Hydrogeological inferences from remote sensing data and geoinformatic applications to assess the groundwater conditions: El-Kubanyia basin, Western Desert, Egypt

Accepted Manuscript Hydrogeological inferences from remote sensing data and geoinformatic applications to assess the groundwater conditions: El-Kubanyia basin, Western Desert, Egypt Mohamed Yousif PII:

S1464-343X(19)30036-6

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.02.003

Reference:

AES 3421

To appear in:

Journal of African Earth Sciences

Received Date: 1 December 2018 Revised Date:

18 January 2019

Accepted Date: 2 February 2019

Please cite this article as: Yousif, M., Hydrogeological inferences from remote sensing data and geoinformatic applications to assess the groundwater conditions: El-Kubanyia basin, Western Desert, Egypt, Journal of African Earth Sciences (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.02.003. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Hydrogeological inferences from remote sensing data and geoinformatic applications to assess the

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groundwater conditions: El-Kubanyia Basin, Western Desert, Egypt

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Mohamed Yousif

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Desert Research Centre, Geology Department, P.O. Box 11753, El Matariya Cairo, Egypt,

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E. mail: [email protected]

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Tel. 202-01002739202

Abstract

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Scarcity of water in arid and hyper-arid environments is one of the main challenges that

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comprehensive scientific approach based on remote sensing data and geoinformatic applications

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hinder the development of such areas. Therefore, the main study objective is to introduce a

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remote data-scarce pilot area (El-Kubanyia basin). The measured composite section has thickness

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410 m where the geologic exposures are represented from Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary age.

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The Quaternary aquifer has limited exploration where it was penetrated by 16 wells (depths

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ranging between 23 and 210 m, salinity between 775 and 3142 mg/l), while Nubian sandstone

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in combination with field investigations to extract inferences for groundwater exploration in a

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dye staining thin sections and reveal high capabilities to bear and sore groundwater. The

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photogeologic structural lineaments of El-Kubanyia basin include sets of fracture and/or faults

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does not explored yet. The porosity and permeability are evaluated for Nubian group through blue

(NE-SW, NW-SE and E-W) where two faults are connecting between Naser Lake and Nubian

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group in El-Kubanyia basin. The magnetotelluric and gravity data clarified that the basin outlet is

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a graben filled with post-Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. The integration between the obtained

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geological structures with data derived from remote sensing investigations, are used to design five

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conceptual models simulate the opportunities for recharging the Quaternary and Nubian

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sandstone aquifers and identify the different recharge sources such as; Nile River, Nasser Lake,

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and paleo- precipitation in past wet periods. Finally, a future perspective strategy for groundwater

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exploration was presented.

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Keywords: Egypt, Groundwater, Remote sensing, Geology, GIS, hydrogeology

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1 Introduction

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this vital source is extremely necessary for the sustainable development of hyper-arid areas. The

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shortage of water resources in Egypt with the opportunities for adding deficits in Nile River share

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if other Nile basin countries continue in building dams, is steering the Government to provide any

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additional new water resources (Hussien et al.,2017). Investigation and development of water

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resources under aridity conditions can be considered a global issue which contributes to bridging

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the gap between food and continuous population growth. Generally, water crises are rising with

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an increase in world population and limited water resources (Sultan et al., 2008, 2011), therefore,

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Increasing the knowledge of groundwater conditions and determination of the factors affecting

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has many challenges related to providing water resources to reclaim deserts and establish new

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hydrogeological studies and develop of new approach, is in dire need. Egypt as an arid country

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attempt to overcome some of these challenges through a geoscience approach. In this article,

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remote sensing and geoinformatic applications can be presented as a key to providing data for

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assessment of the current groundwater situation and also working on its future development.

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Currently, multi satellite sensors are operating in space and each satellite is working to provide

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different levels of data about the illuminated objective (Gaber et al., 2015). The hydrogeologic

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investigation and assessment of groundwater using remote sensing data is depending on multi

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layers analysis such as geology, geomorphology, flow direction, drainage networks, slope, land

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use/land cover, and hydrologic characteristics (comp. also Kuria et al., 2012; Yousif et al., 2016).

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The different thematic maps which can be obtained through the geoinformatic applications and

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remote sensing analyses can be used to provide information about the different conditions

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affecting the groundwater occurrences and its recharge opportunities. The groundwater setting of

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a desert plain region which located in the northern west of Aswan City (El-Kubanyia basin), is

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still not well understood and need more investigations, therefore, groundwater potentialities

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remain unknown (Gaber et al., 2011). The main cause for the chosen study area is to test the

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current approach in a pilot area which is believed to have groundwater potential could be suitable

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for future development. Also, the different surface water sources that located in the vicinities of

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communities as well as creating new job opportunities. Therefore, the current research is an

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should be illustrated through geological and remote sensing investigations. The ultimate objective

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is to identify the most promising sites for groundwater accumulation which should be subjected to

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hydro-geophysical studies and test drilling.

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2 Site descriptions

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El-Kubanyia basin is the pilot area that was chosen for the present study to represent an arid,

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remote, data scarce area from the Western Desert of Egypt (Fig.1). It is located approximately 18

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km to the northwest of Aswan City, and from 25 to 45 km to the north of Naser Lake. It extends

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from 32° E to 32° 53’ E and from 24° N to 24° 45’ N, covering about 4412 km2 and belongs to

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the studied basins (Nile River, and Naser Lake, Fig. 1), can provide a recharge opportunity which

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between Upper Cretaceous and Quaternary. The current study presented here clarifies some

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the arid belt of North African. The geological age of the basin under investigation is ranging

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El Gallaba Plain that covered by windblown dry sand and gravelly sand. Although, no significant

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precipitation was recorded during the period from 2000 to 2014, there are some irregular i.e. non

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seasonal rainfalls events can be occurred suddenly in some scattered localities of the basin.

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3 Data sources and methods

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3.1 Fieldworks

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preliminary results from a pilot basin where the northern parts of this basin comprise a part of the

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Egyptian desert that performed through the Desert Research Center, Cairo. The basin and its

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vicinities were investigated in different localities with regard to geology and geomorphology

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where total 80 rock samples from several geological formations, were collected and described.

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The data which obtained through fieldworks on was used with all of topographic and geologic

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maps as well as Landsat images, to interpret and investigate the study area. Hydrogeological

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survey of the current existing groundwater wells was achieved, and total 16 samples were

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collected where their locations (by GPS), pH-values, and electrical conductivity (EC) were

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measured on-site (by Portable Waterproof pH/EC/TDS Mete). The parameters such as depth to

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water, the total depth and identifying of the water bearing formation, were investigated. In

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Field investigation was carried out in January 2018 as part of a geological survey of the

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addition, well logs of the drilled groundwater wells were also obtained to clarify the subsurface

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conditions of the study area and its vicinities.

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3.2 Remote sensing and GIS applications

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area, therefore, demarcation of landforms, identifying the geologic and structural setting, and

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investigation of recharge opportunities, are required. These tasks can be achieved through the

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combination between fieldworks and data extracted from remote sensing and GIS applications.

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In the present study, the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM-C), Landsat-8/Operational

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Land Imager (OLI, 2013, with Pixel resolution 30m), Landsat Geo Cover ETM+ (Enhanced

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The spatial distribution of groundwater is mainly based on the hydrogeologic setting of an

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2A, 2018, with Pixel resolution 10m), provided the basic required data to investigate groundwater

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Thematic Mapper Plus, 2010, with Pixel resolution 30m), and Sentinel satellite image (1A and

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band (through merge resolution tool in ERDAS Imagine) to produce a 14.5 m pixel resolution.

