- Email: [email protected]
Human trafficking – Multinational challenge for forensic science
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fsigss
Human trafficking – Multinational challenge for forensic science Magdalena M. Buśa,⁎, Tim Schellbergb, Bruce Budowlea a b
Center for Human Identification, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd., Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA Gordon Thomas Honeywell Governmental Affairs, 1201 Pacific Ave, Suite 2100, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Human trafficking Modern-day slavery DNA typing DNA databases Humanitarian DNA database
Human trafficking is one of the fastest growing and profitable types of transnational crime. This form of modernday slavery encompasses diverse practices of human exploitation such as sex trafficking, forced labor, marriage, begging, child soldiers, and illegal organ transplantation. The consequences of human trafficking affect all countries, are devastating for victims and society while impacting social, economic, and health costs. The project led by the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification (UNTCHI) is assisting Central American countries to identify the missing and address human trafficking by developing model legislation and policy, effective DNA forensic science capabilities and creating database systems. The focus for human identification is on at-risk individuals who are the most vulnerable part of society. This program engages the public and government to establish legislative models for DNA identification of missing persons that protect the privacy of individuals. The State of Texas recently provided support for UNTCHI to develop programs that address the human trafficking problem in Texas. The program will concentrate on training law enforcement agencies, healthcare professionals, students, and the public to recognize the signs of human trafficking and provide avenues of interdiction for victims. Additionally, as part of this effort a standalone humanitarian DNA database, which is established and managed by UNTCHI, has been implemented to enhance identification of missing persons, especially those who have crossed the border or may have been trafficked and died during their journey. As a standalone database, the system is not connected to the State DNA Index System (SDIS) or the National DNA Index System (NDIS) and thus not accessible by law enforcement. With this database, reference DNA profiles can be obtained from Central American countries and Mexico to identify human remains found in Texas while maintaining confidentiality and human rights. This work is an example of an effective means of transferring forensics, technology, and database practices, establishing policy and legislation, engaging the public, and developing strategies for sustainability for high incident countries. Ultimately the approach can promote a multinational exchange of DNA data to identify the missing.
1. The human trafficking problem Human trafficking is a crime that focuses on the attainment of control over a person or persons for the purpose of exploitation. Traffickers use different forms of force to enslave a person, which can include direct physical force, coercion, fraud, abduction, and/or deception. The aim is to render a person fully submissive to an abuser. A number of factors enhance the success of human trafficking such as economic disproportions among regions, poverty, lack of employment opportunities, the decline of border control, gender and ethnic discrimination, armed conflicts, natural disasters, high crime, and flow of migration [1]. The problem especially affects the most vulnerable of the
⁎
population, such as abused children, orphans, and minors in foster homes. Human trafficking can take diverse forms of exploitation: sex trade, forced labor, forced marriage, begging, child soldiers, illegal adoptions, and illegal organ transplantation. Women, men, and children are exposed to modern-day slavery, and the scale of the problem is enormous – more than 40 million people are in slavery, and one in four victims are children [2]. Human trafficking is a complex, multinational problem with several dimensions that must be addressed to effectively combat the broad range of crimes. Human trafficking is one of the most dynamically growing forms of crime because of great local and international demand, high profits (approximately $150 billion/year), minimum risk, and often low
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Buś).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigss.2019.10.029 Received 18 September 2019; Accepted 6 October 2019 1875-1768/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Magdalena M. Buś, Tim Schellberg and Bruce Budowle, Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigss.2019.10.029
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
M.M. Buś, et al.
