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Crystalline Silicon Heterojunctions
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 55 (2014) 827 – 833
4th International Conference on Silicon Photovoltaics, SiliconPV 2014
Hydrogen plasma treatments of amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunctions Mathias Mewsa,∗, Erhard Conrada , Simon Kirnerb , Nicola Mingirullia , Lars Kortea a Helmholtz-Zentrum b PVcomB,
Berlin f¨ur Materialien und Energie, Institute of Silicon Photovoltaics, Kekul´estraße 5, D-12489 Berlin, Germany Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin f¨ur Materialien und Energie, Schwarzschildstrae 3, 12489 Berlin, Germany
Abstract Hydrogen plasma post-deposition treatments of amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunctions, which are known to enable superior passivation, are further investigated. The influence of certain plasma process parameters, including substrate temperature, gas pressure, plasma power density, excitation frequency and distance between electrode and substrate, is examined. The passivation quality after a hydrogen plasma step is depending on the density of atomic hydrogen in the plasma and on sufficient hydrogen diffusion to the interface. A variation of the electrode to substrate distance reveals that the indiffusion of hydrogen is accompanied by dry etching of the amorphous layer. To reach sound passivation quality it is necessary to introduce a certain amount of hydrogen, while at the same time limit the damage due to etching of the amorphous silicon and maintain the right amorphous silicon film thickness for solar cell application. c 2014 © Published by by Elsevier Ltd.Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license 2014The TheAuthors. Authors. Published Elsevier (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SiliconPV 2014 conference. Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SiliconPV 2014 conference
Keywords: amorphous silicon passivation; hydrogen plasma; silicon-heterojunction solar cell; crystalline silicon
1. Introduction Amorphous-crystalline silicon-heterojunction solar cells (a-Si/c-Si-HJ-SC) have reached a technological maturity culminating in record efficiencies exceeding 24 % [1], although many questions regarding device physics and processes remain unanswered. The main challenge and opportunity of this technology are high open circuit voltages (VOC ), due to excellent surface passivation with an intrinsic amorphous silicon layer between wafer and emitter, or back-surface-field. High quality passivation necessitates an atomically sharp hetero-interface without unintentional epitaxial growth regions [2]. The best amorphous silicon passivation layers are deposited close to the epitaxial growth region. For example the passivation improves with increasing hydrogen density in the plasma, but for further increased hydrogen densities charge carrier lifetimes are strongly decreased due to occurrence of epitaxial growth at the interface [3]. Similar trends were reported for low electrode power densities[2] and high substrate temperature[2]. This limits the possible parameter space of the amorphous silicon deposition. Lately it has been shown that the application of a hydrogen plasma post deposition treatment on the amorphous-crystalline silicon junction can further ∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: 49 30 8062 41312; fax: 49 30 8062 41333. E-mail address: [email protected]
1876-6102 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SiliconPV 2014 conference doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.08.066
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improve the passivation [4], while circumventing problems regarding epitaxial growth. Furthermore the reason for the passivation improvement upon the hydrogen plasma treatment was shown to be the diffusion of hydrogen to the amorphous-crystalline silicon interface and that this process is not introducing defects and structural disorder into the amorphous silicon [5]. Unfortunately the existing literature gives no further information on the influence of the different plasma process parameters, apart from the substrate temperature [5] and treatment time [6]. 2. Experimental details 280 μm thick (100)-oriented and (111)-oriented 1 - 5 Ωcm phosphorus-doped high quality float zone silicon wafers were used as substrate material and cleaned prior to deposition following the RCA procedure and dipped in diluted hydrofluoric acid (2 min, 1 %) to strip off the native silicon oxide. A-Si:H(i) was deposited using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). A-Si:H(i) layers were deposited at 0.5 mbar process pressure, 170◦ C substrate temperature, 20 mW/cm2 power density, a silane gas flow of 10 sccm and an excitation frequency of 13.56 MHz, as specified previously [7]. Hydrogen plasma post deposition treatments were conducted at 60 MHz excitation frequency, 0.4 mbar process pressure, a power density of 110 mW/cm2 , a hydrogen gas flow of 100 sccm, electrode to substrate gap of 15 mm and 195C substrate temperature. The treatment duration was 4 min for 6 to 8 nm thick a-Si:H(i)-layers. Using this parameter set as a starting point the plasma power density, the process pressure and the substrate temperature were varied. Furthermore hydrogen plasma treatments were conducted at 13.56 MHz excitation frequency. Due to plasma ignition conditions the process pressure and electrode to substrate distance were increased to 1 mbar and 25 mm. The lowest working power density for 60 MHz excitation, which is 60 mW/cm2 was applied. The hydrogen gas flow was adjusted to 20 sccm. To specify a suitable parameter range for hydrogen plasma treatments at 13.56 MHz excitation the electrode to substrate distance was varied. For determination of the a-Si:H band gaps and film thicknesses spectral ellipsometry was conducted using a Sentech SE850 (wavelength range 190-2500 nm) and a Tauc-Lorentz model[8] was fitted to the data. A Sinton Consulting WCT-100 photoconductance decay (PCD) setup was used to determine minority carrier lifetimes (τ) of symmetrically treated samples [9]. The implied open circuit voltage (implied VOC ) [9] was used as the parameter of choice for the process optimization and the interface defect density was extracted from the lifetime curves using a semi-analytical model [10] and assuming an interface defect capture cross section of 10−18 cm2 .