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The derived data from analyses of different multi spectral satellite images was employed for

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visual interpretation of surface geology, landforms demarcation, drainage network analyses,

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identification of structural setting with lineaments extraction and investigation of recharge

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opportunities. The satellite and DEM data were projected (Universal Transverse Mercator) using

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WGS84 datum in GIS for further correlation.

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3.2.1Watersheds and drainage network extraction

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conditions. The different Landst images with 30m resolution are merged with the panchromatic

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was processed through mosaic constructing to export watersheds where hydrology tools of ESRI

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Arc GIS v.10.4 were used to recognize and fill all sinks in the resulting mosaic. Flow direction

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grid was obtained depending on the D8 flow direction algorithm (Foody et al., 2004), drainage

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network was then extracted by calculating the flow accumulation for each cell. Density of

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drainage network was defined by using an appropriate threshold of 300 cells of contributing

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drainage area. The stream orders classification was done automatically through the hydrology tool

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(stream order option) using Strahler method (1957).

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The DEM elevation data (SRTM-C) with ~30m spatial resolution (U.S. Geological Survey)

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3.2.2 Principle component analyses (PCA) principle

component

(PCA)

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mathematical

tool

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uses

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transformation belonging to orthogonal type to change a group of information and observations of

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interrelated variables into a group of values of linearly unrelated variables. It is used as a tool

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in identification of data analysis and for creating a predictive model. The analysis of (PCA) was

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carried out for Landsat-8/ (OLI) to identify the distribution of different lithological units and land

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use. This process was carried out by using ENVI software version 5.4 through Spectral

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Enhancement tools.

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The

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3.2.3 Band ratio statistical

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8/Operational Land Imager (OLI). The statistical equations are provided through ENVI software

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The band ratios were calculated statistically for the color composite of Landsat-

version 5.4 where these ratios were identified as the following; band 4/band 3, band 6/band 2,

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band 7/band 4 (Mwaniki et al., 2015). After obtaining calculated bands as single band, the three

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ratios were composite and showing in RGB.

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3.2.4 Processing of Radar data sets

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combination "VV, VH, VV/VH" and radar data set with polarization VV was used to identifying

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the difference between sediments of study area. The processing was achieved by using through

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ENVI software version 5.4.

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3.3 Structural lineaments investigations

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Radar data sets, Sentinel 1 (S1A, 7.5m / pixel, produced on 8 July 2018) with ratio

Structural lineaments such as faults and/or fractures can be seen in the bands 741 and 754 of

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the ETM+ where the edge detection enhancement through convolution filtering in ERDAS

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IMAGIN 9.3 which depends on variations of digital pixel values of the image (Gupta 2003), were

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applied. Additionally, the geologic map (Conoco 1987) and the previous works of El Shazly et

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al., (1981), were used with the Landsat-8/Operational Land Imager (OLI, 2013, with Pixel

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resolution 14.5m) and SRTM-DEM to elucidate the lineaments (faults and/or fractures) where the

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interpretations of the Landsat images were done by using ERDAS IMAGINE (ver. 9.3). The

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obtained lineaments were overlaid the hill shaded relief map. Spatial analyses were carried out

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GIS where their frequency and density (Kriging grid method) were estimated, and contouring of

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their values was illustrated through maps which were prepared by ArcGIS software. The

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frequency is express about the numbers of lineaments in an area that reveal how it was dissected

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by fractures and/or faults, while density express about the length of lineaments in an area and

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clarify if they are major or minor structure depending on lineaments extension. Therefore, the

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production of two contouring maps for both values is necessary for comparison and investigation.

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3.4 Rocks description and microfacies analyses

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using the ArcGIS 10 software. The extracted lineaments were imported to geodata base in Arc

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A total 12 samples of sandstones rocks were thin sectioned and stained by blue dye. These

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permeability criteria and clarify the microfacies associations. The investigation of porosity and

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thin sections were carefully examined under polarizing microscope to identify their porosity and

permeability under microscope can contribute to evaluate the ability of rocks to bear water and

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reveal their characters from the hydrogeology point of view.

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3.5 Groundwater chemistry analyses

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laboratory of Desert Research Center (DRC, Cairo, Egypt) according to ASTM 2002. These

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analyses of the studied groundwater samples included the concentrations of major cations (Na+,

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K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) and major anions (Cl−,SO42−, CO32−, HCO3−) by ion chromatography (ICS-1100,

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Dionex, Sunnyvale, CA, USA).

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3.6 Subsurface data

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A total of 14 groundwater samples were subjected to chemical analyses in the central

The subsurface data was represented by geophysical and well logs as well as the collected

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data during the field trip. Two groundwater wells with total depths of 355m and 1000m were

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obtained by personal communication where they were operated through RIGWA Company.

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Subsurface succession of one oil well (Al Baraka well no.2) was obtained from D'Appolonia

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(2016) which introduces investigative study of the hydraulic fracturing and seismic activities

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conducted by DANA GAS in Komombo Concession. Another oil well data (Komombo 3) is

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available from Issawi et al., (2016). The works of Roden et al., (2011) and Fat-Helbary and

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Tealb (2002), provides subsurface data elucidated from different geophysical studies.

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3.7 Designing of multi conceptual models

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opportunities from different sources. These models were constructed through the assistance of

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remote sensing application where they are passed along the faults that affected the studied basin.

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The elevation was obtained from DEM; the surface topography was achieved using Global

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Mapper 10 through 3D path profile/line of sight tool. The surface geology was completed from

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the geologic map and the studied surface sections where the thickness of each formation was

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measured. The subsurface data contributes to know the underground succession.

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3.8 Producing of proposed recommendations map

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In the present study, 5 conceptual models were designed to clarify and illustrate the recharge

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Microsoft visual Earth hybrid (pixel resolution 15m) with histogram equalize stretch type and pan

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The proposed recommendation map for future groundwater exploration was created using

sharpening HIS of hill shade layer. This hill shade layer was created from SRTM DEM data

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(30m) to express about the three dimension of the area and to show the two included plains in

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the basin. The sites are determined according to multi-layers analyses and data extracted from

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remote sensing processing.

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4 Results

4.1 Landforms mapping

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highlands and water collector lowlands. The highlands include; plateau and isolated hills, while

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the lowlands include; Nubian and sandy silty plains, drainage lines, sand dunes, alluvial fans and

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depression. The plateau which called locally as Sin El-Kadab plateau represents one of the

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important feature in the Western Desert of Egypt due to its high elevation that exceed 500 m a.s.l.

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and wide distribution. The plateau is formed through geologic structures which represented by

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sets of faults affected its carbonate exposures. The second highland unit is the isolated hills which

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are located in the center of El-Kubanyia basin and called locally as Gebel El Barqa. Its elevation

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reaches to 497 m a.s.l. and consists of succession of shale and limestone. Some of small hills are

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noted in the vicinities of Gebel El Barqa which form butts and mesas landforms.

