, Ostas and further localities. Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki movské ste was discovered by tourists in the late 1780s during military inspection of near-border areas and quickly gained a wide reputation as a ‘must-see’ place. Among the early visitors were the Prussian

King Friedrich Wilhelm the Second, the famous poet and naturalist Johann Wolfgang Goethe and the future president of the United States, John Quincy Adams. It is also recognized as the place where in 1813 the first organised professional mountain guided tours in Central Europe started (Przerwa, 2005, 176 pp.). Likewise, as early as in the late 18th century tourists travelled to Adrspach, enjoyed specially provided facilities, and documented their experience in travel diaries (Imlauf & Bohadlo, 1997, 86 pp.). The ‘rock city’ of Teplice was opened in the 1840s, after a forest fire revealed the complexity of the inner part of the sandstone labyrinth. However, provision of tourist access to the spectacular sandstone formations posed a challenge and required considerable effort and physical engineering. In the last decade of the 18th century the path to the top of Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki was built, consisting of 665 steps cut into sandstone or built from sandstone blocks. Other improvements included construction of wooden walkways and bridges between the rocks, barriers on cliffs and stairs to the viewing points, either wooden or cut into the bedrock. In 1845 a mountain lodge with accommodation and food was built close to the mesa top (Przerwa, 2005, 176 pp.). The opening of deep clefts close to the margins of the mesa and other narrow passages to tourists involved the removal of large boulders (Fig. 7). The thick

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Fig. 6. Anthropic landforms arising from agricultural (A, B) and quarrying activity (C, D). A e rows of sandstone boulders collected from farmland, B e stone heap on the natural boulder, C e quarried sandstone blocks within the debris slope far below caprock, D e overgrown causeway for block transport in one of abandoned sandstone quarries.

talus deposits in fissures and rock clefts, left untouched, are the best evidence of the large effort that must have been undertaken to make the sandstone relief accessible for the visitors. In the late 19th century new paths were built to the upper mesa surface and these were carved directly in stone too. Similar developments occurred in the ‘rock cities’ of Teplice and Adrspach which, due to better access (valley side location, proximity of larger towns) have become the top regional tourist attraction, whose fame reached far beyond the Sudetes. However, they were preceded by earlier modifications to suit the needs of forest logging (Pilous, 2011, pp. 38e41). Besides new necessary works such as cutting of stairways to viewing points and removal of boulders from narrow passages, use was made of constructions erected earlier and for different purposes. An artificial lake in the

inner part of the sandstone labyrinth at Adrspach became one of the major attractions, while stream discharge was controlled to enhance the visual effect of a waterfall. Various buildings were erected such as the ‘gothic’ gate at the entrance to the rock labyrinth (Fig. 7). The isolated rock towers, pinnacles and cliffs, particularly numerous in the Teplice and Adrspach area, and the specific features of sandstone surfaces, attracted climbers too. The first successful attempts to climb the sandstone towers took place in the 1920s and nowadays there are around 4000 various climbing routes on over 1800 rock towers. By the turn of the century the ‘discovery’ of the sandstone rock landscape of the Central Sudetes for tourism industry was essentially complete and very few places were later added to the list of

Fig. 7. Landform modifications associated with 19th century tourism development. A e considerable rock engineering was required to allow access to deep fissures on the mesa of Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki, B e romantic ‘gothic’ gate erected at the entrance to rock labyrinth of Adrspach, C e waterfall in the ‘rock city’ of Adrspach is to a large extent an artificial construction, built to enhance visitor’s experience.