database. Reference samples are obtained voluntarily only after signed, informed consent. The approach established in Guatemala can serve as a model to develop similar solutions in other Central American countries. Human trafficking is not only a problem of Central America. There are approximately 300,000 victims of human trafficking in Texas, and many are minors trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation [6]. Several victims may have been trafficked under the guise of migration and then become missing after crossing the border. UNTCHI, with support from the State of Texas, has established a humanitarian DNA database as one of the solutions to identify the missing and address human trafficking. As a standalone system, the database is not linked to SDIS and NDIS. Thus, law enforcement does not have access to this database. The purpose is solely humanitarian which should build trust with families from outside the US who are searching for their missing loved ones and provide confidence that their DNA profiles will not be searched against the criminal database. This approach should increase the number of reference DNA profiles that may be searched against the database to identify missing persons and human remains. The information will be shared with medico legal authorities and proper authorities in the Central American countries and Mexico. Confidentiality, human rights, and forensic standards will be followed. One of the goals of the project addressing the human trafficking problem in Texas is to educate the public in identifying the signs of diverse forms of exploitation and provide guidance to assist victims. The educational effort will concentrate on collaborating with law enforcement personnel, and training students, healthcare providers, and the community to recognize “red flags” that may indicate human trafficking instances. Red flags are circumstances in which a person 1) works exceptionally long hours without a break, 2) is unpaid or paid minimally, 3) displays signs of physical trauma and/or very poor health, 4) suffers from several sexually transmitted diseases, 5) has had a number of abortions, and/or 6) suffers from depression and other signs of physiological trauma [7]. Not all symptoms may be present, and other signs can exist since every human trafficking case is different. However, if specialists who most likely will come in contact with trafficked persons and the community learn to recognize the signs of exploitation, victims may receive help, more cases may be reported, and traffickers could be prosecuted effectively.
starting costs. Human trafficking is one of the most profitable of transnational crimes situated just after the drug and arms trades [3,4]. The trafficking business is flourishing because a person may be sold repeatedly, whereas a drug or a gun often is sold only once. Additionally, the drug and arms trades require complex organization of manufacturing, smuggling, and disposal. In contrast, a person can be sold without much advanced effort, e.g., by just using the internet. Victims are often recruited by someone who they likely trust as a friend, boyfriend/girlfriend, or even by family. In many cases, women can be lead recruiters for sex trafficking since they can more likely inspire trust in girls and other women. Victims are traumatized or may not be aware of being trafficked, so if questioned, e.g., while transferred crossing a border, may not report the crime. Therefore, many cases are not recorded or recognized, and thus the total number of victims may be underestimated. The damage caused by human trafficking is difficult to determine but includes individual, local, and global costs of economic, social, and health systems [1]. Most of the human trafficking victims will either die, become chronically ill, or become invalids for the rest of their lives. Many victims are exposed to hazardous substances and conditions that severely impact their health. Survivors suffer from posttraumatic disorders and/or being addicted to alcohol or drugs. Illegally transplanted organs may be infected or diseased, and people whose organs were sold usually cannot afford post-surgery health care costs. Sex trafficking victims are demanded to serve an enormous number of clients a day, and many become pregnant and are forced to have abortions under poor sanitary conditions. They usually cannot protect themselves against sexually transmitted diseases, and many become infected with HIV, which will not be adequately treated. These disastrous consequences of human trafficking also impact children, the most vulnerable of the population. Trafficked children are deprived of proper education, which makes them even more vulnerable and less likely to survive. The consequences of human trafficking also impact law enforcement and legal systems. A considerable amount of resources is dedicated to police and border security activities addressing this transnational crime. Lastly, this black-market trade is hidden and likely does not contribute to the budget of countries. 2. Addressing the human trafficking crime
3. Conclusion
Central America is a region affected by a high level of violent crime, especially homicide, and economic issues that impact the standard of life [5]. These factors make the population of Central America particularly vulnerable and susceptible to human trafficking. The project led by UNTCHI is concentrated on the reduction of human trafficking within and from Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. The activities are concentrated on creating a legal framework to 1) use forensic DNA data and databases to address the human trafficking problem and identify missing persons, and 2) enhance technical capacity by training forensic scientists, provide supporting equipment and reagents, and validation of methods, all with the intent to maintain high quality standards in human identification. The effort requires collaboration and coordination among various local partners and public organizations and to build the trust of the public for using DNA to identify the missing or trafficked. To more effectively identify human remains and victims subjected to trafficking a humanitarian DNA database is being developed in each country. DNA profiles of unidentified remains, vulnerable sectors of the population such as children in foster homes, orphans, and missing migrants, as well as family reference profiles, may be stored in the database to help identify the missing. Stringent rules were established in Guatemala for managing the database in which privacy and human rights were essential aspects of the database operation. The missing person’s database is separate from the criminal database, and family reference profiles cannot be searched against the criminal database. Only unidentified remains profiles can be searched against the criminal
Human trafficking is a multidimensional crime, and because of its enormous scale likely will not be eliminated. However, every possible effort should be taken to help victims achieve a better quality of life; reduce the number of cases; increase detection, prosecution, and convictions of traffickers; and increase awareness of the public about the human trafficking problem. Addressing human trafficking requires collaboration of several institutions and specialists from diverse disciplines, including law enforcement, health care providers, and the community. Disclaimer The views expressed in this publication are those of authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Department of State or the U.S. Government. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the U.S. Department of State (Award No. S2
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
M.M. Buś, et al.