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Topographically, two plains are recorded as lowlands (Nubian and sandy) where they are

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The area under investigation can be subdivided into 2 main landforms (Fig. 2); watersheds

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respectively. The elevation of sandy silty plain is ranging between 140 and 160 m a.s.l.,

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while it ranges between 170 and 235 m a.s.l. in the Nubian plain. The alluvial sediments

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which cover the sandy plain is thought to be carried by the East-West striking wadi, that

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has age older than the current Nile. One of the most important lowland forms is the

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relatively flat and covered by sandstone and fluvial deposits (sand, silt and gravel)

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from the plateau and flow to the sandy plain. These alluvial fans composed of friable

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sediments and represent weathered products of the plateau (gravels of limestone and

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alluvial fans that recorded around the scarp of the plateau where short drainages originate

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west of the basin where it located between two blocks of the plateau with elevation

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dolomite fragments), with elevation about 160 m a.s.l. One depression is recorded to the

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movements. Sand sheet is noted along the scarp of plateau where it filling the drainage

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lines and composed of fine to medium sand. The main channel of El-Kubanyia basin has

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7th order where many tributaries from different orders are elucidated through extraction of

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drainage systems. This drainage system is mainly covered by alluvial deposits. The

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mapping and classifications of aforementioned landforms have a direct impact on the

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hydrogeologic setting of the studied basin. The lowlands are act as water collector in both

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reaches to 450 m a.s.l. This depression is thought to be formed due to tectonic

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current recharge sources.

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past rainy seasons (Late Pleistocene pluvial periods, Abotalib et al., 2019) as well as from

4.2 Lithostratigraphic discrimination

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The lithostratigraphy of the studied basin can be discriminated through the field

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investigation and based on the geologic map (Fig. 3) and the particular measured composite

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section of El-Kubanyia basin (Fig. 4). Some authors were describing the general geology East

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Aswan area such as ;( Zaghloul et al., 1983; Hewaidy and Soliman, 1973; and Issawi and Osman

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1996, Issawi et al., 2009). The measured composite section (Fig. 4) shows thickness reaches to

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410 m where different types of rocks and sediments are sampled. The exposure rocks inside the

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basin are represented from Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary age. They are included; Abu Aggag

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mudstone intercalations, Timsah Formation (Nubian sandstone, Upper Cretaceous), which is

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made of siltstone, sandstone, and shales with iron ore bed, Um Barmil Formation (Nubian

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sandstone, Upper Cretaceous), that is composed of medium sandstone with claystone

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intercalation, Dakhla Formation (Paleocene-Eocene), which is made up of laminated shale,

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Kurkur Formation (Paleocene), that is mainly dolomitic and marly limestone, Garra Formation

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(Paleocene), that is made up of chalky limestone with shale and marl intercalation, Thebes group

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(Eocene), which consists of well bedded limestone with Nummulite and chert bands. Finally, the

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alluvial Quaternary sediments that represent the youngest deposits are composed of mixture of

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Formation (Nubian sandstone, Upper Cretaceous), that consists of coarse sandstone with

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formation in the study area while the Nubian sandstone is still under investigation.

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4.3 Microfacies investigation

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sands, silts, mud, and gravels. The Quaternary alluvial sediments are recorded as water bearing

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belonging to Nubian sandstone group (Fig. 5). These sandstones are composed of quartz arenites

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and few quartz wackes. The microscopic investigation shows that the quartz grains of Abu Aggag

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Formation are very coarse (1-2mm) to coarse-grained (0.5-1mm), (Figs. 5g and 5i), while in the

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Timsah and Um Barmil Formations, they are fine to medium grained (0.125-0.5), (Figs. 5a-c and

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5d-f). Timsah Formation is mainly characterized by ferruginous cementation (Fig. 5f) which not

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recorded in Um Barmil sandstone. The microfacies association revealed that these sandstones of

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Nubian group are fluvial-marine sediments that are thought to be deposited in a river environment

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with beach contribution. The porosity and permeability criteria are evaluated through the blue dye

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staining where the blue colors are expressed about pore spaces. Primary porosity is not recorded

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while the secondary type is monitored in all sandstones samples. The high porosity average

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percentage is recorded in Um Barmil Formation (Fig. 5a-c) where it ranges between 25% and

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55% of the thin section area, while its average reaches to 25% in Abu Aggag Formation (Fig. 5g-

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i), and decreased to less than 15% in Timsah Formation. The low porosity criteria in Timsah

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Formation is due to the impact of lithologic nature where the presence of iron ore bed and clay

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intercalations provide the ferruginous and muddy cementation that cause decreasing or losing of

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The microfacies investigation was achieved for sandstones samples of the 3 formations

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solution. These diagenitic processes lead to inter-granular porosity but only cementation affect

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negatively on porosity and permeability. In addition, tectonic movements can produce joints and

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fractures that are working as conduit for groundwater and hence increase both of permeability and

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recharging opportunities. The studied sandstones of both Um Barmil and Abu Aggag Fomations

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have various porosity criteria and therefore their capabilities to bear and store groundwater, is

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high.

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porosity. The diagenesis processes are represented by cementation, leaching and pressure

4.4 Structural setting

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The geologic structure is an important factor that affected directly on the groundwater

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the analyses of the photogeologic lineaments and the regional faults in the vicinities of the studied

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occurrences and also affect on the recharge opportunities. Therefore, it will be discussed through

basin that extracted through remote sensing analyses and geophysical investigations.

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4.4.1 Photogeologic lineaments

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that the basin include sets of fracture and/or faults where they have trends of NE-SW parallel to

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the Nile River. Other trends are NW-SE and E-W and N-S (Fig. 6a). The extracted lineaments are

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concentrated in the edges and borders of the basin from each side except the area which occupied

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by sandy plain as it was elucidated from the contouring of density and frequency values (Fig. 7).

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The plateau to the west with its scarp is affected by a group of lineaments due to the lithologic

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nature where it composed of limestone and dolomitic limestone that are very hard and crackable.

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The exposures of the Nubian group are mainly fractured and slightly faulted; where Abu Aggag

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(Figs. 6b and 6c) and Um Barmil (Fig. 6d and 6e) Formations are investigated during field works

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and are showing high density (D) and frequency (F) of lineaments (Fig. 7). However, the alluvial

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sediments that cover the sandy silty plain to the north portion of the basin have the lowest value

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of (D) and (F) that reaches to 0.

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4.4.2 Regional faults and its contribution in recharge processes

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The photogeologic structural lineaments of El-Kubanyia basin were illustrated and clarify

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Historically, El-Kubanyia basin that located in the Western Desert of Egypt is considered the

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downstream of Wadi Abu Sobira (located on the other side of the Nile in the Eastern Desert along

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basement rocks of the Red Sea Mountains that were uplifted during the Miocene age (Roden et

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al., 2011). The regional structural map of the studied basin and its vicinities to the south direction

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up to Naser Lake was prepared (Fig. 8a). The map shows that three faults (F3, F4, and F5, Fat-

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Helbary and Tealb 2002) are connecting between Naser Lake and Nubian group in El-Kubanyia

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basin. These main faults are associated with fractures and can provide opportunities for

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recharging the lower beds of Nubian sandstone. On the other hand, the lineaments processed from

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ALOS/PALSAR data (Gaber et al., 2011) can provide a recharge from Nile River (Fig. 8a).

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Furthermore, the magnetotelluric and gravity data (Roden et al., 2011) that carried out across the

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the same latitude), including an ancient West- and North West- river system emerging from the

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with post-Cretaceous sedimentary rocks.

