- Email: [email protected]
Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he
Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy Mihajlo Firak, Ankica Ðukic* University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, Ivana Lucica 5, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
article info
abstract
Article history:
In the past 15 years worlds and Croatian economy is faced with the transition from classic
Received 14 December 2015
primary energy sources to renewable energy sources. It is widely assumed that renewable
Received in revised form
energy can be stored in the form of hydrogen. Hence, world is faced with roll out of the
11 March 2016
commercial generation hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles on the road. Anticipating esti-
Accepted 25 March 2016
mated development there is a question when and how will Croatia keep along with this
Available online xxx
global scenario?! One of the possible answers, derived from Croatia position as EU country that draws 13% of its GDP mostly from tourists flooding during two summer months, was
Keywords:
discussed in this paper. The number of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles that could be
Hydrogen
running by foreign tourists in Croatia up to 2030 was estimated. It was proposed hydrogen
Electrolyzer
infrastructure based on photovoltaic technology of solar energy conversion and water
Fuel cell
electrolysis as adopted hydrogen production technology. Installed hydrogen infrastructure
Solar energy
should be incorporated into national grid power system as renewable energy production,
Hydrogen refueling station
energy consumption, and energy storage subsystem.
Croatia
Copyright © 2016, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction The exponential growth of industrial production and transport in the past 150 years was possible made by the utilization of fossil fuels, coal, and oil particularly. At the same time, the exponential consumption of fossil fuels is followed by menacing side effects such as the increasing of global climate changes and pollution of air, water and soil, especially within major industrial zones. Since these natural resources are spent at the rate much faster than their natural renewal cycle, a decrease in established reserves is inevitable. Considering the fact that the world's largest states are just entering the period of economic expansion (e.g. China and India), it is
expected that the resulting rise of oil prices occur in such a manner. Hence, this is going to endanger political and economic stability, not only individual states but worldwide [1]. In an attempt to timely avoid, or at least scale down the effects of such a scenario, in the most developed countries the solution that is looked for is in the implementation of new ways of utilization of those energy resources. It should be used those energy resources available at the level of particular area, state or region under assumption that their utilization does not have harmful impacts to either humans or the environment. These resources are designated as renewable energy sources (RES). Among RES usually counts solar energy, wind energy, energy of biomass, energy of free water flows, wave energy, energy of tides, and ocean heat energy. It is obvious that each
* Corresponding author. ). E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Ðukic http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199 0360-3199/Copyright © 2016, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
2
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
spot on the Earth disposes with certain quantity of RES in which mentioned energy forms have certain shares. The size of a particular share and the stage of development of appropriate technology dominantly determine which form of RES will be the most used one locally. There are a large number of various conversion technologies available for the purpose of transforming RES from the primary form to the useful form of energy. Some of these technologies are very simple, while others are highly complex. Due to this diversity, the use of RES requires larger number of highly educated and much better organized and connected people working in this area. At the same time, this diversity of conversion forms at the end works down to heat, mechanical, and electrical energy that are all intermittent in nature and which are difficult to store, especially for longer periods of time. Energy storage is an unavoidable requirement, being the consequence of the intermittence of primary RES and the intermittence of needs of the final user [2]. This is particularly important for those means of transportation that requires the autonomy of travel on beforehand undefined routes, therefore being compelled to store necessary energy within them. Regarding to that, a demand for a fuel as a form of stored energy or an energy carrier is unquestionable. It should be capable of reducing all forms of RES to a common denominator on one side while enabling standardization that would ensure mass application itself and thereby the economics of primary RES usage on the other side. The solution around which the major world powers look for is hydrogen as the fuel [3] and fuel cell as the device that uses hydrogen with larger efficiency without harmful effects on the environment [4]. When talking about hydrogen and its role as a fuel, it should be kept on mind four important moments: First, the latest news is talking about hydrogen in the free form existing on the Earth. That discovery of natural hydrogen presents scientific boom in hydrogen community but also in the energy sector worldwide in general [5]. Second, although hydrogen makes 90% of the space matter, on the Earth it is largely a part of chemical compounds such as water or hydrocarbons. It means that additional energy is needed in order to produce it [6]. Regarding to this, it follows that the hydrogen production is clean and socially acceptable as much as it is clean and socially acceptable technology used for that purpose. These conditions are also related to the chemical compounds used for hydrogen production regarding to the byproducts such as carbon or nitrogen oxides, solid particles, etc. Third, once it is produced in a clean way, hydrogen remains a clean fuel [7]. Chemical combustion of hydrogen produces only water and heat. It is technically possible to induce hydrogen combustion in an open-air burner, in an internal combustion engine, and in the gas turbines. Fourth is hydrogen utilization in the fuel cells. Should one compare outputs of electricity generated from the same quantity of hydrogen by means of a classical system and a fuel cell system, the unconventional system would prove significantly more efficient. Although hydrogen was already omnipresent in the industrial use for a long time, all previously mentioned elements point to the fact that hydrogen production and its utilization became the focal issue in energy management. Hydrogen is not just an industrial gas in the chemical industry anymore but grown into the energy vector, i.e. the energy link between RES and the final user. And finally, the
expression of Hydrogen Economy was created: a phrase designating global world economy based on hydrogen as the fuel of choice [8]. Hydrogen-based economy is widely considered to be the heir of the economy based on fossil fuels nowadays. The major problem in the introduction of hydrogen into road traffic is the size of the bite. In order to hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) become a mass-used product, the infrastructure for production, storage, and transportation of large hydrogen volumes comparable to the current infrastructure for fossil fuels has to be put into place. At the same time, hydrogen infrastructure will fail to materialize if there would be insufficient number of hydrogen FCEVs on the roads. It means that the development of infrastructure and vehicle production has to take place simultaneously e a task requiring enormous financial investments. All major world countries are engaged in organized research of RES technologies coupled to the technologies of hydrogen production and its utilization in households, industry, and transportation [9]. In EU there are currently 93 hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) in operation and public accessible. Just in Germany H2 Mobility initiative plans network of 115 HRS to be operational until 2017, and 400 until 2023. Even 1180 HRS and 1.8 million hydrogen FCEVs are planned in Germany for 2030 [10]. For example, action plans for that purpose in the USA are systematized in the documents of A National Vision of America's Transition to a Hydrogen Economy e to 2030 and beyond, National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap and Hydrogen Posture Plan. Similar plans for the EU can be found in the reference [11]. In this sense there are not existing corresponding documents of strategy in Croatia yet but legislations for hydrogen FCEVs homologation were set in 2013. However, scientific and development research is continuously in progress from what and where it should be. Since nothing of importance would be achieved by purely declarative drafting of such documents, especially without representatives of the industry and scientific institutions, it is of paramount importance to present within their frame a series of complex and far-reaching projects. These could have long-term positive effects on science, technological development and production. A strategy for such a project is presented in this paper concerning the introduction of solar-hydrogen technology in the road traffic, nautical tourism, and ferry traffic in Croatia.
Main motivation Transition to low carbon development became increasingly important since climate change, economic, energy, food, and other crises in last decade. Due to that energy and transportation sectors are the most important in terms of new investments, potential of greenhouse gases (GHGs) reduction, and urgency to act e since business as usual means locking in to old technologies that are unable for efficient shift to low emission economy. Transportation sector could make even more pressure on electricity generation, since fuel switch towards electricity means more electricity needed. If this electricity is generated in coal power plants, it could lead to even more GHGs emissions than if fossil fuels are used in transportation. This work contributes to more flexibility in power system network to offset production peaks to energy that can be utilized for later use. The year 2014/15 is going to
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
be remembered as the period when the first serially produced hydrogen FCEV (Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell and Toyota Mirai) actually hit the roads in USA and EU. These days there are serious statements of other car manufacturers like Nissan, Daimler, Volkswagen, and Audi that in 2016 there will be much more hydrogen FCEVs on the road. As being touristic and transit country Croatia will be soon faced with the increasing necessity of HRS installation along its traffic roads.