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local tourist attractions. Major engineering works towards improvement of access were completed too and in subsequent times, following recommendations from nature conservation circles, some engineered paths were closed to the public. Decline of human impact in the recent times The more or less uniform history of the area lasted until the end of the World War II. The Polish side (formerly Germany) witnessed a total exchange of population. The former German inhabitants left and were replaced by Polish settlers arriving from central and eastern, lowland areas of the country. On the contrary, on the Czech side depopulation was less severe, as the pre-war population was mixed, German and Czech. Therefore, even though the Germans left the area, there was at least partial continuity in human occupation. These two different scenarios of demographic change in the post-war period had their socio-economical and environmental consequences. The Polish settlers, usually not familiar with the mountain environment and used to work with more fertile soils and in a milder climate, did not have the proper knowledge and experience to adjust to the new environmental conditions (Ciok, 1991, 88 pp.). As a result, substantial depopulation occurred in the Sto1owe Mountains in the 1950e60s. 12 settlements disappeared completely (19% of all villages in that region) and 33 (54%) witnessed depopulation. The first areas to be abandoned were those located on the most elevated and steep slopes, at the foothills of sandstone escarpments, as well as villages located in the deeply incised gorges with little insolation and on the shaded NE side of the Szczeliniec mesa. Depopulation was associated with the withdrawal of agriculture e at present there are no arable grounds in the Sto1owe Mountains, while at the turn of the 19/20th century they constituted around 50% of the land use (calculation based on the topographic maps 1:25 000, Messtischblatt, 1884/1928, 1883/ 1919). Nowadays, the former arable fields are used as hay meadows and pastures or are subject to secondary vegetation succession. The increase in forest cover in the area was around 4% within the past 100 years (Latocha, 2011). No changes of population, shrinking of the settlement network or land-use change at such scale have been observed in the Czech part of the study area, which remains a relatively densely populated terrain, used for extensive large plot farming and animal husbandry. However, it needs to be observed that e in contrast to the Sto1owe Mountains e most of the economic activity in the Czech part has taken place not in rough sandstone terrain but on low relief surfaces cut across intervening mudstones and marls. Sandstone plateaus and cuestas have never been extensively occupied or farmed. Forestry and tourism had been two main activities since at least a century. Recent trends in managing sandstone landscapes In recent times the focus in spatial management is on two interrelated issues, nature conservation and development for tourism and recreation purposes. The sandstone terrain of the Sto1owe Mountains was declared a Landscape Park in 1981, and elevated to the status of a National Park in 1993. Within its boundaries there are restricted areas, with no tourist access allowed. In the Czech part the Protected Landscape Area of Broumovsko was established in 1991 and the most valuable localities within its boundaries, including all sandstone highlights (Adrspassko-Teplické ny, Ostas), enjoy the higher level of protection skály, Broumovské ste as Nature Reserves. The general conservation policy is one of ‘no change’ in the physical landscape, unless this would help to offset negative effects of human pressure at particular localities. At the same time, the area is intensively advertised as a tourist destination and ranks as one of the most visited in the entire

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Sudetes, especially in the summer period. Sandstone rock formations are presented as the key assets of the area and considered the main resource for tourism. Current management efforts, however, are directed toward improving existing tourist facilities rather than adding new infrastructure. In fact, several marked trails have been closed in the last decade or relocated to more suitable places. Efforts are also under way to promote less known localities, in order to diversify tourist flows. Geomorphology and geology play an important role here as they usually contribute to the value of such ‘new’ sites of interest. Various recent initiatives emphasize geotourism and this educational component of tourism is increasingly visible through guidebooks, leaflets, educational trails, information boards and dedicated websites. Nevertheless, problems and conflicts regarding multiple uses of sandstone landscape as a resource do occur. They relate to continuing operation of sandstone quarries within protected areas and poorly controlled settlement expansion, especially in the most visited places on the Polish side. This can be exemplified by the village of Kar1ów at the foot of Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki (Fig. 5), where numerous holidays houses, guesthouses, hotels, bars and souvenir shops have been built in recent years. Consequences include the chaotic pattern of the present spatial layout of the village, and partial obstruction of the view towards sandstone escarpments (Mastalska-Cetera, 2010). The persistence of human impact on the sandstone landscape The tangible effects of multidimensional human interactions with the sandstone landscape are now an integral part of the environment in the central Sudetes Mts. and define it as a cultural landscape. The human imprint occurs at a variety of spatial scales and is revealed in land use, land cover, landform pattern, and drainage network. While direct interactions with geomorphology were relatively limited and rather at a minor scale, at the larger scale the natural landform pattern profoundly influenced human activities and continues to do so until the present-day. The direct human impact on sandstone geomorphology involves two components: the origin of anthropic landforms and modifications of surface processes. Man-made landforms are the result of practically every kind of human activity, and first appeared in the late medieval times. These include reshaped rock formations, modified to fit building plans of fortifications and to enhance the defensive value of certain locations. Most extensive and longlasting is the geomorphic legacy of quarrying. Despite the passage of more than 60 years since the abandonment of most quarries in the Sto1owe Mountains and successful secondary vegetation succession, there are rather few signs that landforms left by quarry operations e oversteepened sandstone cliffs, slope ramps and leftover heaps e would become obliterated in the near future. Likewise, the geomorphic legacy of boulder quarrying and stone dressing persists, even if some former exploitation sites are now covered by dense semi-natural forest. A wide range of anthropic landforms of various ages is connected with agricultural activity. Minor elements include various rock engravings and rock sculptures, although the latter have never been widespread in the area, in contrast to the central part of Bohemia, particularly to the north of Prague (Adamovi c et al., 2010, 460 pp.). Besides these obvious and visible effects, geomorphic and environmental consequences of human occupation are far more widespread. This is best exemplified by the abandoned areas, since the anthropogenic remains were not removed or modified by later activities, due to the lack of interest in these remote, peripheral and marginal border areas in the post-war period. Additionally, the recent trend of expansion of secondary holiday houses is not observed in the region at such a scale as in other parts of the