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outlet of El-Kubanyia main channel (Figs. 8b, 8c and 8d) clarify that this outlet is a graben filled

4.5 Groundwater occurrence and chemistry

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in the region for a long time due to the lack of necessary studies about the hydrogeologic setting.

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Groundwater is located in the region with a free groundwater reservoir consisting of a sequence

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of course to medium sand grained with shale and mud intercalations ranging in thickness from 1

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to 3 meters, and classified as Quaternary aquifer. These sediments are forming the Quaternary

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aquifer are belonging to the ancient Nile deposits where the coarse and fine sand layers interfere

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with clay and/or shale beds. The aquifer is still has limited exploration where it was penetrated by

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16 wells and produce groundwater for agriculture activities in El-Kubanyia basin (Table 1, and

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Fig. 8a). The wells are spreading in several areas according to the distribution of farms; the depth

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to water from ground elevation is ranging between 5.5 m (89.5 m above sea level, well no. 13)

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and 90 m (57 m above sea level, well no. 2), while the total depth varies between 23 m (well no.

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12) and 210 m (well no. 7). The groundwater wells are not widely observed in the study area,

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where groundwater wells are scattered sporadically from one area to another. Most of the wells

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that have been drilled in the basin have not been fully operated yet due to the preparation of farms

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to work in the coming seasons. The discharge from wells is recorded ranging from 80 m3/h to 120

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m3/h where the operation time is about 7 to 8 hours per day depending on the type of crops and

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Groundwater is the only source of water in El-Kubanyia basin and it has not been exploited

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till now; therefore it is necessary to evaluate the aquifer from hydrologic viewpoint and determine

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its hydraulic parameters. This should be having a particular importance to protect this aquifer

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from severe deterioration which can be produced from random drilling and over pumping.

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Preliminary evidence indicates that the Quaternary aquifer in the region has good groundwater

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potential; where this aquifer has a wide geographical area which is representing by the sandy

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plain in the north portion of the basin. Also, the thickness of these sediments reaches to 207 m as

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it was indicated from the oil wells which compatible with the investigated groundwater wells in

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the current study. During the field investigation, one problem was recorded from some wells that

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the planting season. Indeed, it is worth to mention that no detailed hydrologic study carried out

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efficiency of wells and also blocking irrigation networks. This problem is resulted from the water

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is concluded in the exits of fine sands with the groundwater. This case is affecting directly on the

bearing formation that contains fine sand.

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total dissolved salts (TDS) are ranging from 775 mg/l to 3142 mg/l. All samples have TDS less

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than 2000 mg/l except wells numbers 1 and 2 which are located outside the basin catchment. The

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low TDS values are recorded in the shallow hand dug wells (wells nos. from 11 to 15) that were

321

drilled in the downstream portion at the mouth of the valley where these wells are closed to the

322

Nile River and though to be recharged. The groundwater samples in the studied basin were

323

classified as fresh and brackish (based on classifications of LBG-Guyton Associates, 2003 &

324

Winslow and Kister, 1956). The groundwater samples of this aquifer have the order of

325

concentrations Na+>Ca2+>Mg2+ for cations while anions show three orders; Cl−>SO42−> HCO3−

326

(wells from 1 to6), Cl−> HCO3−>SO42− (wells from 7 to10 and well 16), and SO42−> HCO3−> Cl−

327

(wells from 11to15).The groundwater of shallow hand dug wells that are closed to the Nile

328

exhibit symmetry in their chemical components. The increase of Cl− and Na+ concentrations in the

329

majority of samples are due to the effect of the watersheds that are composed of carbonate rocks.

330

Also, the clay and/or shale intercalations increase the salinity in general and the concentration of

331

ions. The alkaline earth elements can resulted through the dissolution of carbonates (calcite or

332

dolomite), and/or cation exchange of sodium (Na+) for calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) on

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The chemistry of the studied groundwater samples was tabulated in Table (2), where the

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clay/shale minerals. The weathering products of the carbonate sediments are producing marine

334

aerosols which can be considered as a common source for solutes where theses aerosols can be

335

deposited over the basin surface, and then dissolved and moved into the aquifer during past or

336

current rainfall events.

337

4.6. Elevation, slope, drainage, and flow direction

338 339

high lands. The importance of this layer comes from that the lowlands are representing the water

340

collectors such as; sandy and Nubian plain, drainage networks and alluvial fans. These low

341

elevation lands have opportunities to be recharged and collect any amounts of surface runoff

342

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The digital elevation model shows the variation in elevation between the lowlands and the

343

reaches to 480 m where the plateau represents the highest value and the outlet of the basin to the

344

Nile is the lowest value (Fig. 9a).

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during the past wet climate times (Pluvial period). The variation in elevation above the basin

346

slope values have the best chances for recharging the groundwater due to the delay of surface run

347

off velocity and increasing of water retention time. The values are ranging between 0 and 10

348

degrees in the lowlands areas which classified as gentle slope. The values between 10 and 20

349

degrees are classified as moderate slope and occupied some areas of the two plains that are

350

adjacent to the plateau. Other values from 20 to 50 are noted in the surface of plateau and around

351

the isolated hill where these values belonging to steep slope. On the other hand, values are

352

varying between 50 and 80 degrees on the scarp and edges of the plateau and isolated hills, and

353

classified as very steep slopes due to the relief difference.

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The slope layer (Fig. 9b) has the same importance of elevation layer where the lands of low

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The drainage network of the studied basin was derived from DEM analyses (Fig. 9c) where

355

this intensive drainage network can provide opportunities for recharging of groundwater through

356

surface runoff that had been happened in the past wet climate. The Saharan shallow aquifers were

357

recharged during the wet climate that prevailed the Late Pleistocene pluvial periods (Abotalib et

358

al. 2019).The correlations between drainage lines (where surface water runs) and structural

359

lineaments (that act as conduit to the subsurface aquifer), is necessary for any groundwater

360

exploration due to surface-groundwater interactions. Radar data sets (Sentinel-1) showing that old

361

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drainage system represents a tributary of the old Nile River penetrate El Gallaba plain where the

362

sandy plain of El-Kubanyia basin represents a part of this huge plain (Fig. 12).

363 364

rainfall. The main trends are calculated through DEM analyses where the flow of surface water

365

runs mainly to the east with 18.7%, followed by to the north (17%) and to the south

366

(15.5%) from the total directions affected the basin. The most noticeable note was in the

367

alluvial fans which have a parallel direction to the south east (green color, Fig. 9d) which

368

reflect similarity in their origin due to alluvial activities flow from plateau and drain into

369

sandy and Nubian plains. Focusing on these fan areas reveal that surface water runs through

370

their deposits which provide chances for recharge these deposits and underlying layers.

371

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The flow direction layer (Fig. 9d) expresses about the direction of surface runoff during any

4.7 Principal component analysis (PCA)

373

analyses in order to correlate the band information. Visual interpretation of the principal new

374

component helps and enhances the rocks classification inside the basin. Principle component

375

analyses (PCA) was created for Landsat 8 and illustrated the distribution of different lithological

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In the present study, the Landsat 8 data was transformed through the principal component

377

deposits that occupied by agricultural and Protonile deposits that composed of Nile silt and sand.

378

The exposures of carbonate rocks are also discriminated where they are occupying the plateau

379

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units and land use as shown in (Fig. 10). Sharp separation was noted between the Neonile

and the isolated hills. The differentiation between the land cover/land use in eastern and western

380

sides of Nile River is very clear along the both banks that confirm the different sources from

381

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which these sediments were derived.