Strategy of infrastructure The concept of solar-hydrogen infrastructure for road and maritime traffic Which are the requirements and possibilities for Croatia not to fall behind the leading countries, such as for example Germany, in this field?! This starts with the fact that Croatia is an important European tourist destination that is yearly visited by millions, mostly motorized, foreign tourists. Second starting point is cross section of currently European states studies and plans that dealt with future introducing of hydrogen infrastructure and FCEVs in the European road traffic system in the next 5 years. Because the thousands of motorized yachts and another vessel are presented at the same time at the Croatian coast and islands and many of them will have on board some type of hydrogen option it will be the additional reason for building of hydrogen infrastructure on islands. It is important to assume that hydrogen FCEVs purchased on the commercial market are appearing on the roads of developed countries. Taking into account the fact that Croatia is earning a considerable part of its annual revenues from tourism (13% was direct contribution, and 30% total contribution to GDP in 2015) including foreign and domestic guests who are arriving to the touristic destinations predominantly by cars, it will become necessary to develop hydrogen infrastructure in Croatia as well. Nautical tourism including yachts and marinas will also require hydrogen infrastructure. In this case it produces a synergy effect with clean environment and noise elimination, altogether adding up to an even more attractive tourist destination. Already costly ferry traffic between islands grows even more expensive with the rise in oil prices, and cheap, locally produced hydrogen will remain as the only solution eventually. On that basis, any delay in this direction would imply direct negative financial effects for the state budget. Other requirements, that are similar to those of other states, are even more important foremost among them being the elimination of dependence on energy imports. This work puts forward a proposal for the option that the infrastructure for supplying road vehicles, yachts, and ships with hydrogen in Croatia be designed in the presented scenario. Solar energy is adopted to be primary RES. Photovoltaic (PV) technology is adopted for direct conversion of solar energy to electricity. PV fields will be located in the southern areas of Croatia and on the islands where the solar irradiance is the highest. Therefore the return of investment is the quickest. Due to the necessity of covering large surfaces with
3
PV modules, areas not suitable for agricultural use would be chosen as sites. In the manner of least visual intrusion it is with strict respect for esthetic standards. At the same time, sites would be chosen to be located in the immediate vicinity of the existing electrical facilities in order for the generated electricity to be delivered to existing power production and distribution system with minimal additional investment. Hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis process. Electricity demand for electrolysis is covered from the grid electricity system. Additional water is collected from the waste water systems of roads and motorways. Sites of hydrogen production and storage, as well as HRS where vehicles are supplied with hydrogen are located along the major tourist traffic routes but at the same time in the vicinity of high voltage switchyard facilities in order to minimize the additional investment in connection and electricity lines. Technical components of the system are broadly sized in accordance with the foreseen hydrogen demand. Economic rationale for such a system is based on the fact that solar energy is free and available everywhere. Its conversion to electricity using PV modules takes place without any harmful impacts on humans or the environment. A hydrogen production via water electrolysis is compatible with the usage of hydrogen in fuel cells, where the electrochemical combustion of hydrogen ends up with just water and heat as the by-products. Hence, it is without any harmful emissions, neither in hydrogen production nor in its utilization. Spatially divided locations of electricity generation and hydrogen production enable the most favorable choice of sites: 1) independent for each of the functions, while the connection to power grid makes it possible for electricity to be produced at times of highest solar radiation; 2) delivered immediately and used anywhere within the system while taking electricity for hydrogen generation at any point of time. In other words, depending on the tariff model it is possible to sell electricity from PV fields during the period of the highest price (day) while purchasing it at the lowest price (night). A touristic season positively coincides with the period of highest intensity of solar irradiance in these areas regarding to its several times over increase in electricity demand and car fuel demand in comparison with annual averages. Anticipating a future increase in oil and gas prices, further reduction of prices of both PV and hydrogen technologies, savings in environmental protection as well as incentive measures of the state in order to encourage switching to RES utilization, it is possible to expect that the described system will shortly become not only economical but also widely socially acceptable.
Main technical components of the proposed concept Required volumes of hydrogen up to the year of 2030 Croatia is a Mediterranean country located on the northwestern part of Balkan Peninsula. Important transport routes through Croatia connect Central Europe and Asia (through the countries of South-eastern Balkans and Turkey), as well as Russia via Hungary, with Adriatic harbours. Croatia
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
4
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
has 4.28 millions of inhabitants and around 1.87 millions registered vehicles [12]. Being a transit country between West and East, Croatia has annually more than 16 million registered cross-border (entry/exit) trans passing vehicles, with around 5.8 million foreign tourists vehicles. Because of its clean and preserved nature, and especially due to attractive Adriatic coast with 1180 island (only 40 of which are inhabited), Croatia is a well-known tourist destination throughout Europe with 12.9 millions visiting tourists in the 2014. This number increased in 2015 for 7% and amounted around 14 millions. At the same time, tourism represents an additional strong burden on Croatian motorways, e.g. in the coastal region there are some of 500000 registered vehicles owned by the local population. Apart of that, 4 millions foreign vehicles annually visit this region with 55% of this number concentrated during only two summer months, in July and August. At the same time, coastal region has around 193000 registered (stationary and/or in transit) maritime vessels such as boats, yachts, and other ships. More than 50% of them are foreign tourist vessels. In the next 10 years this number will further increase, and at least 5% of vessels will use some form of drive that will require hydrogen fuel. This will refer either to ship propulsion or to various on-board devices that will generate electricity for the ships needs. This will represent an additional burden for hydrogen infrastructure in that area. According to the Strategy of touristic development in Croatia up to 2020 [13], in the next 5 years Croatia will experience an average annual increase in the number of tourist arrivals of 3.67%. Based on that fact, it can be predicted that in 2025 Croatia will be visited by 20 millions tourists, and 24 millions in 2030. The main tourists in Croatia are Germans (with prediction of around 21% in 2020). Because Germany at the same time has the most ambitions hydrogen FCEV program, their tourists in Croatia will be first using FCEVs and will use HRS on the Croatian motorways. Based on assumption that the average number of passenger per vehicle is 2.86 it is possible to calculate the number of foreign-registered vehicles in Croatia in the same period as it is given in Table 1. At the same time, it can be expected that next 5 years will represent a period of running-in of the hydrogen FCEVs on European motorways. This hardly corresponds with earlier plans: for example HyWays [14] published in the year of 2008, predicts penetration rate of hydrogen vehicles for passenger
transport to be 1%e3% (0.4e1.8 million vehicles) by 2020. This scenario predicted start of serial production in 2016 that comes to be true but today there is not enough production capacity to satisfy predicted figures. For example, production capacity for Toyota Mirai is 3000 vehicles per year. If all others competitors would have the same production capacity, and if all of them would start production in 2016 with full capacity it will be only 120000 FCEVs on the road globally up to 2020. But these competitors predict their serial production will start as follows: Hyundaie2015, Hondae2016, Nissane2020, Daimlere2017, Forde2017, GMe2020, BMWe2020. Another problem is the necessity of building the huge number of HRS along motorways and roads. In reality it can be expected less than 5000 FCEVs in the EU up to 2020. Today, there are about 250000000 passenger cars in EU without expectation for further growth [15]. That amounts only 0.002% of FCEVs in 2020. Assuming similar exponential growth as was adopted in Ref. [14] it can be assumed 0.5% in 2025 and 1% in 2030. Corresponding FCEVs number is presented in the row 4 of Table 1. Hydrogen requirements for FCEVs were calculated assuming that average FCEVs drives across Croatia 800 km (passenger car or bus). The hydrogen consumption for passenger car adopted as 1 kg H2/100 km and for bus 15.7 kg H2/100 km. Corresponding results are presented in the row 5 and 6 of Table 1. It can be noted that the requirements of naval vessels were not analyzed. It was estimated that these volumes could be covered by a possible overestimate of percentage growth of Croatian tourism. At this point a question arises as to how could Croatia produce and distribute to the final user even these, relatively small, quantities of hydrogen?! In fact, this is only one of many reasons why Croatia should endeavor to keep the pace with the upcoming hydrogen era.