INLEC-17-GR-1013) and S-INLEC-19-GR-0383, The University of North Texas Center for Human Identification, Gordon Thomas Honeywell Governmental Affairs, The Institute of Legal Medicine (IML, El Salvador), The Institute of Forensic Medicine (IMF, Honduras), The National Institute of Forensic Sciences of Guatemala (INACIF) in Guatemala, The State of Texas.
[3] Web reference: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Transnational organized crime: Let’s put them out of business. https://www.unodc.org/toc/en/crimes/ organized-crime.html. [4] Web reference: International Labour Organization. Profits and poverty: The economics of forced labour. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/ order-online/books/WCMS_243391/lang–en/index.htm. [5] Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean, A Threat Assessment, UNODC, United Nations on Drugs and Crime, 2012 Report, September 2012. [6] N. Busch-Armendariz, N.L. Nale, M. Kammer-Kerwick, Human Trafficking by the Numbers: The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and Economic Impact for Texas. Report, Publisher: Institute on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault (IDVSA), The University of Texas at Austin (2016). [7] Web reference: Polaris: https://polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/recognizesigns.
References [1] L.I. Shelley, Human Trafficking: a Global Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, 2010. [2] Web reference: Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage, (2017) Report, 19 September 2017, Print: 978-92-2-130131-8 [ISBN], Web PDF: 978-92-2-130132-5 [ISBN].
3
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fsigss
Human trafficking – Multinational challenge for forensic science Magdalena M. Buśa,⁎, Tim Schellbergb, Bruce Budowlea a b
Center for Human Identification, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd., Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA Gordon Thomas Honeywell Governmental Affairs, 1201 Pacific Ave, Suite 2100, Tacoma, WA 98402, USA
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Human trafficking Modern-day slavery DNA typing DNA databases Humanitarian DNA database
Human trafficking is one of the fastest growing and profitable types of transnational crime. This form of modernday slavery encompasses diverse practices of human exploitation such as sex trafficking, forced labor, marriage, begging, child soldiers, and illegal organ transplantation. The consequences of human trafficking affect all countries, are devastating for victims and society while impacting social, economic, and health costs. The project led by the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification (UNTCHI) is assisting Central American countries to identify the missing and address human trafficking by developing model legislation and policy, effective DNA forensic science capabilities and creating database systems. The focus for human identification is on at-risk individuals who are the most vulnerable part of society. This program engages the public and government to establish legislative models for DNA identification of missing persons that protect the privacy of individuals. The State of Texas recently provided support for UNTCHI to develop programs that address the human trafficking problem in Texas. The program will concentrate on training law enforcement agencies, healthcare professionals, students, and the public to recognize the signs of human trafficking and provide avenues of interdiction for victims. Additionally, as part of this effort a standalone humanitarian DNA database, which is established and managed by UNTCHI, has been implemented to enhance identification of missing persons, especially those who have crossed the border or may have been trafficked and died during their journey. As a standalone database, the system is not connected to the State DNA Index System (SDIS) or the National DNA Index System (NDIS) and thus not accessible by law enforcement. With this database, reference DNA profiles can be obtained from Central American countries and Mexico to identify human remains found in Texas while maintaining confidentiality and human rights. This work is an example of an effective means of transferring forensics, technology, and database practices, establishing policy and legislation, engaging the public, and developing strategies for sustainability for high incident countries. Ultimately the approach can promote a multinational exchange of DNA data to identify the missing.