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Sudetes (Latocha, 2010) because of nature conservation laws enforced on both sides of the political boundary. The establishment of protected areas has imposed limitations of many human activities, including building construction. Detailed geomorphic mapping has revealed that various neglected anthropogenic constructions impact the course of contemporary morphological processes. Especially the fluvial domain has been modified. The old hydrotechnical constructions, such as collapsed bridges, destroyed channel linings, blocked culverts and silted dams act as artificial obstacles within the channels. They contribute to increasing diversity of fluvial processes, as new erosion and accumulation zones are formed in their vicinity. The total length of channels affected by these anthropogenic obstacles in the areas of the former settlements in the Sto1owe Mts. ranges from 70 to 315 m depending on the catchment, which constitutes from 4 to 11% of the total stream length within the former built-up and managed areas. The total length of accumulation zones upstream of the anthropogenic obstacles is 27e162 m, with the areas of accumulation ranging from 74 to 500 m2. The length of erosion zones downstream of the obstacles is from 8 to 58 m and the new lateral channels eroded due to the presence of obstacles are from 10 to 105 m long. Although the impact of unmaintained constructions may seem local, the number of such places (40 sites in the total area of 9.4 km2) indicates that indirect human impact on fluvial processes in the now depopulated catchments is substantial. Former field access and forest roads, while no longer in use under present conditions, continue to influence the sediment cascade too. After the episodes of heavy rainfall and snow cover thawing many turn into periodically active channels (Latocha, 2011, 2012). Incision of road surfaces reaches locally up to 1.5 m, with an average depth of 0.5 m. The extension of the natural drainage system (length of streams) by unpaved road networks ranges from 34 to 151%, depending on the catchment. Nevertheless, there are also remains of old cobbled roads, where no traces of present erosion can be observed. They still protect the road surface against linear incision, even though most of them are no longer in use either and others are used as tourist trails. The inherited cobbled roads constitute from 3 to 13% of the present network of unpaved roads. Approaches to sandstone landscapes Human interactions with the geomorphological sandstone landscape of the central Sudetes may be assigned to three broad categories: adaptation, modification, and withdrawal (Fig. 8).

Adaptation means that the role of limits imposed by natural conditions was pervasive and these limitations were either difficult to overcome or deliberately chosen to be respected. People tended to adjust their activities to the environmental conditions and these were dictated mainly by local geomorphology, either directly by relief or indirectly through water availability, soil patterns, climate and vegetation. Thus, they used opportunities provided by the physical landscape but were unable or reluctant to increase the use of natural resources beyond simple passive adaptation. Modification is understood as reshaping of local morphology to suit specific purposes and may have been direct and intentional, or unintentional, being a consequence of active interaction with the geomorphological system elsewhere. The role of landforms as barriers to human activity diminishes, mainly because there are technical means available to overcome them. Finally, withdrawal applies to situations in which people decided to cease their former activities and abandon the area, usually because they found these activities no longer cost-effective. From the historical perspective, the long period since the beginning of colonization to the early 18th century was one of adaptation, with more active interventions with local geomorphology carried out to a very limited degree. Adaptation is best seen in the expansion of the settlement pattern. Sandstone terrains, steep, rocky, and deeply dissected, were avoided and human activity was essentially confined to gently sloping surfaces underlain by fine-grained sedimentary rocks which occur between sandstone units. Thus, sandstone plateaus and mesas west of Police nad Metuji (Adrspassko-Teplické skály, Ostas, Hejda) were left as densely forested, impenetrable wilderness within an otherwise ny agricultural land, while the sandstone cuesta of Broumovské ste with its canyon-riddled backslope formed a natural boundary between regions centered around Broumov (Broumov basin) and Police nad Metuji (Police basin), respectively (Fig. 2). The sandstone-capped cuesta of Zawory played a similar role. In the Sto1owe Mountains outer sandstone escarpments acted as natural barriers to any human colonization of the inner part of the plateau which remained uninhabited until the early 1700s. During that early period modifications of local sandstone geomorphology were at best sporadic. Rock-hewn castles are the only examples of more evident and long-lasting impact. The onset of 18th century settlement expansion marks the beginning of the modification period, although its scale was initially limited. More active interactions with the physical landscape were required if farming was to be successful. Slope terracing,

Fig. 8. Diagram to show the diversity of human interactions with the sandstone landscape through time.