Method of water electrolysis for hydrogen production Only two methods of hydrogen production are today in industrial use: The first one is the reforming of fossil fuels, most often of natural gas, and the second one is water electrolysis. Hydrogen produced by water electrolysis is as unburdened by GHGs as is the primary energy used for generating power for electrolyzers. Hydrogen produced by reforming is burdened by GHGs by the very nature of the production method but is on the other hand two to three times cheaper than the electrolytic hydrogen. At the same time, electrolytic hydrogen is
Table 1 e Number of vehicles in the Adriatic coast zone (classic and hydrogen) and volumes of hydrogen required for year of 2020, 2025 and 2030. 2020 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of foreign tourists to Croatia per one year, millions Number of foreign registered passenger vehicles in Croatia (assumed 2.86 passenger per one car), millions Number of foreign registered buses (1.47 buses per 100 vehicles) Number of hydrogen FCEVs (0.002% in 2020, 0.5% in 2025, 1% in 2030) Number of hydrogen fuel cell powered buses H2 requirements for vehicles, kg H2 requirements for buses, kg Total required H2, kg
2025
1 16.7 5.8
2 20 7
85000 116 1.7 928 213.5 1141.5
103000 35000 515 280000 64700 344700
2030 3 24 8.4 123500 84000 1235 672000 155116 827116
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
Thousands Barrels per Day
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Croatia Crude Oil Production by Year 40 30 20 10
0 1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year Fig. 1 e Croatia crude oil production by year [16].
characterized by high purity (better for fuel cells), while this is not the case with the reformed one. How to produce hydrogen in Croatia? Croatian crude oil reserves are small and oil production drops fast as it is given in Fig. 1 [16] as well as natural gas reserves while coal was already spent.
5
Global reserves of coal, oil, and gas are still large enough for their combustion to instigate a further increase in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. This of course implying further damages caused by climate disturbances originating in burning fossil fuels. Taking into account all the above listed facts and estimates of future events, the method of hydrogen production via water electrolysis was chosen. An analysis of 53 experimental and commercial supply stations for experimental hydrogen vehicles in USA, Canada, Japan, and EU, shows that in 52% of them hydrogen is produced via electrolysis on the site. Electricity for the electrolysis process is mainly taken from the power grid but also and even more often from RES, such as solar energy. This proves that the chosen method is on a pair with the currently analyzed options in the world as well as that the required technical components in a functional form are already developed. Under current technology standard, HRS systems consist of components for chemical water treatment, an electrolyzer, a compressor, and a pressure tank designed to hold daily production volume, as well as a dispenser for transferring hydrogen into a vehicle.
Fig. 2 e Gas network pipelines and solar irradiance in Croatia [17,18]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
6
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Method of direct conversion of solar energy into electricity required for hydrogen production As it was already stated, for the purpose of driving the electrolyzer, a direct conversion of solar energy into electricity using PV modules was chosen. Fig. 2 shows a map of Republic of Croatia with plotted solar irradiance in 10-year average on a flat plane with a scheme of developed natural gas transportation network [17,18]. From Fig. 2 it can be seen that coastal region is the most frequented by tourists. Therefore it is the most intensely burdened by foreign-registered vehicles. It has relatively high insolation and barely undeveloped natural gas grid. A northern part of the country is relatively well covered by natural gas infrastructure, albeit has relatively poor insolation. It should be highlighted that natural gas is for the larger part imported, while the solar irradiance is indigenous. Such a local situation also speaks not in the favor of reforming by natural gas but in the favor of hydrogen production using coupled system of PVelectrolyzer method. This is explained by state that hydrogen
FCEVs are there where the sun is, and not where the gas is! Apart from that, electricity generated during the day from solar energy can help to save imported fossil fuels and to decrease a GHGs emission at the same time. Fig. 3 shows the Croatian main electricity distribution network, including thermal and hydro power plants, on the plot of solar irradiance intensities [17,19]. It is visible from Fig. 3 that the national power grid is capable for serving the purpose of transmission of the solar-generated electricity. There is a huge difference between daily and nightly power production accompanied by different prices of electricity during the 24 h. The night price is twice cheaper than the daily one and this was one more reason for choosing PV fields for the conversion of solar into electrical energy required for hydrogen production. Considering the fact that PV fields deliver electricity only during the day, while electrolyzers are capable of working over the night as well, it gave another argument in favor of the chosen concept for hydrogen production. Even more, another factor in favor of this concept was tariff system for power generation from RES and cogeneration,
Fig. 3 e Solar irradiance and electro-distribution network [17,19]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
7
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
that introduced subsidizing electricity produced from RES. Due to that, Croatia already has about 43 MW installed PV fields, additional 12.3 MW is planned [20]. Local availability of the solar insolation and vicinity of electro-distribution lines determine economy of PV fields. This fact already influence where PV fields are and will be located in the future. The same factors will be of interest also for PV capacity needed for HRS, i.e. ones based on local hydrogen production by electrolyzers. Generally it is better to produce electricity closer to electrolyzers because of smaller electric lines transportation loses. Because of huge amounts of electricity these loses can be meaningful.
Hy-Way towards Croatian coast: possible sites of PV fields and HRS Having amounts of needed hydrogen fuel following anticipated three phase period of HRS installations along motorways and roads (row 8 in Table 1) it can be decided where and when HRS will be located and what capacity should they be. Obviously, HRS should be located along the main tourist traffic routes. The map of traffic volumes on selected road directions in Croatia [21] (Fig. 4) shows what tourists road route might be. HRS sites were selected also according to these 5 assumptions: 1) a hydrogen FCEV has to travel the distance from one of the border to the coast; 2) it remains to stay at the coast and/or on an island for 7 days in average; 3) altogether it is 800 km per vehicle; 4) vehicle travel range between two
Table 2 e HRS site locations in Croatia during the period 2015e2030.
1 2 3 4 5
2015e2020
2020e2025
2025e2030
1 Zagreb Rijeka Split
2 din Varaz Pula Zadar Dubrovnik
3 Losinj Hvar Jablanac Sibenik e Ploc
fueling; 5) HRS should be installed on motorways with the distance of 200e400 km what is suggested value in EU directive [22] during the introductory phase of HRS construction. The location sites of HRS that were chosen following descripted criterions are listed in Table 2. 12 HRS geographic locations listed in Table 2 are presented using Croatia insolation and road maps (Figs. 5e7) following proposed three phases of construction. It is easily visible that HRSs follow the existing traffic routes, as well as the existing electricity grid. Additional PV fields will be predominantly located in costal region because of high insolation as well in the vicinity of electricity network.
The next question is how to calculate the capacity of proposed locations? There are two facts: First one is that 55% of foreign vehicles come to Croatia during July and August. Second one is that
Fig. 4 e Traffic volumes on selected road directions in Croatia in 2013 [21]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
8
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
electrolyzers should work only 8 h per day when electricity is cheap, i.e. during the night. Concerning these facts, and under assumption that each HRS would be of the same production capacity, it was calculated hourly production rate per HRS at the end of each of three phases. Also, it was selected reference electrolyzer with maximum production capacity of 5.5 kg/h, and electricity consumption of 50 kWh/kg. Using these data the number of reference electrolyzers at the site of HRS and needed site electricity consumption was calculated. Results are given in Table 3 in row 8 and 10. The calculation presented in Table 3 lead to several conclusions: For example, during the first phase demanded amount of hydrogen is quite small and one reference electrolyzer per HRS is too large. Much smaller units will be needed. At the end of second phase, 10 reference electrolyzers per HRS could be acceptable, but again at the end of third phase 166 electrolyzers per HRS (i.e. site location) will be unacceptable. Obviously, more HRS locations should be envisioned.