1. The human trafficking problem Human trafficking is a crime that focuses on the attainment of control over a person or persons for the purpose of exploitation. Traffickers use different forms of force to enslave a person, which can include direct physical force, coercion, fraud, abduction, and/or deception. The aim is to render a person fully submissive to an abuser. A number of factors enhance the success of human trafficking such as economic disproportions among regions, poverty, lack of employment opportunities, the decline of border control, gender and ethnic discrimination, armed conflicts, natural disasters, high crime, and flow of migration [1]. The problem especially affects the most vulnerable of the
⁎
population, such as abused children, orphans, and minors in foster homes. Human trafficking can take diverse forms of exploitation: sex trade, forced labor, forced marriage, begging, child soldiers, illegal adoptions, and illegal organ transplantation. Women, men, and children are exposed to modern-day slavery, and the scale of the problem is enormous – more than 40 million people are in slavery, and one in four victims are children [2]. Human trafficking is a complex, multinational problem with several dimensions that must be addressed to effectively combat the broad range of crimes. Human trafficking is one of the most dynamically growing forms of crime because of great local and international demand, high profits (approximately $150 billion/year), minimum risk, and often low
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Buś).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigss.2019.10.029 Received 18 September 2019; Accepted 6 October 2019 1875-1768/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Magdalena M. Buś, Tim Schellberg and Bruce Budowle, Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigss.2019.10.029
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
M.M. Buś, et al.
database. Reference samples are obtained voluntarily only after signed, informed consent. The approach established in Guatemala can serve as a model to develop similar solutions in other Central American countries. Human trafficking is not only a problem of Central America. There are approximately 300,000 victims of human trafficking in Texas, and many are minors trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation [6]. Several victims may have been trafficked under the guise of migration and then become missing after crossing the border. UNTCHI, with support from the State of Texas, has established a humanitarian DNA database as one of the solutions to identify the missing and address human trafficking. As a standalone system, the database is not linked to SDIS and NDIS. Thus, law enforcement does not have access to this database. The purpose is solely humanitarian which should build trust with families from outside the US who are searching for their missing loved ones and provide confidence that their DNA profiles will not be searched against the criminal database. This approach should increase the number of reference DNA profiles that may be searched against the database to identify missing persons and human remains. The information will be shared with medico legal authorities and proper authorities in the Central American countries and Mexico. Confidentiality, human rights, and forensic standards will be followed. One of the goals of the project addressing the human trafficking problem in Texas is to educate the public in identifying the signs of diverse forms of exploitation and provide guidance to assist victims. The educational effort will concentrate on collaborating with law enforcement personnel, and training students, healthcare providers, and the community to recognize “red flags” that may indicate human trafficking instances. Red flags are circumstances in which a person 1) works exceptionally long hours without a break, 2) is unpaid or paid minimally, 3) displays signs of physical trauma and/or very poor health, 4) suffers from several sexually transmitted diseases, 5) has had a number of abortions, and/or 6) suffers from depression and other signs of physiological trauma [7]. Not all symptoms may be present, and other signs can exist since every human trafficking case is different. However, if specialists who most likely will come in contact with trafficked persons and the community learn to recognize the signs of exploitation, victims may receive help, more cases may be reported, and traffickers could be prosecuted effectively.