3. Results 3.1. Influence of the electrode power density For a better understanding of the processes in the amorphous silicon layers during the hydrogen plasma treatment different process parameters have been varied. In figure 1 the interface defect density at the amorphous-crystalline silicon interface and the implied VOC of the samples are shown in dependence of the electrode power density. Each data point represents two to four samples and the data point at 0 mW/cm2 represents a sample that has been exposed to the same thermal budget as the other samples but without a plasma. The implied VOC of the samples increases with increasing electrode power density, due to decreasing interface defect densities. It is well established that an increase of the electrode power density increases the dissoziation rate of hydrogen molecules in the plasma [11]. Therefore atomic hydrogen from the plasma has to take a crucial part in the passivation of the a-Si:H(i)/c-Si-interface. Furthermore there is no significant increase of the defect density with increasing electrode power density. Therefore the generation of defects due to plasma damage can be ruled out for the applied electrode power density range. 3.2. Influence of the substrate temperature The substrate temperature was varied between 35◦ C and 265◦ C. Figure 2 shows the impact of the substrate temperature on the interface defect density at the amorphous-crystalline interface and on the implied VOC . The samples have been exposed to a thermal annealing step (20 min, 200◦ C) after the hydrogen plasma treatment. The defect density decreases with increasing substrate temperature during the process since the defects are saturated by hydrogen
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Fig. 1. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the electrode power density P/A.
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Fig. 2. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the substrate temperature Tsub during hydrogen plasma treatment. The samples were exposed to a thermal annealing step (20min, 200◦ C) after the hydrogen plasma step. Minority carrier lifetime data for a similar series has already been presented[6].
that is diffusing from the plasma to the amorphous-crystalline interface [5]. As can be seen in figure 1 a sample that was not treated with a hydrogen plasma but thermally annealed reaches about 705 mV implied VOC . After annealing all samples should have at least the passivation quality of an untreated sample, or better if a sufficient amount of hydrogen was diffused to the amorphous-crystalline interface, but the implied VOC after annealing of samples treated at lower temperatures is smaller than the 705 mV reached by a sample only treated with a thermal annealing step. This holds even after annealing. This can be explained because the passivation granted by an amorphous silicon layer on a crystalline silicon surface depends on the amorphous silicon thickness and it is known that the etch rate of a hydrogen plasma step increases with decreasing substrate temperature during the process [12]. Therefore the samples treated at low substrate temperatures receive etch damage from the plasma and do not reach 705 mV. For treatment temperatures above 130◦ C the samples reach implied VOC in the range of 730 mV, which is a significant increase compared to untreated samples. For temperatures as high as 260◦ C there is no degradation of the amorphous silicon passivation visible, although the sample is slightly etched by the plasma. The thickness variation of samples treated at 195◦ C for different treatment times is shown in figure 3. An etch rate of about 0.3 nm/min is visible. Increased defect densities after hydrogen plasma steps have been reported for a process with significantly higher etch rates [13], but for the process reported in this paper no increase of the defect density is measurable.
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Fig. 3. Amorphous Silicon thickness of codeposited layers after hydrogen post deposition plasma treatments with different durations.