382

4.8 Band ratio remote sensing and decorrelation stretching

383

The color composite Landsat 8 was created with band ratio: 4/3, 6/2, and 7/4 in Red-Green-

384

Blue (RGB) for El-Kubanyia basin (Fig. 11a). These ratios are used for lithological and

385

structural discrimination based on chemical and mineralogical constituents. The calculated ratios

386

showing regional distribution of Quaternary sediments which can be discriminated into 6 types

387

including; Nile deposits, wadi deposits, different Quaternary sediments, alluvial fan deposits,

388

sand dunes and carbonate alluvial sediments. These Quaternary sediments have a special interest

389

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390

the decorrelation stretching of Landsat 8 was processing to enhance color separation with

391

significant band-to-band correlation (Fig. 11b). This layer illustrate differentiate between

392

carbonate, sandstone, sand sheets, and silt. The alluvial fans over the study basin are representing

393

the sediments which have potentiality to accumulate and store groundwater. The alluvial area

394

contains drainage lines that drain from the top of the plateau to the sandy silty plain and are

395

forming fans deposits (Fig. 11c and 11d).

396

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in the current study due to they are forming the aquifer in the study area. For more clarification,

4.9 Wells logs and Radar data sets

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The logs with their lithologic correlation were obtained for two deep groundwater wells, the

398 399

El Gallaba plain, while the second one (W2, Fig. 12) was drilled inside El-Kubanyia basin with

400

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first one (W1, Fig. 12 and Fig. 13) was drilled by RIGWA Company with total depth 1000 m in

401

followed by 290 m of black shale, while in well W2 they have about 80 m of fine to coarse sand

402

with some gravels underlain by 120 m of black shale. On the other hand, the Cretaceous Nubian

403

Sandstone aquifer is not explored yet where only the W2 well inside the basin (depth to water

404

80m as a piezometric head, salinity 1300 mg/l) and W1 well outside the basin catchment (depth to

405

water 75m as a piezometric head, salinity 1200 mg/l), were penetrate the Nubian layers. The

406

Radar data sets (Sentinel-1) clarify the old tributary of Nile River pathing through El Gallabla

407

plain (Fig. 12) where it is assumed that this plain has a great sedimentary succession. This

408

assumption is confirmed by the obtained data of the mentioned two deep wells (W1 and W2)

409

which were drilled in the plain. Well (W1) that has 1000 m sedimentary succession was drilled

410

along the old Nile path while well (W2) has less thickness (355m) and drilled to the east of that

411

path (Fig. 12).

412

5 Discussions

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total depth 355 m. The Quaternary sediments in W1 have 125 m thick of sand and gravels

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The current research presents a new approach for assessing the groundwater condition in an

414

arid data scare area based on combination between different data sources including; field

415

investigation, remote sensing data, geoinformatic applications and laboratory analyses.

416

Aforementioned results indicate the integration between these data sources which provide the

417

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418

recommendations for future exploration in purpose of sustainable development in desert area.

419

Although the obtained results about surface and subsurface settings indicate the current limited

420

exploration of the groundwater, the drainage system, these results reveal that the basin has good

421

groundwater potentiality with presence of its recharge possibility. This concept has a special

422

importance from the applied side in terms of land reclamation, food security and establishing of

423

new communities. Hereinafter, the discussion of the obtained results as well as introduce future

424

perspective of groundwater exploration and sustainable development.

425

5.1 Hydrogeologic and subsurface settings

426

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opportunity for better understanding of the current groundwater occurrences and develop

427

aquifer system is not homogenous where it consists of various layers of sand, gravels and clay.

428

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The obtained results about the Quaternary aquifer from different wells indicate that the

429

which subject to alluvial activation during this stage. Roden et al., (2011) suggested the paleo-

430

drainage system of El-Kubanyia basin started developing during the Gilf System (23–20 Ma) as

431

a result to the Red Sea uplift where the flow was from the east to west and the Red Sea mountains

432

are the main watersheds. A paleo channel which represents a tributary of Nile River was passing

433

to the north-west direction where this ancient river was active starting in the Late Eocene

434

(McCauley et al., 1982, 1986; Issawi and McCauley 1992). The paleo-channel of Nile River was

435

the responsible for forming El Gallaba Plain (Fig. 12a and 12b). These conditions lead to the

436

heterogenty of the Quaternary aquifer in the sandy plain of El-Kubanyia basin which consider as

437

a part of the huge El Gallaba plain. The understanding of this palaeohydrologic system reveals the

438

main source for groundwater of Quaternary aquifer i.e. tributary of Nile River. The investigation

439

of recorded wells clarify that the groundwater is occurred in sand horizons and the aquifer is

440

under free water table. All the wells are ended by clay layer in the base which has thickness

441

+10m. The total thickness of the Quaternary sediments was extracted from the 2 oil wells (Fig.

442

8a) where; Komombo well no.3 indicate maximum thickness reaches to 207 m of Oligocene-

443

Miocene-Pliocene-Quaternary (Issawi et al., 2016), and well Al Baraka 2 shows thickness about

444

210 m of (D'Appolonia 2016). Komombo well no.3 was operated by South Valley Company and

445

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These layers are recorded in wells with different thickness due to the depositional environment

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446

undifferentiated sediments of Oligocene-Miocene-Pliocene-Quaternary are underlain by 25 m

447

limestone of Tarawan Formation followed by 80 m shale of Dakhla Formation. These is

448

conformable with well Al Baraka 2 that was reach to 1294 m depth and started with the same

449

subsurface succession as was mentioned in the previous well.

450

The obtained subsurface data (Fig. 12 and Fig. 13) confirmed that the Quaternary (or Nile)

451

aquifer is formed of graded sand and gravels, with silt that are generally highly permeable and

452

though to be deposited by Nile River and underlain by Impermeable thick shale beds below the

453

aquifer. This shale is acting for groundwater reservations inside these friable sediments. Although

454

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has drilled section about 1281.62 m. The subsurface succession of the well shows that the

455

inhibit the hydraulic connection between Quaternary and the Nubian Sandstone, they may be

456

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the shale which belonging to Dakhla Formation has a considerable thickness that thought to

457

area is renewable where it is recharged partially or fully from the Nile River; therefore the

458

management of this aquifer is necessary required. This is consistent with other studies that were

459

carried out after the construction of High Dam in Aswan. Dawoud and Ismail (2013) stated that;

460

as a result to the hydraulic contact between the Nile River and the Quaternary aquifer in the Nile

461

Valley and its adjacent areas, any variation in water levels and the flow will have impact on the

462

groundwater levels because of the surface-groundwater interaction. Therefore they developed a

463

regional numerical model to assist and simulate this interaction between Nile water bodies and

464

the Quaternary aquifer between Old Aswan Dam in the south and Delta Barrages to the north (for

465

both saturated and unsaturated flow conditions). Their results revealed that the recharge to the

466

aquifer system is about 5.432 billion cubic meters, and that the River Nile is contact directly with

467

Quaternary aquifer system and works as a sink along its length (Dawoud and Ismail, 2013). The

468

period before the establishment of the Egyptian High Dam, the groundwater levels in the Nile

469

Valley and its adjacent were fluctuated based on the water level of the Nile, while after the

470

construction of this dam, the disappearance of the annual flood and with heavy year-round

471

irrigation, groundwater levels remained high with little fluctuation leading to water logging and

472

capillary action (Ahmed and Fogg, 2014).