How much PV fields will be needed at the end of the each phase? For that purpose the reference PV field should be defined. The same PV field produces different amount of electricity at particular geographic location. The solar irradiance map for
Croatia shows that Zagreb receives 5.6 kWh/m2 and Split 6.6 kWh/m2 per day during summer part of the year. It is very difficult to calculate how much of this energy can be converted to electricity by use of modern PV technology. For the purpose of further calculation it is supposed that the reference PV field can produce 15%, i.e. 1 kWh/m2 per day if it is located in Split. Under this assumption data in the row 11 of Table 3 were calculated. The cost and covered area of the required PV field is calculated on the basis of published data for one of the biggest PV power plant in Croatia, named Stankovci near Split. It covers 40000 m2 with installed power of 1 MW and costs of 2 million EUR. The rows 12 and 13 of the Table 3 summarize installed power and corresponding costs of the PV field.
Costs of HRS It is very difficult to predict the costs of the HRS. Today it is from 500000 to 5000000 EUR per installation, depending upon plenty of factors. Alkaline electrolyzers in the capacity range of mentioned reference electrolyzer cost about 100000e150000 EUR. But compressor, storage, and other system components increase the price. For the purpose of the further calculations the cost of one HRS is supposed to be 250000 EUR for the first phase, 150000 EUR for the second
Fig. 5 e Proposed HRS site locations at the end of phase 1 (2015e2020) based on the Croatia irradiance map from Ref. [17]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
9
Fig. 6 e Proposed HRS site locations at the end of phase 2 (2020e2025) based on the Croatia irradiance map from Ref. [17].
phase, and 100000 EUR for the third phase. Results are summarized in the row 14 of the Table 3. Total cost of HRS road system in Croatia at the end of each phase is summarized in row 15 of the Table 3. At some places (and especially on islands where the PV field and an electrolyzer are located near each other) it would be reasonable to arrange PV field and electrolyzer that can be easily disconnected from the regular network and switched into the isolated working regime. This would raise the security of supply of local customers to a higher level. Such facts, along with a huge amount and cost of needed hydrogen for a transport purpose in next 15 years, suggests the necessity for carefully planning how to link classic energy sector with road transportation sector.
Conclusion Starting from the hard reality that hydrogen FCEV fleet comes to the European roads, and the fact that Croatia is the touristic destination of mainly motorized EU tourists, required volume of hydrogen to supply the tourist's hydrogen
FCEVs was calculated for three phases up to the year of 2030. Regarding to that, a system of hydrogen production and distribution was proposed. The chosen concept is based on the hydrogen production via water electrolysis. Electrical energy required for that purpose is going to be generated by direct conversion of solar energy to electricity in PV fields located at suitable sites and in suitable areas. HRS location sites are proposed on the basis of traffic volumes on selected road directions in Croatia (mostly approaching Adriatic coast). It looks reasonable to perform a detailed technical and economical study of the proposed concept, bearing in mind the future trends in development of Croatian tourism, PV technology, and hydrogen technology, expected problems related to the fossil fuels as well as the requirements and demand related to the clean air and clean environment. This approach solves not only energy storage problem but GHGs emission problem and clean motor fuel for transportation, respectively. Hence, it is high time for Croatia not only to adopt a strategic decision targeting intense utilization of solar energy but also to put it into practice by linking together scientific, development, and industrial projects with a clear and common objective.
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
10
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Fig. 7 e Proposed HRS site locations at the end of phase 3 (2025e2030) based on the Croatia irradiance map from Ref. [17].
Table 3 e Required characteristics of HRS per site at the end of the each phase.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15
Needed amount of hydrogen, GH2, kg/year 55% vehicles in summer: GH2*0.55 kg/2 months Monthly hydrogen production, GH2, kg/month Daily hydrogen production, GH2, kg/day Hourly hydrogen production, GH2, kg/h (8 h per day) Hourly electricity consumption, EH2, kWh/hour GH2 per one HRS location, kg/h/HRS (3, 7 and 12 HRS locations in operation at the end of the each phase) Number of reference electrolyzers per HRS (location site) Total number of reference electrolyzers at the end of each phase in Croatia Maximum daily electricity consumption for total number of reference electrolyzers at the end of each phase in Croatia (1 ref. electrolyzer per one day needs 2200 kWh), kWh/day Maximum area of reference PV field/m2 Installed power of the PV field/MW Cost of the installed PV field/million EUR Cost of total number of HRS/million EUR Total cost of HRS road system in Croatia/million EUR
2020
2025
2030
1 1141.5 627.8 313.9 10.5 1.3 65 0.436 (3 HRSs) 1 3 6600
2 344700 189585 94792.5 3159.7 395 19750 56.4 (7 HRSs) 10 70 154000
3 827116 454914 227457 7582 10948 547400 912.3 (12 HRSs) 166 1992 4382400
6600 0.165 0.33 0.75 1.08
154000 3.85 7.7 10.5 18.2
4382400 109.56 219 16.6 2356
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
references
[1] Bilgen S. Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;38:890e902. [2] Kalinci Y, Hepbasli A, Dincer I. Techno-economic analysis of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system with hydrogen production and storage options. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:7652e64. [3] Bizon N, Oproescu M, Raceanu M. Efficient energy control strategies for a standalone renewable/fuel cell hybrid power source. Energy Convers Manag 2015;90:93e110. [4] Jain IP. Hydrogen the fuel for 21st century. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2009;34:7368e78. [5] Moore B. Earth’s Surprising Hydrogen Reserves. http:// evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid¼344. A, Firak M. Hydrogen production using alkaline [6] Ðukic electrolyzer and photovoltaic (PV) module. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2011;36:7799e806. A. Autonomous hydrogen production system. Int J [7] Ðukic Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:7465e74. [8] Bockris JO’M. The hydrogen economy: its history. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2013;38:2579e88. A, Firak M. Solar hydrogen power system [9] Motalleb M, Ðukic for isolated passive house. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:16001e9. [10] Website: H2-MOBILITY Deutschland: http://h2-mobility.de/.
11
[11] Brunet J, Kotelnikova A, Ponssard J-P. The deployment of BEV and FCEV in 2015. Research Report. Department of Economics. Ecole Polytechnique; CNRS; 2015. [12] Statistical yearbook of Croatia 2014, year 46, Zagreb. December 2014. ISSN 1333e3305. [13] Zagreb Strategy of tourism development of Republic of Croatia up to 2020. April, 2013. [14] European Commission. HyWays the European hydrogen Roadmap. project report. 2008. [15] ACEA (European Automobile Manufactureres Association), http://www.acea.be/statistics/tag/category/key-figures. [16] Croatia Crude Oil Production by Year, http://www. indexmundi.com/energy.aspx? country¼hr&product¼oil&graph¼production. [17] EU GIS solar energy radiation map of Croatia, http://re.jrc. cec.eu.int/pvgis/pv/. [18] Zovko M. The ten-year development plan of the gas transmission system in the Republic of Croatia for 2014e2023. Zagreb: Plinacro d.o.o.; July 2014. [19] GENI Global Energy Network Institute, http://www.geni.org/ globalenergy/library/national_energy_grid/croatia/. [20] http://www.hrote.hr/default.aspx?id¼82; [03.12.15]. [21] Traffic countings on the roadways of Croatia in 2013-digest. Zagreb: Hrvatske ceste; 2014. [22] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/? uri¼CELEX:32014L0094&qid¼1457084522825&from¼EN; [04.03.16].