3.3. Influence of the process pressure Since the hydrogen plasma step is partly etching the sample the process should show a strong dependence on the product of the process pressure and the distance between electrode and substrate. In figure 4 the influence of the process pressure on the interface defect density and the implied VOC is shown. This experiment has been conducted
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Fig. 4. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the hydrogen pressure p and the hydrogen gas flow rate f during the process.
with a fixed electrode to substrate distance of 16 mm at an excitation frequency of 60 MHz. The hydrogen gas flow rate has been adjusted together with the process pressure to ensure a constant residence time for any ionic species in the process gas. Regarding the process pressure there is an optimum of the defect density at the amorphous-crystalline interface at around 0.4 mbar. For lower and higher process pressures the defect density increases and the implied VOC decreases. For small process pressures the implied VOC may be decreased due to plasma damage of the samples from ionic bombardment and for high process pressures the free-path length of hydrogen ions in the gas decreases and their density on the amorphous silicon surface is low and therefore the amount of hydrogen entering the layer and diffusing to the amorphous-crystalline interface is lower, which results in more unpassivated defects. 3.4. Influence of the electrode to substrate distance The most common used excitation frequency for PECVD is 13.56 MHz. Therefore the discussed post-deposition hydrogen plasma treatment was also applied in a reactor with an 13.56 MHz electrode. Due to restraints from hydro-
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gen plasma ignition the process pressure was increased to 1 mbar, the process temperature was kept at 195◦ C and an electrode power density of 60 mW/cm2 was used. Since the kinetic energy of ions in the plasma is higher for smaller excitation frequencies [14], it is sensible to adjust the hydrogen plasma process from 60 MHz to 13.56 MHz by increasing the product of process pressure and electrode to substrate distance till a sufficient implied VOC is reached. The influence of the electrode gap on the implied VOC and the interface defect density is shown in figure 5. An in-
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Fig. 5. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the distance between working electrode and substrate d.
crease in the electrode distance leads to a decrease in the defect density after the hydrogen plasma treatment, which leads to an increase of the implied VOC of the structures. Although the defect density gets decreased with increasing the electrode distance in the whole range from 25 to 50 mm, the implied VOC saturates at an electrode distance of about 35 mm. At the same time the etch rate of the plasma decreases from about 1 nm per minute to about zero for increasing electrode distance. 3.5. Solar cell results Solar cells were constructed using the optimized hydrogen plasma step to treat the passivation layers between wafer and emitter, and wafer and electron contact. The solar cell uses an indium tin oxid contacted with an Ag/Ti grid as a front contact and a full surface of Al doped ZnO contacted with Ag as a back side contact. Solar cell parameters of devices on planar and alkaline textured samples are listed in table 1. There is no significant difference between both devices regarding open circuit voltage (VOC ) or fill factor (FF). A lifetime and open circuit voltage limiting influence of the textures valleys can therefore be ruled out. The textured solar cell reaches an efficiency of 20.6 %. Table 1. Solar cells parameters for devices fabricated using hydrogen plasma treated a-Si:H(i) passivation layers using different substrate surfaces.
wafer surface alkaline texture/random pyramids planar mechanically polished (111)
VOC (mV) 710 711
JS C (mA) 38.1 29.2
FF (%) 76.3 75.7
η (%) 20.6 15.7
4. Discussion Varying process parameters of the hydrogen plasma treatment is a way to further understand the process and enable a better reproducibility and comparability of earlier experiments [4,5]. The correlation between increasing electrode power density and minority carrier lifetime after the treatment is easily understood, since the electrode power density scales with the hydrogen dissociation rate in the plasma and the dominant defect at the amorphous-crystalline silicon
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interface is the silicon-dangling-bond, which can be passivated by hydrogen atoms but not molecules. Furthermore the influence of plasma damage can be neglected in wide electrode power density ranges, if the product of process pressure and electrode distance is sufficiently well adjusted to prevent strong etching of the amorphous layer. As we have shown in an earlier publication [5] the substrate temperature during the process is the main driving force of hydrogen diffusion from the plasma to the interface and lower temperatures are also known to increase the etch rate of the amorphous layer [12]. Therefore a certain minimum process temperature, which supposedly depends on the density of atomic hydrogen in the plasma has to be used and at least for temperatures up to about 270◦ C no thermal driven degradation can be measured. Process pressure and electrode distance are the most crucial parameters, since the have to be adjusted to tare two detrimental affects. For lower products of these two parameters the plasma process strongly etches the amorphous silicon and induces defects at the amorphous-crystalline interface. For high products the interface defect density is also high. The reason for the increasing interface defect density for high pressures and high electrode distances may be that the free pathway of hydrogen atoms in the plasma is shorter than the electrode distance and