473

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connected in case of occurrence of deep seated faults. Finally, the Quaternary aquifer in the study

17

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474

Aggag, Timsah, and Um Barmil Formations (Fig. 4). The equivalent of these formations was

475

recorded in oil wells with different names. One of the importance of the present study is to shed

476

light on the possibility of exploiting and utilizing this aquifer based on the obtained results.

477

Therefore, microscopic investigation of Nubian group was carried out and reveals high porosity

478

and permeability of Um Barmil and Abu Aggag Formations (Fig. 5). The structural setting of the

479

studied basin (Figs. 6, 7, and 8) approved the occurrence of fractures and/or faults affecting the

480

Nubian sandstone where the surface of Nubian plain is covered by Um Barmil sandstone that is

481

fractured. This setting can enhance the potentiality of this aquifer and contribute in recharging

482

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The investigation of surface geology indicates the Nubian group include 3 formation; Abu

483

aquifer.

484

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processing. Hence, intensive hydrologic and geophysical studies should be conducted for this

5.2 Assessment of the existing groundwater

486

sides of komombo-Aswan high way where the agriculture activities are concentrated. These wells

487

are only penetrating the Quaternary aquifer with maximum penetration depth reaches to 210 m

488

(wells nos. 7, 8, and 9, Table 1). The existing wells can be classified to 3 groups according to

489

their location and salinity values (TDS). The first group which has TDS between 1000 and 1500

490

mg/l (wells from 3 to 8) located along fractures and/or faults, and drilled on drainage lines, and

491

their sand which bear water is mainly coarse grained. The discharge from these wells 120 m3/h

492

for operation time 8 hours per day. The fractures and/or faults have a main trend NW-SE as it was

493

indicated in Figure (8a). The second group represents by hand dug wells (wells from 11 to 15)

494

with TDS values ranging between 775 mg/l and 1329 mg/l. These wells are located in the outlet

495

of the basin closed to the Nile River. The gravity structured model with smoothed MT data and

496

the conceptual model (Figs. 8c and 8d) illustrating that this area (outlet of Wadi El-Kubanyia) is a

497

graben filled (Roden et al., 2011) which facilitate the flow from Nile to the aquifer and provide

498

chance for continuous recharge and this interpret the most low salinity values of this group. The

499

third group includes 5 wells (wells nos. 1, 2, 9, 10, and 16) with the higher TDS ranging between

500

1714 mg/l and 3142 mg/l. The careful investigation of the structural lineaments correlated with

501

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The spatial distribution of the recorded 16 wells (Fig. 8a) showing they are drilled along the

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the locations of these wells, clarify that these wells were drilled in sites with no fractures which

502

reduce recharging processes. Aforementioned discussion leads to identify the best sites for

503

groundwater exploration as it will also be addressed in next chapter.

504

5.3 Groundwater recharge opportunities

505 506

opportunities for recharging from different sources. The understanding and identification of

507

recharge mechanism is important for sustainability of groundwater utilizing. Therefore, five

508

conceptual models (Fig. 14) are prepared in attempt to clarify past and current recharge sources as

509

follows:

510

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The current Quaternary aquifer and the non-explored aquifer of Nubian sandstone have

511

and vast fresh water reservoir in south Egypt covering about 5,250 km2. This artificial lake was

512

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a) Naser Lake is located south of the basin on a distance about 25 to 40 km and represents a huge

513

conductivity; therefore, seepage of water from the Lake to adjacent Nubian aquifer is occurred

514

(Ghoubachi and El-Abd 2016). Remote sensing and seismicity data (Fat-Helbary and Tealb

515

2002, and Koch et al., 2012) confirmed the occurrence of two faults (F3 which called locally

516

Gebel El Barqa fault, and F4 that called Kurkur fault, Fig. 8a) affecting the Nubian sandstone

517

formations from Naser Lake to El-Kubanyia basin. Therefore, two conceptual models; A-A’ and

518

B-B’ are created along the faults F3 and F4 respectively. The conceptual model along Gebel El

519

Barqa fault “F3” is showing the opportunity of recharge from Naser Lake through the passing of

520

water through Sabaya sandstone Formation to Abu Aggag sandstone Formation and Um Barmil

521

Formation. The Sabaya and Abu Aggag Formations are recorded as aquifers in the adjacent area

522

of Naser Lake. The transmissivity values of Abu Aggag sandstone aquifer are ranging between

523

409 m2/day and 583 m2/day and the hydraulic conductivity attains 2.75 and 10.9 m/day, while the

524

transmissivity ranges from 122 m2/day to 1730m2/day, and hydraulic conductivity varies from 0.9

525

m/day to 11.31 m/day for Sabaya Formation (Ghoubachi and El-Abd 2016). These high

526

transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity can permit the recharge from Naser Lake to the Nubian

527

formations in El-Kubanyia basin.

528

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created over the Nubian sandstone group that characterized by high effective and hydraulic

19

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529

deserts of Egypt were receiving a considerable amount of precipitation during the past wet

530

climate (Yousif et al., 2018). Currently, the Sahara desert have hyper arid environment, thus far

531

paleo-climatic data reveal alternating dry and wet periods in the duration of the Quaternary

532

(Sultan et al., 1997; Brookes, 2010). The time of these Pleistocene wet periods is remaining not

533

strictly defined; however, it is though they have been due to the condensation of paleo-monsoons

534

in warm interglacials (Brookes, 2010) or paleo-wester during periods of cool glacial (Sonntag et

535

al., 1979; Sultan et al., 1997). Drainage system with its high stream order (7th or higher) and its

536

dendritic pattern could not be originated under the arid climatic conditions, it have been generated

537

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b) Although the study area is located in the hyper-arid environments, the Western and Eastern

538

al., 2018). Abotalib et al. (2019) stated that; the decrease of 36Cl/Cl ratios (from 89 ×10−15 to 12

539

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throughout the wetter pluvial periods prevailed the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene (Yousif et

540

reflect that the Quaternary recharge was local and influence the shallow aquifer (Patterson et al.,

541

2005). Consequently, this wet paleo-climate can be responsible about recharging of Quaternary

542

and Nubian sediments during the pluvial time. Accordingly, two conceptual models; C-C’ and D-

543

D’ were designed to simulate the surface runoff above the different landscapes in case of rainfall.

544

They clarify the recharge possibility for alluvial fans, sandy plain and Nubian plain. Compared to

545

the other side of the Nile River in the Eastern Desert, the Quaternary and Nubian sandstone

546

exposures have moderate to high infiltration rates that provide good chances for deep

547

percolation through any occurs of flash floods (past or recent) or surface runoff (Yousif and

548

Sracek 2016 & Mosaad 2017).

549

c) Finally, the Nile River represents a source of recharging for both Quaternary and Nubian

550

sediments. This recharge can occur through the fracture systems that act as conduit between Nile

551

and aquifers taking in the consideration the water level. The conceptual model E-E’ illustrate the

552

direct contact between Nile and Nubian sandstone as well as Quaternary alluvial system. This

553

model is constructed along the fault (F7, Fig. 8a) where this fault can facilitate the recharge

554

processes.