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clearing of agricultural plots from stones and boulders, provision of access roads, and taming of water resources were the inevitable consequences. Stone exploitation was modest and largely limited to quarry loose boulders in the vicinity of settlements. This period witnessed attempts to ‘domesticate’ the sandstone wilderness too, many of these attempts having religious significance. Development of paths leading across sandstone escarpments to flourishing pilgrimage centers, erection of chapels and stone crosses using local sandstone material, and appearance of rock engravings, all contributed to the gradual emergence of a cultural sandstone landscape. The 19th and early 20th century, until 1945, is the period of most evident human impact which reached the last remaining wilderness areas e the ‘rock cities’ around Adrspach and Teplice and the mesa of Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki. Tourism development was the driving force, shortly resulting in the adjustment of sandstone rock labyrinths to the needs of organized tourism. They were now crossed by a dense network of trails whose building often involved considerable rock engineering. Tall sandstone escarpments, in turn, became in focus of the quarrying industry and in the early 20th century at least 10 big quarries operated in the Sto1owe Mountains. The settlement pattern reached the peak of its expansion, forest cover decreased, and a multitude of anthropic landforms added to the physical landscape. However, limits of growth were apparently approached and slow depopulation of the most remote villages and hamlets was noted as early as in 1880s and amplified since the 1920s. The post-1945 times have seen the reversal of the trend, particularly on the (now) Polish side. Widespread and nearly instantaneous withdrawal from the sandstone terrain typified the early part of this period, resulting in the disappearance of one fifth of all settlement units and significant shrinkage of many others. In parallel, overtaking of former arable grounds by meadows and forest proceeded. The once flourishing quarrying industry nearly vanished. On the Czech side no similar trend occurred but significant further expansion of the settlement pattern was not noted either. In the last two-three decades the physical and cultural landscape is increasingly seen as an asset to be protected, while sandstone rock formations with associated biology are considered as natural phenomena of outstanding value. This is reflected in the introduction of various forms of nature and landscape protection which now provide limitations to further development. Thus, modification is tightly controlled and allowed to a limited degree,

Fig. 9. ‘Patchwork landscape’ of the sandstone region of the Central Sudetes seen from Mt. Szczeliniec Wielki. Mesas (Ostas e A), plateaus (Adrspach e Teplice ‘rock cities’ e B) and steep cuesta faces (C) in massive quartz sandstone long remained wilderness and are covered by dense forest today. Open ground is underlain by fine-grained sandstones and mudstones and is used predominantly for agriculture. Location of settlements reflects favourable topographic conditions and water availability.

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while re-adaptation is preferred and promoted. However, it is not driven by physical constraints anymore but reflects change of attitudes and increasing environmental awareness. Conclusions Landscape has the ability to record regional history, both environmental and socio-economic, and to store the tangible evidence of past human interventions for time spans much longer than the actual duration of human activities. In the study area it does so in a multitude of ways, fitting well the concepts of ‘landscape memory’ and ‘landscape as a palimpsest’, which constitute the main framework of the discipline of landscape archaeology, which has been fast developing for the last decades (Antrop, 2005; Gojda, 2000, 240 pp.). The structure of the landscape and its composition are perceived as a mirror of all past and present natural and human-related processes. The contemporary ‘patchwork landscape’ is essentially a complex mosaic of present and relict landscape features reflecting diverse aspects of human interactions with the environment, as well as morphological and lithological constraints (Latocha, 2011). Side by side coexist land units which experienced minimal and short-term interventions, where avoidance and adaptation were the norm, with those bearing traces of substantial modification, accomplished in various periods of their history (Fig. 9). At the same time, the conceptual framework of ‘sandstone phenomenon’ which focuses on interactions between different natural processes and forms, as well as between nature and humans (Härtel et al., 2007), applies to the Central Sudetes. The human dimension of this phenomenon is at least threefold. First, rocks and relief strongly influenced the evolution of settlement pattern and land use. Second, choices were constantly made how to use sandstone resources in the best way, with more severe interventions having been carefully planned to suit the purpose. Building of defensive structures in medieval times, trail engineering to allow tourism, and expansion of the quarrying industry at the 19e20th century are the relevant examples. Third, the natural sandstone landscape has been enriched in various anthropic landforms, many of which have already blended with the surrounding countryside, contributing to the development of a harmonious cultural landscape. Although the scale of actual human interventions was always related to contemporaneous political and socio-economic developments, sandstone landforms continued to provide an essential background to the evolution of a cultural landscape. Most cultural landscapes across the world are heavily affected by human modifications and changes of their primary environmental structures (Head, 2000, 180 pp.). However, in sandstone landscapes typified by escarpments, mesas, canyons and clefts, large-scale human intervention is much more difficult to accomplish and the study area of the Central Sudetes illustrates such constraints fairly well. In general, it exemplifies human best adaptation and usage of the natural environment throughout the centuries and as such it deserves special attention, since traditional cultural landscapes in Europe are recently considerably endangered by modern land use trends and economic changes (Antrop, 2005; Hasse, Walz, Neubert & Rosenberg, 2007). The contemporary policies of nature protection enforced on both sides of the border should ensure that this valuable, geomorphology-controlled cultural landscape will not disappear. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Committee of Scientific Research by project no. NR09-0029-04/2008 (to P.M. and A.L.) and then by project no. NN 306 384539 (to A.L.).

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