the amount of atomic hydrogen reaching the substrate surface and diffusing to the interface is to low for effective defect passivation. This reasoning can be seen by comparing the results for the pressure variation at 60 MHz and the electrode distance variation at 13.56 MHz. 13.56 MHz processes are more sensible to plasma damage than 60 MHz processes since the ion oscillation length is bigger and this process reacts stronger to a decrease of the product of process pressure and electrode distance. The 60 MHz process reacts stronger to a high product of process pressure and electrode distance, since the free path lengths of ionic species are smaller for 60 MHz than for 13.56 MHz. 5. Conclusions The influence of process parameters of the hydrogen plasma treatment employed for the passivation of the amorphous-crystalline silicon interface have been varied. It is shown that it is crucial to use a high enough substrate temperature close to 200◦ C to guarantee a strong enough diffusion of atomic hydrogen from the plasma to the interface. Second the electrode power density has to be high enough to enable a sufficient density of atomic hydrogen in the plasma. The most crucial parameter is the adjustment of the product of process pressure and electrode to substrate distance. Especially for low excitation frequencies etching of the amorphous layer can occur and increase the defect density in the layer and at the interface. Especially for high excitation frequencies and high products of pressure and electrode distance the free path length of hydrogen atoms generated in the plasma can be to small to enable them to reach the samples surface. In general while adjusting a hydrogen plasma treatment for the passivation of amorphous-crystalline silicon interfaces the right balance between a high density of high energy hydrogen atoms, which enable strong hydrogen diffusion to the interface but also etching and low densities of low energy hydrogen preventing etching of the amorphous layer but limiting hydrogen diffusion to the interface has to be found. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Kerstin Jacob for wafer cleaning. Part of the work was realized with financial support by the project HERCULES of the European Unions Seventh Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement No 608498. References [1] M. Taguchi, A. Yano, S. Tohoda, K. Matsuyama, Y. Nakamura, T. Nishiwaki, K. Fujita, E. Maruyama, 24.7% record efficiency hit solar cell on thin silicon wafer, IEEE J. Photovolt. 4 (1) (2014) 96–99. doi:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2013.2282737. [2] H. Fujiwara, M. Kondo, Impact of epitaxial growth at the heterointerface of a-Si:H/c-Si solar cells, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90 (2007) 013503. doi:10.1063/1.2426900. [3] U. K. Das, M. Z. Burrows, M. Lu, S. Bowden, R. W. Birkmire, Surface passivation and heterojunction cells on Si (100) and (111) wafers using dc and rf plasma deposited Si:H thin films, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92 (2008) 063504. doi:10.1063/1.2857465. [4] A. Descoeudres, L. Barraud, S. de Wolf, B. Strahm, D. Lachenal, C. Gu´erin, Z. C. Holman, F. Zicarelli, B. Demaurex, J. Seif, J. Holovsky, C. Ballif, Improved amorphous/crystalline silicon interface passivation by hydrogen plasma treatment, Appl. Phys. Lett. 99 (2011) 123506. doi:10.1063/1.3641899.
Mathias Mews et al. / Energy Procedia 55 (2014) 827 – 833 [5] M. Mews, T. F. Schulze, N. Mingirulli, L. Korte, Hydrogen plasma treatments for passivation of amorphous-crystalline silicon-heterojunctions on surfaces promoting epitaxy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 102 (2013) 122106. doi:10.1063/1.4798292. [6] M. Mews, T. F. Schulze, N. Mingirulli, L. Korte, Amorphous silicon passivation of surfaces promoting epitaxy, Energy Procedia 38 (2013) 855 – 861. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2013.07.356. [7] T. F. Schulze, H. N. Beushausen, C. Leendertz, A. Dobrich, B. Rech, L. Korte, Interplay of amorphous silicon disorder and hydrogen content with interface defects in amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunctions, Appl. Phys. Lett. 96 (2010) 252102. doi:10.1063/1.3455900. [8] G. E. Jellison Jr., F. A. Modine, Parameterization of the optical functions of amorphous materials in the interband region, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69 (1996) 371–373. doi:10.1063/1.118064. [9] R. A. Sinton, A. Cuevas, Contactless determination of current–voltage characteristics and minority-carrier lifetimes in semiconductors from quasi-steady-state photoconductance data, Appl. Phys. Lett. 69 (1996) 2510–2512. doi:10.1063/1.117723. [10] C. Leendertz, N. Mingirulli, T. F. Schulze, J.-P. Kleider, B. Rech, L. Korte, Discerning passivation mechanisms at a-Si:H/c-Si interfaces by means of photoconductance measurements, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2011) 202108. [11] G. Lihui, L. Rongming, Studies on the formation of microcrystalline silicon with pecvd under low and high working pressure, Thin Solid Films 376 (2000) 249 – 254. doi:10.1016/S0040-6090(00)01210-4. [12] S. Granata, T. Bearda, F. Dross, I. Gordon, J. Poortmans, R. Mertens, Effect of an in-situ h2 plasma pretreatment on the minority carrier lifetime of a-si:h(i) passivated crystalline silicon, Energy Procedia 27 (2012) 412 – 418. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.07.086. [13] J. Geissb¨uhler, S. D. Wolf, B. Demaurex, J. P. Seif, D. T. L. Alexander, L. Barraud, C. Ballif, Amorphous/crystalline silicon interface defects induced by hydrogen plasma treatments, Appl. Phys. Lett. 102 (2013) 231604. doi:10.1063/1.4811253. [14] J. Dutta, U. Kroll, P. Chabloz, A. Shah, A. A. Howling, J.-L. Dorier, C. Hollenstein, Dependence of intrinsic stress in hydrogenated amorphous silicon on excitation frequency in a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition process, J. Appl. Phys. 72 (1992) 3220–3222. doi:10.1063/1.351440.