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he
Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy Mihajlo Firak, Ankica Ðukic* University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, Ivana Lucica 5, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
article info
abstract
Article history:
In the past 15 years worlds and Croatian economy is faced with the transition from classic
Received 14 December 2015
primary energy sources to renewable energy sources. It is widely assumed that renewable
Received in revised form
energy can be stored in the form of hydrogen. Hence, world is faced with roll out of the
11 March 2016
commercial generation hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles on the road. Anticipating esti-
Accepted 25 March 2016
mated development there is a question when and how will Croatia keep along with this
Available online xxx
global scenario?! One of the possible answers, derived from Croatia position as EU country that draws 13% of its GDP mostly from tourists flooding during two summer months, was
Keywords:
discussed in this paper. The number of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles that could be
Hydrogen
running by foreign tourists in Croatia up to 2030 was estimated. It was proposed hydrogen
Electrolyzer
infrastructure based on photovoltaic technology of solar energy conversion and water
Fuel cell
electrolysis as adopted hydrogen production technology. Installed hydrogen infrastructure
Solar energy
should be incorporated into national grid power system as renewable energy production,
Hydrogen refueling station
energy consumption, and energy storage subsystem.
Croatia
Copyright © 2016, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction The exponential growth of industrial production and transport in the past 150 years was possible made by the utilization of fossil fuels, coal, and oil particularly. At the same time, the exponential consumption of fossil fuels is followed by menacing side effects such as the increasing of global climate changes and pollution of air, water and soil, especially within major industrial zones. Since these natural resources are spent at the rate much faster than their natural renewal cycle, a decrease in established reserves is inevitable. Considering the fact that the world's largest states are just entering the period of economic expansion (e.g. China and India), it is
expected that the resulting rise of oil prices occur in such a manner. Hence, this is going to endanger political and economic stability, not only individual states but worldwide [1]. In an attempt to timely avoid, or at least scale down the effects of such a scenario, in the most developed countries the solution that is looked for is in the implementation of new ways of utilization of those energy resources. It should be used those energy resources available at the level of particular area, state or region under assumption that their utilization does not have harmful impacts to either humans or the environment. These resources are designated as renewable energy sources (RES). Among RES usually counts solar energy, wind energy, energy of biomass, energy of free water flows, wave energy, energy of tides, and ocean heat energy. It is obvious that each
* Corresponding author. ). E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Ðukic http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199 0360-3199/Copyright © 2016, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
2
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
spot on the Earth disposes with certain quantity of RES in which mentioned energy forms have certain shares. The size of a particular share and the stage of development of appropriate technology dominantly determine which form of RES will be the most used one locally. There are a large number of various conversion technologies available for the purpose of transforming RES from the primary form to the useful form of energy. Some of these technologies are very simple, while others are highly complex. Due to this diversity, the use of RES requires larger number of highly educated and much better organized and connected people working in this area. At the same time, this diversity of conversion forms at the end works down to heat, mechanical, and electrical energy that are all intermittent in nature and which are difficult to store, especially for longer periods of time. Energy storage is an unavoidable requirement, being the consequence of the intermittence of primary RES and the intermittence of needs of the final user [2]. This is particularly important for those means of transportation that requires the autonomy of travel on beforehand undefined routes, therefore being compelled to store necessary energy within them. Regarding to that, a demand for a fuel as a form of stored energy or an energy carrier is unquestionable. It should be capable of reducing all forms of RES to a common denominator on one side while enabling standardization that would ensure mass application itself and thereby the economics of primary RES usage on the other side. The solution around which the major world powers look for is hydrogen as the fuel [3] and fuel cell as the device that uses hydrogen with larger efficiency without harmful effects on the environment [4]. When talking about hydrogen and its role as a fuel, it should be kept on mind four important moments: First, the latest news is talking about hydrogen in the free form existing on the Earth. That discovery of natural hydrogen presents scientific boom in hydrogen community but also in the energy sector worldwide in general [5]. Second, although hydrogen makes 90% of the space matter, on the Earth it is largely a part of chemical compounds such as water or hydrocarbons. It means that additional energy is needed in order to produce it [6]. Regarding to this, it follows that the hydrogen production is clean and socially acceptable as much as it is clean and socially acceptable technology used for that purpose. These conditions are also related to the chemical compounds used for hydrogen production regarding to the byproducts such as carbon or nitrogen oxides, solid particles, etc. Third, once it is produced in a clean way, hydrogen remains a clean fuel [7]. Chemical combustion of hydrogen produces only water and heat. It is technically possible to induce hydrogen combustion in an open-air burner, in an internal combustion engine, and in the gas turbines. Fourth is hydrogen utilization in the fuel cells. Should one compare outputs of electricity generated from the same quantity of hydrogen by means of a classical system and a fuel cell system, the unconventional system would prove significantly more efficient. Although hydrogen was already omnipresent in the industrial use for a long time, all previously mentioned elements point to the fact that hydrogen production and its utilization became the focal issue in energy management. Hydrogen is not just an industrial gas in the chemical industry anymore but grown into the energy vector, i.e. the energy link between RES and the final user. And finally, the
expression of Hydrogen Economy was created: a phrase designating global world economy based on hydrogen as the fuel of choice [8]. Hydrogen-based economy is widely considered to be the heir of the economy based on fossil fuels nowadays. The major problem in the introduction of hydrogen into road traffic is the size of the bite. In order to hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) become a mass-used product, the infrastructure for production, storage, and transportation of large hydrogen volumes comparable to the current infrastructure for fossil fuels has to be put into place. At the same time, hydrogen infrastructure will fail to materialize if there would be insufficient number of hydrogen FCEVs on the roads. It means that the development of infrastructure and vehicle production has to take place simultaneously e a task requiring enormous financial investments. All major world countries are engaged in organized research of RES technologies coupled to the technologies of hydrogen production and its utilization in households, industry, and transportation [9]. In EU there are currently 93 hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) in operation and public accessible. Just in Germany H2 Mobility initiative plans network of 115 HRS to be operational until 2017, and 400 until 2023. Even 1180 HRS and 1.8 million hydrogen FCEVs are planned in Germany for 2030 [10]. For example, action plans for that purpose in the USA are systematized in the documents of A National Vision of America's Transition to a Hydrogen Economy e to 2030 and beyond, National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap and Hydrogen Posture Plan. Similar plans for the EU can be found in the reference [11]. In this sense there are not existing corresponding documents of strategy in Croatia yet but legislations for hydrogen FCEVs homologation were set in 2013. However, scientific and development research is continuously in progress from what and where it should be. Since nothing of importance would be achieved by purely declarative drafting of such documents, especially without representatives of the industry and scientific institutions, it is of paramount importance to present within their frame a series of complex and far-reaching projects. These could have long-term positive effects on science, technological development and production. A strategy for such a project is presented in this paper concerning the introduction of solar-hydrogen technology in the road traffic, nautical tourism, and ferry traffic in Croatia.
Main motivation Transition to low carbon development became increasingly important since climate change, economic, energy, food, and other crises in last decade. Due to that energy and transportation sectors are the most important in terms of new investments, potential of greenhouse gases (GHGs) reduction, and urgency to act e since business as usual means locking in to old technologies that are unable for efficient shift to low emission economy. Transportation sector could make even more pressure on electricity generation, since fuel switch towards electricity means more electricity needed. If this electricity is generated in coal power plants, it could lead to even more GHGs emissions than if fossil fuels are used in transportation. This work contributes to more flexibility in power system network to offset production peaks to energy that can be utilized for later use. The year 2014/15 is going to
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
be remembered as the period when the first serially produced hydrogen FCEV (Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell and Toyota Mirai) actually hit the roads in USA and EU. These days there are serious statements of other car manufacturers like Nissan, Daimler, Volkswagen, and Audi that in 2016 there will be much more hydrogen FCEVs on the road. As being touristic and transit country Croatia will be soon faced with the increasing necessity of HRS installation along its traffic roads.