555

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×10−15 ) of Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System along a S-N profile of Egypt was investigated to

556 20

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5.4 Future perspective of groundwater exploration and sustainable development

557 558

Landsat and satellite images, geologic and geomorphologic settings, GIS data layers extracted

559

from DEM analyses, as well as utilizing of subsurface and geophysical data, 54 proposed sites

560

have been identified for future groundwater exploration through detailed hydro-geophysical

561

investigation and drilling of test wells (Fig. 15 and Table 3). These sites are prepared for

562

exploration of three aquifers; Quaternary, carbonate and Nubian aquifers based on multi-layers

563

analyses (Figs. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 and 12). The sites from 1 to 20 are proposed for Quaternary aquifer

564

exploration, they are located in an area represented a part of El Gallaba plain where the radar

565

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Careful investigation of remote sensing data that was derived from processing of different

566

portion of this plain, therefore alluvial sediments are thought to be recharged by the Nile. As

567

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images illustrate that the old Nile tributary (Figs. 12a and 12b) was passed across the middle

568

recommended to avoid this zone during the well designing. The design should be achieved on the

569

base of well logging and sample description to identify the fine sand zone, and then it should be

570

sealed by casing. The sites from 21 to 27 are proposed for exploring the carbonate aquifer. The

571

carbonate rocks in these sites are composed of limestone and dolmitic limestone that are

572

fractured. These carbonate maybe recharged through palaeo-precipitation during the past wet

573

periods. Sites from 28 to 54 are proposed for exploring the Nubian sandstone group; Um Barmil

574

and Abu Aggag Formations where they are composed of medium to coarse sandstone with high

575

porosity revealing their capabilities for storing water. The recharge to the Nubian group can be

576

occurred form Naser Lake through the shear zones of the two faults (F3 and F4) and/or through

577

contact with the Nile River through fault (F7) and sets of structural lineaments (Fig. 14). The

578

sandy plain that is covering an area reaches to 710 km2 and Nubian plain with area about 750

579

km2, should be evaluated for the purpose of agricultural reclamation. Also, proposed roads can be

580

established to provide the basic logistic support for any future development. The route of the

581

roads was determined on the basis of proximity to the proposed sites for groundwater exploration.

582

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mentioned in the results, some wells are producing fine sand with groundwater, therefore, it is

583 584 21

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6 Conclusions

585 586

that should be explored and managed. The current study clarifies that the investigations of the

587

groundwater conditions contribute effectively in its exploration and protection from deterioration.

588

The groundwater is high vulnerable for geologic and geomorphologic settings as well as to the

589

sources of recharge. Therefore this article presents an approach for identifying different factors

590

affecting groundwater occurrences based on data derived from remote sensing analyses and

591

geoinformatic applications in combination with field and laboratory investigations. The data

592

scarcity can be considered as one of the most important challenges that facing the

593

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In arid and hyper-arid environments, the groundwater represents the most valuable resources

594

through the extraction of many data layers through Landsat image processing, DEM analyses,

595

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hydrogeological investigation in desert areas. The current approach overcomes this challenge

596

different conceptual models related to recharge opportunities, studying the subsurface data of well

597

logs and geophysical information, and preparing of thematic layers. This approach can be applied

598

for a vast hyper-arid area, e.g. the studied basin of the Western Egyptian Desert that has not been

599

fully explored yet. The lithostratigraphy and microfacies investigations were employed to

600

determine the ability of those rocks to bear and store water. The staining of thin section by blue

601

dye method facilitates the identification criteria of porosity and permeability of Nubian sandstone

602

groups. The photogeologic structural lineaments map (fractures and/or faults) that derived from

603

Landsat 8 (OLI) and SRTM data, can be considered a very effective layer for identifying the

604

recharge opportunities through faults affecting the geologic exposures in the study area.

605

Accordingly, many conceptual models along these traced faults to in traduce a new conception

606

about the recharge mechanism of different aquifers. Different thematic layers extracted from band

607

ration calculation, principal component analyses (PCA), DEM analyses (slope, flow direction,

608

drainage network, elevation), are also contribute with subsurface data to prepare a strategy for

609

future groundwater exploration. It can be concluded that the introduced multi-method and multi-

610

proxy approach can be used for compensate data scarcity in arid and hyper-arid environments

611

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lithostratigraphy discriminations, landforms mapping, structural investigation, designing of

22

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where remote sensing-GIS integration can provide the necessary hydrogeological inferences and

612

the basic plans for groundwater exploration.

613

Conflict of interest

614

I'd like to approve that my manuscript have not any conflicts of interest.

616

The author is like to express about deep thanks for Professor Dr. Ahmed Youssef (The former

617

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Acknowledgement

618

scientific advises were so valuable to accomplish this work. Also, I appreciate the efforts of

619

Professor Dr. Mohamed Abbas Mabrouk (The former president of Desert Research Center) for

620

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president of Desert Research Center) who provided the wells logs that used in the study. His

621

editor and the anonymous reviewers who provided comments that actually enhanced the paper.

622

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his advises and worthy discussion during this work. Many thanks and gratitude for the journal

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623 624

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Ahmed, A.A., and Fogg, G.E. 2014.The impact of groundwater and agricultural expansion on the

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Abotalib, A.Z., Sultan, M., Jimenez, G., Crossey, L., Karlstrom, K., Forman, S., Krishnamurth,

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Conoco, 1987. Geological map of Egypt, scale 1:500,000, Luxor Sheet, The General Petroleum

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Company, Cairo.

635

D'Appolonia., 2016. Investigative Study of the Hydraulic Fracturing and Seismic Activities

636

Conducted by DANA GAS, Komombo Concession. Doc. No. 15-1053-H1. The report is

637

available online at:

638

http://www.danagas.com/en-us/PublishingImages/Lists/Press%20Releases/AllItems/Komombo%20Report%20En.pdf

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interaction systems in the Nile Valley, Egypt. Arab J Geosci., 6, 2119-2130.

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doi. 10.1007/s12517-011-0483-4

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El Shazly, E.M., Abdel Hady, M., El Ghawaby, M., Salman, A., El Kassas, I., et al, 1981. New

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geological structural lineaments and drainage maps of Egypt, based on Landsat imagery

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interpretation and field investigations, International symposium on remote sensing of

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environments, Cairo, Egypt.

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Dawoud, M.A., and Ismail, S.S. 2013. Saturated and unsaturated River Nile/groundwater aquifer

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Proposed Kalabsha Dam Site, Aswan, Egypt. Natural Hazards, 25, 117-133.

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Fat-Helbary, R.E., Tealb, A.A., 2002. A Study of Seismicity and Earthquake Hazard at the

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arid environment. J. of Hydrology, 292, 48-58.

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Gaber, A., Koch, M., Geriesh, M.H., Sato, M., 2011. SAR Remote Sensing of Buried Faults:

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Implications for Groundwater Exploration in the Western Desert of Egypt. Sensing and Imaging:

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characterize the surface sediments in desert areas: A case study in El-Gallaba Plain, Egypt.

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Remote Sensing of Environment, 162, 11-28.

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Ghoubachi, S.Y., El-Abd, E.S., 2016. Hydrogeological studies for the Nubia sandstone aquifers

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in Garf Hussein area, Western Desert, Egypt. Arab J. Geosci., 9: 596.

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Gupta, R. P. 2003. Remote sensing geology. Springer, Heidelberg

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Hewaidy, A.A., Soliman, S.I. 1993. Stratigraphy and Paleoecology of Gabal El-Borga, south-

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west Kom Ombo, Nile Valley, Egypt. Egypt J. Geol., 37: 299-321.