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ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 55 (2014) 827 – 833
4th International Conference on Silicon Photovoltaics, SiliconPV 2014
Hydrogen plasma treatments of amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunctions Mathias Mewsa,∗, Erhard Conrada , Simon Kirnerb , Nicola Mingirullia , Lars Kortea a Helmholtz-Zentrum b PVcomB,
Berlin f¨ur Materialien und Energie, Institute of Silicon Photovoltaics, Kekul´estraße 5, D-12489 Berlin, Germany Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin f¨ur Materialien und Energie, Schwarzschildstrae 3, 12489 Berlin, Germany
Abstract Hydrogen plasma post-deposition treatments of amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunctions, which are known to enable superior passivation, are further investigated. The influence of certain plasma process parameters, including substrate temperature, gas pressure, plasma power density, excitation frequency and distance between electrode and substrate, is examined. The passivation quality after a hydrogen plasma step is depending on the density of atomic hydrogen in the plasma and on sufficient hydrogen diffusion to the interface. A variation of the electrode to substrate distance reveals that the indiffusion of hydrogen is accompanied by dry etching of the amorphous layer. To reach sound passivation quality it is necessary to introduce a certain amount of hydrogen, while at the same time limit the damage due to etching of the amorphous silicon and maintain the right amorphous silicon film thickness for solar cell application. c 2014 © Published by by Elsevier Ltd.Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license 2014The TheAuthors. Authors. Published Elsevier (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SiliconPV 2014 conference. Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SiliconPV 2014 conference
Keywords: amorphous silicon passivation; hydrogen plasma; silicon-heterojunction solar cell; crystalline silicon
1. Introduction Amorphous-crystalline silicon-heterojunction solar cells (a-Si/c-Si-HJ-SC) have reached a technological maturity culminating in record efficiencies exceeding 24 % [1], although many questions regarding device physics and processes remain unanswered. The main challenge and opportunity of this technology are high open circuit voltages (VOC ), due to excellent surface passivation with an intrinsic amorphous silicon layer between wafer and emitter, or back-surface-field. High quality passivation necessitates an atomically sharp hetero-interface without unintentional epitaxial growth regions [2]. The best amorphous silicon passivation layers are deposited close to the epitaxial growth region. For example the passivation improves with increasing hydrogen density in the plasma, but for further increased hydrogen densities charge carrier lifetimes are strongly decreased due to occurrence of epitaxial growth at the interface [3]. Similar trends were reported for low electrode power densities[2] and high substrate temperature[2]. This limits the possible parameter space of the amorphous silicon deposition. Lately it has been shown that the application of a hydrogen plasma post deposition treatment on the amorphous-crystalline silicon junction can further ∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: 49 30 8062 41312; fax: 49 30 8062 41333. E-mail address: [email protected]
1876-6102 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the SiliconPV 2014 conference doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.08.066
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improve the passivation [4], while circumventing problems regarding epitaxial growth. Furthermore the reason for the passivation improvement upon the hydrogen plasma treatment was shown to be the diffusion of hydrogen to the amorphous-crystalline silicon interface and that this process is not introducing defects and structural disorder into the amorphous silicon [5]. Unfortunately the existing literature gives no further information on the influence of the different plasma process parameters, apart from the substrate temperature [5] and treatment time [6]. 