Strategy of infrastructure The concept of solar-hydrogen infrastructure for road and maritime traffic Which are the requirements and possibilities for Croatia not to fall behind the leading countries, such as for example Germany, in this field?! This starts with the fact that Croatia is an important European tourist destination that is yearly visited by millions, mostly motorized, foreign tourists. Second starting point is cross section of currently European states studies and plans that dealt with future introducing of hydrogen infrastructure and FCEVs in the European road traffic system in the next 5 years. Because the thousands of motorized yachts and another vessel are presented at the same time at the Croatian coast and islands and many of them will have on board some type of hydrogen option it will be the additional reason for building of hydrogen infrastructure on islands. It is important to assume that hydrogen FCEVs purchased on the commercial market are appearing on the roads of developed countries. Taking into account the fact that Croatia is earning a considerable part of its annual revenues from tourism (13% was direct contribution, and 30% total contribution to GDP in 2015) including foreign and domestic guests who are arriving to the touristic destinations predominantly by cars, it will become necessary to develop hydrogen infrastructure in Croatia as well. Nautical tourism including yachts and marinas will also require hydrogen infrastructure. In this case it produces a synergy effect with clean environment and noise elimination, altogether adding up to an even more attractive tourist destination. Already costly ferry traffic between islands grows even more expensive with the rise in oil prices, and cheap, locally produced hydrogen will remain as the only solution eventually. On that basis, any delay in this direction would imply direct negative financial effects for the state budget. Other requirements, that are similar to those of other states, are even more important foremost among them being the elimination of dependence on energy imports. This work puts forward a proposal for the option that the infrastructure for supplying road vehicles, yachts, and ships with hydrogen in Croatia be designed in the presented scenario. Solar energy is adopted to be primary RES. Photovoltaic (PV) technology is adopted for direct conversion of solar energy to electricity. PV fields will be located in the southern areas of Croatia and on the islands where the solar irradiance is the highest. Therefore the return of investment is the quickest. Due to the necessity of covering large surfaces with
3
PV modules, areas not suitable for agricultural use would be chosen as sites. In the manner of least visual intrusion it is with strict respect for esthetic standards. At the same time, sites would be chosen to be located in the immediate vicinity of the existing electrical facilities in order for the generated electricity to be delivered to existing power production and distribution system with minimal additional investment. Hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis process. Electricity demand for electrolysis is covered from the grid electricity system. Additional water is collected from the waste water systems of roads and motorways. Sites of hydrogen production and storage, as well as HRS where vehicles are supplied with hydrogen are located along the major tourist traffic routes but at the same time in the vicinity of high voltage switchyard facilities in order to minimize the additional investment in connection and electricity lines. Technical components of the system are broadly sized in accordance with the foreseen hydrogen demand. Economic rationale for such a system is based on the fact that solar energy is free and available everywhere. Its conversion to electricity using PV modules takes place without any harmful impacts on humans or the environment. A hydrogen production via water electrolysis is compatible with the usage of hydrogen in fuel cells, where the electrochemical combustion of hydrogen ends up with just water and heat as the by-products. Hence, it is without any harmful emissions, neither in hydrogen production nor in its utilization. Spatially divided locations of electricity generation and hydrogen production enable the most favorable choice of sites: 1) independent for each of the functions, while the connection to power grid makes it possible for electricity to be produced at times of highest solar radiation; 2) delivered immediately and used anywhere within the system while taking electricity for hydrogen generation at any point of time. In other words, depending on the tariff model it is possible to sell electricity from PV fields during the period of the highest price (day) while purchasing it at the lowest price (night). A touristic season positively coincides with the period of highest intensity of solar irradiance in these areas regarding to its several times over increase in electricity demand and car fuel demand in comparison with annual averages. Anticipating a future increase in oil and gas prices, further reduction of prices of both PV and hydrogen technologies, savings in environmental protection as well as incentive measures of the state in order to encourage switching to RES utilization, it is possible to expect that the described system will shortly become not only economical but also widely socially acceptable.
Main technical components of the proposed concept Required volumes of hydrogen up to the year of 2030 Croatia is a Mediterranean country located on the northwestern part of Balkan Peninsula. Important transport routes through Croatia connect Central Europe and Asia (through the countries of South-eastern Balkans and Turkey), as well as Russia via Hungary, with Adriatic harbours. Croatia
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
4
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
has 4.28 millions of inhabitants and around 1.87 millions registered vehicles [12]. Being a transit country between West and East, Croatia has annually more than 16 million registered cross-border (entry/exit) trans passing vehicles, with around 5.8 million foreign tourists vehicles. Because of its clean and preserved nature, and especially due to attractive Adriatic coast with 1180 island (only 40 of which are inhabited), Croatia is a well-known tourist destination throughout Europe with 12.9 millions visiting tourists in the 2014. This number increased in 2015 for 7% and amounted around 14 millions. At the same time, tourism represents an additional strong burden on Croatian motorways, e.g. in the coastal region there are some of 500000 registered vehicles owned by the local population. Apart of that, 4 millions foreign vehicles annually visit this region with 55% of this number concentrated during only two summer months, in July and August. At the same time, coastal region has around 193000 registered (stationary and/or in transit) maritime vessels such as boats, yachts, and other ships. More than 50% of them are foreign tourist vessels. In the next 10 years this number will further increase, and at least 5% of vessels will use some form of drive that will require hydrogen fuel. This will refer either to ship propulsion or to various on-board devices that will generate electricity for the ships needs. This will represent an additional burden for hydrogen infrastructure in that area. According to the Strategy of touristic development in Croatia up to 2020 [13], in the next 5 years Croatia will experience an average annual increase in the number of tourist arrivals of 3.67%. Based on that fact, it can be predicted that in 2025 Croatia will be visited by 20 millions tourists, and 24 millions in 2030. The main tourists in Croatia are Germans (with prediction of around 21% in 2020). Because Germany at the same time has the most ambitions hydrogen FCEV program, their tourists in Croatia will be first using FCEVs and will use HRS on the Croatian motorways. Based on assumption that the average number of passenger per vehicle is 2.86 it is possible to calculate the number of foreign-registered vehicles in Croatia in the same period as it is given in Table 1. At the same time, it can be expected that next 5 years will represent a period of running-in of the hydrogen FCEVs on European motorways. This hardly corresponds with earlier plans: for example HyWays [14] published in the year of 2008, predicts penetration rate of hydrogen vehicles for passenger
transport to be 1%e3% (0.4e1.8 million vehicles) by 2020. This scenario predicted start of serial production in 2016 that comes to be true but today there is not enough production capacity to satisfy predicted figures. For example, production capacity for Toyota Mirai is 3000 vehicles per year. If all others competitors would have the same production capacity, and if all of them would start production in 2016 with full capacity it will be only 120000 FCEVs on the road globally up to 2020. But these competitors predict their serial production will start as follows: Hyundaie2015, Hondae2016, Nissane2020, Daimlere2017, Forde2017, GMe2020, BMWe2020. Another problem is the necessity of building the huge number of HRS along motorways and roads. In reality it can be expected less than 5000 FCEVs in the EU up to 2020. Today, there are about 250000000 passenger cars in EU without expectation for further growth [15]. That amounts only 0.002% of FCEVs in 2020. Assuming similar exponential growth as was adopted in Ref. [14] it can be assumed 0.5% in 2025 and 1% in 2030. Corresponding FCEVs number is presented in the row 4 of Table 1. Hydrogen requirements for FCEVs were calculated assuming that average FCEVs drives across Croatia 800 km (passenger car or bus). The hydrogen consumption for passenger car adopted as 1 kg H2/100 km and for bus 15.7 kg H2/100 km. Corresponding results are presented in the row 5 and 6 of Table 1. It can be noted that the requirements of naval vessels were not analyzed. It was estimated that these volumes could be covered by a possible overestimate of percentage growth of Croatian tourism. At this point a question arises as to how could Croatia produce and distribute to the final user even these, relatively small, quantities of hydrogen?! In fact, this is only one of many reasons why Croatia should endeavor to keep the pace with the upcoming hydrogen era.