starting costs. Human trafficking is one of the most profitable of transnational crimes situated just after the drug and arms trades [3,4]. The trafficking business is flourishing because a person may be sold repeatedly, whereas a drug or a gun often is sold only once. Additionally, the drug and arms trades require complex organization of manufacturing, smuggling, and disposal. In contrast, a person can be sold without much advanced effort, e.g., by just using the internet. Victims are often recruited by someone who they likely trust as a friend, boyfriend/girlfriend, or even by family. In many cases, women can be lead recruiters for sex trafficking since they can more likely inspire trust in girls and other women. Victims are traumatized or may not be aware of being trafficked, so if questioned, e.g., while transferred crossing a border, may not report the crime. Therefore, many cases are not recorded or recognized, and thus the total number of victims may be underestimated. The damage caused by human trafficking is difficult to determine but includes individual, local, and global costs of economic, social, and health systems [1]. Most of the human trafficking victims will either die, become chronically ill, or become invalids for the rest of their lives. Many victims are exposed to hazardous substances and conditions that severely impact their health. Survivors suffer from posttraumatic disorders and/or being addicted to alcohol or drugs. Illegally transplanted organs may be infected or diseased, and people whose organs were sold usually cannot afford post-surgery health care costs. Sex trafficking victims are demanded to serve an enormous number of clients a day, and many become pregnant and are forced to have abortions under poor sanitary conditions. They usually cannot protect themselves against sexually transmitted diseases, and many become infected with HIV, which will not be adequately treated. These disastrous consequences of human trafficking also impact children, the most vulnerable of the population. Trafficked children are deprived of proper education, which makes them even more vulnerable and less likely to survive. The consequences of human trafficking also impact law enforcement and legal systems. A considerable amount of resources is dedicated to police and border security activities addressing this transnational crime. Lastly, this black-market trade is hidden and likely does not contribute to the budget of countries. 2. Addressing the human trafficking crime
3. Conclusion
Central America is a region affected by a high level of violent crime, especially homicide, and economic issues that impact the standard of life [5]. These factors make the population of Central America particularly vulnerable and susceptible to human trafficking. The project led by UNTCHI is concentrated on the reduction of human trafficking within and from Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. The activities are concentrated on creating a legal framework to 1) use forensic DNA data and databases to address the human trafficking problem and identify missing persons, and 2) enhance technical capacity by training forensic scientists, provide supporting equipment and reagents, and validation of methods, all with the intent to maintain high quality standards in human identification. The effort requires collaboration and coordination among various local partners and public organizations and to build the trust of the public for using DNA to identify the missing or trafficked. To more effectively identify human remains and victims subjected to trafficking a humanitarian DNA database is being developed in each country. DNA profiles of unidentified remains, vulnerable sectors of the population such as children in foster homes, orphans, and missing migrants, as well as family reference profiles, may be stored in the database to help identify the missing. Stringent rules were established in Guatemala for managing the database in which privacy and human rights were essential aspects of the database operation. The missing person’s database is separate from the criminal database, and family reference profiles cannot be searched against the criminal database. Only unidentified remains profiles can be searched against the criminal
Human trafficking is a multidimensional crime, and because of its enormous scale likely will not be eliminated. However, every possible effort should be taken to help victims achieve a better quality of life; reduce the number of cases; increase detection, prosecution, and convictions of traffickers; and increase awareness of the public about the human trafficking problem. Addressing human trafficking requires collaboration of several institutions and specialists from diverse disciplines, including law enforcement, health care providers, and the community. Disclaimer The views expressed in this publication are those of authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Department of State or the U.S. Government. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the U.S. Department of State (Award No. S2
Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
M.M. Buś, et al.
INLEC-17-GR-1013) and S-INLEC-19-GR-0383, The University of North Texas Center for Human Identification, Gordon Thomas Honeywell Governmental Affairs, The Institute of Legal Medicine (IML, El Salvador), The Institute of Forensic Medicine (IMF, Honduras), The National Institute of Forensic Sciences of Guatemala (INACIF) in Guatemala, The State of Texas.
[3] Web reference: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Transnational organized crime: Let’s put them out of business. https://www.unodc.org/toc/en/crimes/ organized-crime.html. [4] Web reference: International Labour Organization. Profits and poverty: The economics of forced labour. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/ilo-bookstore/ order-online/books/WCMS_243391/lang–en/index.htm. [5] Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean, A Threat Assessment, UNODC, United Nations on Drugs and Crime, 2012 Report, September 2012. [6] N. Busch-Armendariz, N.L. Nale, M. Kammer-Kerwick, Human Trafficking by the Numbers: The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and Economic Impact for Texas. Report, Publisher: Institute on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault (IDVSA), The University of Texas at Austin (2016). [7] Web reference: Polaris: https://polarisproject.org/human-trafficking/recognizesigns.
References [1] L.I. Shelley, Human Trafficking: a Global Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, 2010. [2] Web reference: Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage, (2017) Report, 19 September 2017, Print: 978-92-2-130131-8 [ISBN], Web PDF: 978-92-2-130132-5 [ISBN].
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