2. Experimental details 280 μm thick (100)-oriented and (111)-oriented 1 - 5 Ωcm phosphorus-doped high quality float zone silicon wafers were used as substrate material and cleaned prior to deposition following the RCA procedure and dipped in diluted hydrofluoric acid (2 min, 1 %) to strip off the native silicon oxide. A-Si:H(i) was deposited using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). A-Si:H(i) layers were deposited at 0.5 mbar process pressure, 170◦ C substrate temperature, 20 mW/cm2 power density, a silane gas flow of 10 sccm and an excitation frequency of 13.56 MHz, as specified previously [7]. Hydrogen plasma post deposition treatments were conducted at 60 MHz excitation frequency, 0.4 mbar process pressure, a power density of 110 mW/cm2 , a hydrogen gas flow of 100 sccm, electrode to substrate gap of 15 mm and 195C substrate temperature. The treatment duration was 4 min for 6 to 8 nm thick a-Si:H(i)-layers. Using this parameter set as a starting point the plasma power density, the process pressure and the substrate temperature were varied. Furthermore hydrogen plasma treatments were conducted at 13.56 MHz excitation frequency. Due to plasma ignition conditions the process pressure and electrode to substrate distance were increased to 1 mbar and 25 mm. The lowest working power density for 60 MHz excitation, which is 60 mW/cm2 was applied. The hydrogen gas flow was adjusted to 20 sccm. To specify a suitable parameter range for hydrogen plasma treatments at 13.56 MHz excitation the electrode to substrate distance was varied. For determination of the a-Si:H band gaps and film thicknesses spectral ellipsometry was conducted using a Sentech SE850 (wavelength range 190-2500 nm) and a Tauc-Lorentz model[8] was fitted to the data. A Sinton Consulting WCT-100 photoconductance decay (PCD) setup was used to determine minority carrier lifetimes (τ) of symmetrically treated samples [9]. The implied open circuit voltage (implied VOC ) [9] was used as the parameter of choice for the process optimization and the interface defect density was extracted from the lifetime curves using a semi-analytical model [10] and assuming an interface defect capture cross section of 10−18 cm2 .
3. Results 3.1. Influence of the electrode power density For a better understanding of the processes in the amorphous silicon layers during the hydrogen plasma treatment different process parameters have been varied. In figure 1 the interface defect density at the amorphous-crystalline silicon interface and the implied VOC of the samples are shown in dependence of the electrode power density. Each data point represents two to four samples and the data point at 0 mW/cm2 represents a sample that has been exposed to the same thermal budget as the other samples but without a plasma. The implied VOC of the samples increases with increasing electrode power density, due to decreasing interface defect densities. It is well established that an increase of the electrode power density increases the dissoziation rate of hydrogen molecules in the plasma [11]. Therefore atomic hydrogen from the plasma has to take a crucial part in the passivation of the a-Si:H(i)/c-Si-interface. Furthermore there is no significant increase of the defect density with increasing electrode power density. Therefore the generation of defects due to plasma damage can be ruled out for the applied electrode power density range. 3.2. Influence of the substrate temperature The substrate temperature was varied between 35◦ C and 265◦ C. Figure 2 shows the impact of the substrate temperature on the interface defect density at the amorphous-crystalline interface and on the implied VOC . The samples have been exposed to a thermal annealing step (20 min, 200◦ C) after the hydrogen plasma treatment. The defect density decreases with increasing substrate temperature during the process since the defects are saturated by hydrogen
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Fig. 1. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the electrode power density P/A.
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Fig. 2. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the substrate temperature Tsub during hydrogen plasma treatment. The samples were exposed to a thermal annealing step (20min, 200◦ C) after the hydrogen plasma step. Minority carrier lifetime data for a similar series has already been presented[6].