Method of water electrolysis for hydrogen production Only two methods of hydrogen production are today in industrial use: The first one is the reforming of fossil fuels, most often of natural gas, and the second one is water electrolysis. Hydrogen produced by water electrolysis is as unburdened by GHGs as is the primary energy used for generating power for electrolyzers. Hydrogen produced by reforming is burdened by GHGs by the very nature of the production method but is on the other hand two to three times cheaper than the electrolytic hydrogen. At the same time, electrolytic hydrogen is
Table 1 e Number of vehicles in the Adriatic coast zone (classic and hydrogen) and volumes of hydrogen required for year of 2020, 2025 and 2030. 2020 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of foreign tourists to Croatia per one year, millions Number of foreign registered passenger vehicles in Croatia (assumed 2.86 passenger per one car), millions Number of foreign registered buses (1.47 buses per 100 vehicles) Number of hydrogen FCEVs (0.002% in 2020, 0.5% in 2025, 1% in 2030) Number of hydrogen fuel cell powered buses H2 requirements for vehicles, kg H2 requirements for buses, kg Total required H2, kg
2025
1 16.7 5.8
2 20 7
85000 116 1.7 928 213.5 1141.5
103000 35000 515 280000 64700 344700
2030 3 24 8.4 123500 84000 1235 672000 155116 827116
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
Thousands Barrels per Day
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Croatia Crude Oil Production by Year 40 30 20 10
0 1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year Fig. 1 e Croatia crude oil production by year [16].
characterized by high purity (better for fuel cells), while this is not the case with the reformed one. How to produce hydrogen in Croatia? Croatian crude oil reserves are small and oil production drops fast as it is given in Fig. 1 [16] as well as natural gas reserves while coal was already spent.
5
Global reserves of coal, oil, and gas are still large enough for their combustion to instigate a further increase in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. This of course implying further damages caused by climate disturbances originating in burning fossil fuels. Taking into account all the above listed facts and estimates of future events, the method of hydrogen production via water electrolysis was chosen. An analysis of 53 experimental and commercial supply stations for experimental hydrogen vehicles in USA, Canada, Japan, and EU, shows that in 52% of them hydrogen is produced via electrolysis on the site. Electricity for the electrolysis process is mainly taken from the power grid but also and even more often from RES, such as solar energy. This proves that the chosen method is on a pair with the currently analyzed options in the world as well as that the required technical components in a functional form are already developed. Under current technology standard, HRS systems consist of components for chemical water treatment, an electrolyzer, a compressor, and a pressure tank designed to hold daily production volume, as well as a dispenser for transferring hydrogen into a vehicle.
Fig. 2 e Gas network pipelines and solar irradiance in Croatia [17,18]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
6
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Method of direct conversion of solar energy into electricity required for hydrogen production As it was already stated, for the purpose of driving the electrolyzer, a direct conversion of solar energy into electricity using PV modules was chosen. Fig. 2 shows a map of Republic of Croatia with plotted solar irradiance in 10-year average on a flat plane with a scheme of developed natural gas transportation network [17,18]. From Fig. 2 it can be seen that coastal region is the most frequented by tourists. Therefore it is the most intensely burdened by foreign-registered vehicles. It has relatively high insolation and barely undeveloped natural gas grid. A northern part of the country is relatively well covered by natural gas infrastructure, albeit has relatively poor insolation. It should be highlighted that natural gas is for the larger part imported, while the solar irradiance is indigenous. Such a local situation also speaks not in the favor of reforming by natural gas but in the favor of hydrogen production using coupled system of PVelectrolyzer method. This is explained by state that hydrogen
FCEVs are there where the sun is, and not where the gas is! Apart from that, electricity generated during the day from solar energy can help to save imported fossil fuels and to decrease a GHGs emission at the same time. Fig. 3 shows the Croatian main electricity distribution network, including thermal and hydro power plants, on the plot of solar irradiance intensities [17,19]. It is visible from Fig. 3 that the national power grid is capable for serving the purpose of transmission of the solar-generated electricity. There is a huge difference between daily and nightly power production accompanied by different prices of electricity during the 24 h. The night price is twice cheaper than the daily one and this was one more reason for choosing PV fields for the conversion of solar into electrical energy required for hydrogen production. Considering the fact that PV fields deliver electricity only during the day, while electrolyzers are capable of working over the night as well, it gave another argument in favor of the chosen concept for hydrogen production. Even more, another factor in favor of this concept was tariff system for power generation from RES and cogeneration,
Fig. 3 e Solar irradiance and electro-distribution network [17,19]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
7
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
that introduced subsidizing electricity produced from RES. Due to that, Croatia already has about 43 MW installed PV fields, additional 12.3 MW is planned [20]. Local availability of the solar insolation and vicinity of electro-distribution lines determine economy of PV fields. This fact already influence where PV fields are and will be located in the future. The same factors will be of interest also for PV capacity needed for HRS, i.e. ones based on local hydrogen production by electrolyzers. Generally it is better to produce electricity closer to electrolyzers because of smaller electric lines transportation loses. Because of huge amounts of electricity these loses can be meaningful.
Hy-Way towards Croatian coast: possible sites of PV fields and HRS Having amounts of needed hydrogen fuel following anticipated three phase period of HRS installations along motorways and roads (row 8 in Table 1) it can be decided where and when HRS will be located and what capacity should they be. Obviously, HRS should be located along the main tourist traffic routes. The map of traffic volumes on selected road directions in Croatia [21] (Fig. 4) shows what tourists road route might be. HRS sites were selected also according to these 5 assumptions: 1) a hydrogen FCEV has to travel the distance from one of the border to the coast; 2) it remains to stay at the coast and/or on an island for 7 days in average; 3) altogether it is 800 km per vehicle; 4) vehicle travel range between two
Table 2 e HRS site locations in Croatia during the period 2015e2030.
1 2 3 4 5
2015e2020
2020e2025
2025e2030
1 Zagreb Rijeka Split
2 din Varaz Pula Zadar Dubrovnik
3 Losinj Hvar Jablanac Sibenik e Ploc
fueling; 5) HRS should be installed on motorways with the distance of 200e400 km what is suggested value in EU directive [22] during the introductory phase of HRS construction. The location sites of HRS that were chosen following descripted criterions are listed in Table 2. 12 HRS geographic locations listed in Table 2 are presented using Croatia insolation and road maps (Figs. 5e7) following proposed three phases of construction. It is easily visible that HRSs follow the existing traffic routes, as well as the existing electricity grid. Additional PV fields will be predominantly located in costal region because of high insolation as well in the vicinity of electricity network.
The next question is how to calculate the capacity of proposed locations? There are two facts: First one is that 55% of foreign vehicles come to Croatia during July and August. Second one is that
Fig. 4 e Traffic volumes on selected road directions in Croatia in 2013 [21]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
8
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
electrolyzers should work only 8 h per day when electricity is cheap, i.e. during the night. Concerning these facts, and under assumption that each HRS would be of the same production capacity, it was calculated hourly production rate per HRS at the end of each of three phases. Also, it was selected reference electrolyzer with maximum production capacity of 5.5 kg/h, and electricity consumption of 50 kWh/kg. Using these data the number of reference electrolyzers at the site of HRS and needed site electricity consumption was calculated. Results are given in Table 3 in row 8 and 10. The calculation presented in Table 3 lead to several conclusions: For example, during the first phase demanded amount of hydrogen is quite small and one reference electrolyzer per HRS is too large. Much smaller units will be needed. At the end of second phase, 10 reference electrolyzers per HRS could be acceptable, but again at the end of third phase 166 electrolyzers per HRS (i.e. site location) will be unacceptable. Obviously, more HRS locations should be envisioned.