that is diffusing from the plasma to the amorphous-crystalline interface [5]. As can be seen in figure 1 a sample that was not treated with a hydrogen plasma but thermally annealed reaches about 705 mV implied VOC . After annealing all samples should have at least the passivation quality of an untreated sample, or better if a sufficient amount of hydrogen was diffused to the amorphous-crystalline interface, but the implied VOC after annealing of samples treated at lower temperatures is smaller than the 705 mV reached by a sample only treated with a thermal annealing step. This holds even after annealing. This can be explained because the passivation granted by an amorphous silicon layer on a crystalline silicon surface depends on the amorphous silicon thickness and it is known that the etch rate of a hydrogen plasma step increases with decreasing substrate temperature during the process [12]. Therefore the samples treated at low substrate temperatures receive etch damage from the plasma and do not reach 705 mV. For treatment temperatures above 130◦ C the samples reach implied VOC in the range of 730 mV, which is a significant increase compared to untreated samples. For temperatures as high as 260◦ C there is no degradation of the amorphous silicon passivation visible, although the sample is slightly etched by the plasma. The thickness variation of samples treated at 195◦ C for different treatment times is shown in figure 3. An etch rate of about 0.3 nm/min is visible. Increased defect densities after hydrogen plasma steps have been reported for a process with significantly higher etch rates [13], but for the process reported in this paper no increase of the defect density is measurable.
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Fig. 3. Amorphous Silicon thickness of codeposited layers after hydrogen post deposition plasma treatments with different durations.
3.3. Influence of the process pressure Since the hydrogen plasma step is partly etching the sample the process should show a strong dependence on the product of the process pressure and the distance between electrode and substrate. In figure 4 the influence of the process pressure on the interface defect density and the implied VOC is shown. This experiment has been conducted
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Fig. 4. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the hydrogen pressure p and the hydrogen gas flow rate f during the process.
with a fixed electrode to substrate distance of 16 mm at an excitation frequency of 60 MHz. The hydrogen gas flow rate has been adjusted together with the process pressure to ensure a constant residence time for any ionic species in the process gas. Regarding the process pressure there is an optimum of the defect density at the amorphous-crystalline interface at around 0.4 mbar. For lower and higher process pressures the defect density increases and the implied VOC decreases. For small process pressures the implied VOC may be decreased due to plasma damage of the samples from ionic bombardment and for high process pressures the free-path length of hydrogen ions in the gas decreases and their density on the amorphous silicon surface is low and therefore the amount of hydrogen entering the layer and diffusing to the amorphous-crystalline interface is lower, which results in more unpassivated defects. 3.4. Influence of the electrode to substrate distance The most common used excitation frequency for PECVD is 13.56 MHz. Therefore the discussed post-deposition hydrogen plasma treatment was also applied in a reactor with an 13.56 MHz electrode. Due to restraints from hydro-
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gen plasma ignition the process pressure was increased to 1 mbar, the process temperature was kept at 195◦ C and an electrode power density of 60 mW/cm2 was used. Since the kinetic energy of ions in the plasma is higher for smaller excitation frequencies [14], it is sensible to adjust the hydrogen plasma process from 60 MHz to 13.56 MHz by increasing the product of process pressure and electrode to substrate distance till a sufficient implied VOC is reached. The influence of the electrode gap on the implied VOC and the interface defect density is shown in figure 5. An in-
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Fig. 5. (a) Implied VOC of symmetrically passivated a-Si:H(i)/c-Si(n)/a-Si:H(i)-structures and (b) interface defect density at the amorphouscrystalline silicon interface of the same samples in dependence of the distance between working electrode and substrate d.
crease in the electrode distance leads to a decrease in the defect density after the hydrogen plasma treatment, which leads to an increase of the implied VOC of the structures. Although the defect density gets decreased with increasing the electrode distance in the whole range from 25 to 50 mm, the implied VOC saturates at an electrode distance of about 35 mm. At the same time the etch rate of the plasma decreases from about 1 nm per minute to about zero for increasing electrode distance. 3.5. Solar cell results Solar cells were constructed using the optimized hydrogen plasma step to treat the passivation layers between wafer and emitter, and wafer and electron contact. The solar cell uses an indium tin oxid contacted with an Ag/Ti grid as a front contact and a full surface of Al doped ZnO contacted with Ag as a back side contact. Solar cell parameters of devices on planar and alkaline textured samples are listed in table 1. There is no significant difference between both devices regarding open circuit voltage (VOC ) or fill factor (FF). A lifetime and open circuit voltage limiting influence of the textures valleys can therefore be ruled out. The textured solar cell reaches an efficiency of 20.6 %. Table 1. Solar cells parameters for devices fabricated using hydrogen plasma treated a-Si:H(i) passivation layers using different substrate surfaces.