How much PV fields will be needed at the end of the each phase? For that purpose the reference PV field should be defined. The same PV field produces different amount of electricity at particular geographic location. The solar irradiance map for
Croatia shows that Zagreb receives 5.6 kWh/m2 and Split 6.6 kWh/m2 per day during summer part of the year. It is very difficult to calculate how much of this energy can be converted to electricity by use of modern PV technology. For the purpose of further calculation it is supposed that the reference PV field can produce 15%, i.e. 1 kWh/m2 per day if it is located in Split. Under this assumption data in the row 11 of Table 3 were calculated. The cost and covered area of the required PV field is calculated on the basis of published data for one of the biggest PV power plant in Croatia, named Stankovci near Split. It covers 40000 m2 with installed power of 1 MW and costs of 2 million EUR. The rows 12 and 13 of the Table 3 summarize installed power and corresponding costs of the PV field.
Costs of HRS It is very difficult to predict the costs of the HRS. Today it is from 500000 to 5000000 EUR per installation, depending upon plenty of factors. Alkaline electrolyzers in the capacity range of mentioned reference electrolyzer cost about 100000e150000 EUR. But compressor, storage, and other system components increase the price. For the purpose of the further calculations the cost of one HRS is supposed to be 250000 EUR for the first phase, 150000 EUR for the second
Fig. 5 e Proposed HRS site locations at the end of phase 1 (2015e2020) based on the Croatia irradiance map from Ref. [17]. A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
9
Fig. 6 e Proposed HRS site locations at the end of phase 2 (2020e2025) based on the Croatia irradiance map from Ref. [17].
phase, and 100000 EUR for the third phase. Results are summarized in the row 14 of the Table 3. Total cost of HRS road system in Croatia at the end of each phase is summarized in row 15 of the Table 3. At some places (and especially on islands where the PV field and an electrolyzer are located near each other) it would be reasonable to arrange PV field and electrolyzer that can be easily disconnected from the regular network and switched into the isolated working regime. This would raise the security of supply of local customers to a higher level. Such facts, along with a huge amount and cost of needed hydrogen for a transport purpose in next 15 years, suggests the necessity for carefully planning how to link classic energy sector with road transportation sector.
Conclusion Starting from the hard reality that hydrogen FCEV fleet comes to the European roads, and the fact that Croatia is the touristic destination of mainly motorized EU tourists, required volume of hydrogen to supply the tourist's hydrogen
FCEVs was calculated for three phases up to the year of 2030. Regarding to that, a system of hydrogen production and distribution was proposed. The chosen concept is based on the hydrogen production via water electrolysis. Electrical energy required for that purpose is going to be generated by direct conversion of solar energy to electricity in PV fields located at suitable sites and in suitable areas. HRS location sites are proposed on the basis of traffic volumes on selected road directions in Croatia (mostly approaching Adriatic coast). It looks reasonable to perform a detailed technical and economical study of the proposed concept, bearing in mind the future trends in development of Croatian tourism, PV technology, and hydrogen technology, expected problems related to the fossil fuels as well as the requirements and demand related to the clean air and clean environment. This approach solves not only energy storage problem but GHGs emission problem and clean motor fuel for transportation, respectively. Hence, it is high time for Croatia not only to adopt a strategic decision targeting intense utilization of solar energy but also to put it into practice by linking together scientific, development, and industrial projects with a clear and common objective.
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
10
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
Fig. 7 e Proposed HRS site locations at the end of phase 3 (2025e2030) based on the Croatia irradiance map from Ref. [17].
Table 3 e Required characteristics of HRS per site at the end of the each phase.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15
Needed amount of hydrogen, GH2, kg/year 55% vehicles in summer: GH2*0.55 kg/2 months Monthly hydrogen production, GH2, kg/month Daily hydrogen production, GH2, kg/day Hourly hydrogen production, GH2, kg/h (8 h per day) Hourly electricity consumption, EH2, kWh/hour GH2 per one HRS location, kg/h/HRS (3, 7 and 12 HRS locations in operation at the end of the each phase) Number of reference electrolyzers per HRS (location site) Total number of reference electrolyzers at the end of each phase in Croatia Maximum daily electricity consumption for total number of reference electrolyzers at the end of each phase in Croatia (1 ref. electrolyzer per one day needs 2200 kWh), kWh/day Maximum area of reference PV field/m2 Installed power of the PV field/MW Cost of the installed PV field/million EUR Cost of total number of HRS/million EUR Total cost of HRS road system in Croatia/million EUR
2020
2025
2030
1 1141.5 627.8 313.9 10.5 1.3 65 0.436 (3 HRSs) 1 3 6600
2 344700 189585 94792.5 3159.7 395 19750 56.4 (7 HRSs) 10 70 154000
3 827116 454914 227457 7582 10948 547400 912.3 (12 HRSs) 166 1992 4382400
6600 0.165 0.33 0.75 1.08
154000 3.85 7.7 10.5 18.2
4382400 109.56 219 16.6 2356
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e1 1
references
[1] Bilgen S. Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;38:890e902. [2] Kalinci Y, Hepbasli A, Dincer I. Techno-economic analysis of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system with hydrogen production and storage options. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:7652e64. [3] Bizon N, Oproescu M, Raceanu M. Efficient energy control strategies for a standalone renewable/fuel cell hybrid power source. Energy Convers Manag 2015;90:93e110. [4] Jain IP. Hydrogen the fuel for 21st century. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2009;34:7368e78. [5] Moore B. Earth’s Surprising Hydrogen Reserves. http:// evworld.com/article.cfm?storyid¼344. A, Firak M. Hydrogen production using alkaline [6] Ðukic electrolyzer and photovoltaic (PV) module. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2011;36:7799e806. A. Autonomous hydrogen production system. Int J [7] Ðukic Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:7465e74. [8] Bockris JO’M. The hydrogen economy: its history. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2013;38:2579e88. A, Firak M. Solar hydrogen power system [9] Motalleb M, Ðukic for isolated passive house. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2015;40:16001e9. [10] Website: H2-MOBILITY Deutschland: http://h2-mobility.de/.
11
[11] Brunet J, Kotelnikova A, Ponssard J-P. The deployment of BEV and FCEV in 2015. Research Report. Department of Economics. Ecole Polytechnique; CNRS; 2015. [12] Statistical yearbook of Croatia 2014, year 46, Zagreb. December 2014. ISSN 1333e3305. [13] Zagreb Strategy of tourism development of Republic of Croatia up to 2020. April, 2013. [14] European Commission. HyWays the European hydrogen Roadmap. project report. 2008. [15] ACEA (European Automobile Manufactureres Association), http://www.acea.be/statistics/tag/category/key-figures. [16] Croatia Crude Oil Production by Year, http://www. indexmundi.com/energy.aspx? country¼hr&product¼oil&graph¼production. [17] EU GIS solar energy radiation map of Croatia, http://re.jrc. cec.eu.int/pvgis/pv/. [18] Zovko M. The ten-year development plan of the gas transmission system in the Republic of Croatia for 2014e2023. Zagreb: Plinacro d.o.o.; July 2014. [19] GENI Global Energy Network Institute, http://www.geni.org/ globalenergy/library/national_energy_grid/croatia/. [20] http://www.hrote.hr/default.aspx?id¼82; [03.12.15]. [21] Traffic countings on the roadways of Croatia in 2013-digest. Zagreb: Hrvatske ceste; 2014. [22] http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/? uri¼CELEX:32014L0094&qid¼1457084522825&from¼EN; [04.03.16].
A, Hydrogen transportation fuel in Croatia: Road map strategy, International Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Firak M, Ðukic Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.03.199