wafer surface alkaline texture/random pyramids planar mechanically polished (111)
VOC (mV) 710 711
JS C (mA) 38.1 29.2
FF (%) 76.3 75.7
η (%) 20.6 15.7
4. Discussion Varying process parameters of the hydrogen plasma treatment is a way to further understand the process and enable a better reproducibility and comparability of earlier experiments [4,5]. The correlation between increasing electrode power density and minority carrier lifetime after the treatment is easily understood, since the electrode power density scales with the hydrogen dissociation rate in the plasma and the dominant defect at the amorphous-crystalline silicon
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interface is the silicon-dangling-bond, which can be passivated by hydrogen atoms but not molecules. Furthermore the influence of plasma damage can be neglected in wide electrode power density ranges, if the product of process pressure and electrode distance is sufficiently well adjusted to prevent strong etching of the amorphous layer. As we have shown in an earlier publication [5] the substrate temperature during the process is the main driving force of hydrogen diffusion from the plasma to the interface and lower temperatures are also known to increase the etch rate of the amorphous layer [12]. Therefore a certain minimum process temperature, which supposedly depends on the density of atomic hydrogen in the plasma has to be used and at least for temperatures up to about 270◦ C no thermal driven degradation can be measured. Process pressure and electrode distance are the most crucial parameters, since the have to be adjusted to tare two detrimental affects. For lower products of these two parameters the plasma process strongly etches the amorphous silicon and induces defects at the amorphous-crystalline interface. For high products the interface defect density is also high. The reason for the increasing interface defect density for high pressures and high electrode distances may be that the free pathway of hydrogen atoms in the plasma is shorter than the electrode distance and the amount of atomic hydrogen reaching the substrate surface and diffusing to the interface is to low for effective defect passivation. This reasoning can be seen by comparing the results for the pressure variation at 60 MHz and the electrode distance variation at 13.56 MHz. 13.56 MHz processes are more sensible to plasma damage than 60 MHz processes since the ion oscillation length is bigger and this process reacts stronger to a decrease of the product of process pressure and electrode distance. The 60 MHz process reacts stronger to a high product of process pressure and electrode distance, since the free path lengths of ionic species are smaller for 60 MHz than for 13.56 MHz. 5. Conclusions The influence of process parameters of the hydrogen plasma treatment employed for the passivation of the amorphous-crystalline silicon interface have been varied. It is shown that it is crucial to use a high enough substrate temperature close to 200◦ C to guarantee a strong enough diffusion of atomic hydrogen from the plasma to the interface. Second the electrode power density has to be high enough to enable a sufficient density of atomic hydrogen in the plasma. The most crucial parameter is the adjustment of the product of process pressure and electrode to substrate distance. Especially for low excitation frequencies etching of the amorphous layer can occur and increase the defect density in the layer and at the interface. Especially for high excitation frequencies and high products of pressure and electrode distance the free path length of hydrogen atoms generated in the plasma can be to small to enable them to reach the samples surface. In general while adjusting a hydrogen plasma treatment for the passivation of amorphous-crystalline silicon interfaces the right balance between a high density of high energy hydrogen atoms, which enable strong hydrogen diffusion to the interface but also etching and low densities of low energy hydrogen preventing etching of the amorphous layer but limiting hydrogen diffusion to the interface has to be found. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Kerstin Jacob for wafer cleaning. Part of the work was realized with financial support by the project HERCULES of the European Unions Seventh Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement No 608498. References [1] M. Taguchi, A. Yano, S. Tohoda, K. Matsuyama, Y. Nakamura, T. Nishiwaki, K. Fujita, E. Maruyama, 24.7% record efficiency hit solar cell on thin silicon wafer, IEEE J. Photovolt. 4 (1) (2014) 96–99. doi:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2013.2282737. [2] H. Fujiwara, M. Kondo, Impact of epitaxial growth at the heterointerface of a-Si:H/c-Si solar cells, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90 (2007) 013503. doi:10.1063/1.2426900. [3] U. K. Das, M. Z. Burrows, M. Lu, S. Bowden, R. W. Birkmire, Surface passivation and heterojunction cells on Si (100) and (111) wafers using dc and rf plasma deposited Si:H thin films, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92 (2008) 063504. doi:10.1063/1.2857465. [4] A. Descoeudres, L. Barraud, S. de Wolf, B. Strahm, D. Lachenal, C. Gu´erin, Z. C. Holman, F. Zicarelli, B. Demaurex, J. Seif, J. Holovsky, C. Ballif, Improved amorphous/crystalline silicon interface passivation by hydrogen plasma treatment, Appl. Phys. Lett. 99 (2011) 123506. doi:10.1063/1.3641899.
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