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Hussien, M. H., Kehew, A. E., Aggour, T., Korany, E., Abotalib, A. Z., Hassanein, A., and

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Morsy, S. 2017. An integrated approach for identification of potential aquifer zones in

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structurally controlled terrain: Wadi Qena basin, Egypt. Catena, 149, 73-85.

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approach. Geol. Surv. Egypt, Special Publ 81.

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Issawi, B., McCauley, J.F., 1992. The Cenozoic Rivers of Egypt; the Nile problem. In: Friedman,

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Issawi, B., Sallam, E., Zaki, S.R., 2016. Lithostratigraphic and sedimentary evolution of the

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Koch, M., Gaber, A., Burkholder, B., Mohamed, H.G., 2012. Development of new water

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Kuria, D., Gachari, M., Macharia, M., Mungai, E., 2012. Mapping groundwater potential in Kitui

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District, Kenyausing geospatial technologies. Int J. Water Res Environ Eng 4(1), 15-22.

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LBG-Guyton Associates, 2003. Brackish Groundwater Manual for Texas Regional Water

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Blom, R., 1982. Subsurface valleys and geoarcheology of the Eastern Sahara revealed by shuttle

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A/B implications for a mid-Tertiary trans-African drainage system. IEEE Transactions on

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Mosaad, S. 2017. Geomorphologic and geologic overview for water resources development:

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Kharit basin, Eastern Desert, Egypt. J. of African Earth Sciences, 134, 56-72.

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Mwaniki, M.W., Moeller, M.S., Schellmann, G. 2015. Comparison of Landsat 8 (OLI) and

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Patterson, L.J., Sturchio, N.C., Kennedy, B.M., Van Soest, M.C., Sultan, M., Lu, Z., Lehmann,

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732

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733

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Figures captions

735

Kubanyia basin is illustrated on the Landsat-8/Operational Land Imager (OLI, 2013) with

736

panchromatic band, showing the studied basin and its vicinities such as Naser Lack and Nile

737

River (Band combinations; 3:5:7, with pixel resolution 15m).

738

Fig. 2. The main land forms of the study area. a) Geomorphologic map of El-Kubanyia basin. b)

739

Hill shade (3D) map of the study area illustrated different geomorphologic units, created through

740

spatial analyst of the digital elevation model (SRTM, 30m). c) View from the eastern side of the

741

basin showing the widespread sandy and Nubian plains with the isolated hill in the center portion

742

of El-Kubanyia, created through processing of DEM in ArcScene software (with exaggeration

743

factor 15).

744

Fig. 3. Geologic setting of the study area, extracted from; a) Landsat images (Landsat GeoCover

745

ETM+) and b) Geologic map of Conoco (1987) overlaid by the locations of measured surface

746

sections (S) .

747

Fig. 4. Composite measured surface section of El-Kubanyia basin represented from different

748

geologic units and supported by field photos. a) Field photo shows stratigarphic succession of

749

Gebel El Barqa. b) Field photo shows Um Barmil Formation (which in direct contact with River

750

EP

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Fig. 1. Geographical location map of the study area with respect to Egypt and Nile River. ) El-

AC C

27

734

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

751

Nubian Sandstone in the study area (Um Barmil, Timsah and Abu Aggag Formations).

752

Fig. 5. Simplified Composite section of the Nubian sandstone Formations (at the right side)

753

showing the stratigraphic position of the rock samples that were represented, thin sectioned,

754

stained by blue dye to clarify porosity and microscopy investigated. (a-c) Microscopic photos of

755

Um Barmil Formation show high inter-granular porosity (P) between quartz grains (Q), the

756

porosity is dyed by blue colored. (d-f) Microscopic photos of Timsah Formation show low

757

porosity (P) due to cementation by iron oxides (IR). (g-i) Microscopic photos of Abu Aggag

758

Formation show high porosity percentage between the poorly sorted coarse quartz grains.

759

SC

RI PT

Nile) overlay Timsah Formation. c), d) and e) Field photos show stratigarphic succession of

760

extracted from multi spectral Landsat image (Landsat-8/ OLI with panchromatic band), SRTM

761

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Fig.6. a) Structural photogeologic lineaments map (faults and/or fractures) of El-Kubanyia basin,

762

photos of the recorded fractures in Abu Aggag Formation. d) and e) Field photos of the fractures

763

affected Um Barmil Formation which is covering the Nubian plain.

764

Fig.7. a) Frequency contour map of structural lineaments of El-Kubanyia basin shows that high

765

frequency values are concentrated on the areas occupied by Nubian sandstone and carbonate

766

formations. b) Density contour map of structural lineaments of El-Kubanyia basin which is

767

matching with frequency map.

768

Fig.8. a) Regional structural map of the studied basin and its vicinities overlaid by spatial

769

distribution of the recorded groundwater wells and 2 oil wells. Faults sets from F1 to F5 are

770

obtained from (Fat-Helbary and Telab 2000), where; F1: Kalabsha fault, F2: Seiyal fault, F3:

771

Gebel El Barqa fault, F4: Kurkur fault, F5: Khor El-Ramla fault. Faults sets from F6 to F8 are

772

obtained from (Koch et al., 2012). The lineaments processed from ALOS/PALSAR data (Gaber

773

et al., 2011). These faults are providing probably controlling groundwater recharge to El-

774

Kubanyia basin. b) Locations of the magnetotelluric (profile 1) and gravity data (profile 2) that

775

carried out across Wadi El-Kubanyia. c) Gravity structured model with smoothed MT data

776

showing subsurface across the main channel, with subsurface model of the western half of Wadi

777

El-Kubanyia from seismic refraction data (Roden et al., 2011). d) Conceptual model illustrating

778

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EP

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data, and Geologic map of Conoco (1987), overlaying shaded relief and map. b) and c) Field

28

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779

2011).

780

Fig.9. Thematic layers extracted from DEM analyses of the studied basin through GIS processes.

781

a) Elevation layer that expressed through DEM of the study area shows that elevation is ranging

782

between 78 and 558 m above sea level. b) Slope layer clarifies the high slope degree (>50) is

783

concentrated in areas occupied by carbonate rocks and representing scarps or edges of the plateau

784

and isolated hill. c) Drainage network with its stream orders. d) Surface flow direction layer

785

shows that the surface water runs into three main directions; to the east (18.7%), followed by

786

north (17%) and south (15.5%).

787

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Wadi El-Kubanyia as a graben filled with post-Cretaceous sedimentary rocks (Roden et al.,

788

different lithological units and land use, in comparison with b) that shows single band where

789

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Fig.10. a) Principle component analyses (PCA) of Landsat-8/ (OLI) showing the distribution of

component is concentrated in band no. 1. A: Surface water of Naser Lake, B: Neonile deposits

790

occupied by agricultural area, C: Protonile deposits (Nile silt and sand), D: Shale and siltstone

791

exposures, E: Nubian sandstone, F: Carbonates with shale intercalations, G: Carbonates with

792

flint bands.

793 794

RGB) covers El-Kubanyia basin, showing regional distribution of Quaternary sediments which

795

can be discriminated into 6 types (Q1-Q6). Where; Q1: Nile deposits, Q2: Wadi deposits, Q3:

796

Different Quaternary sediments which are mainly sands, Q4: Alluvial fan deposits, Q5: Sand

797

dunes Q6: Carbonate alluvial sediments were originated from Gebel Barqa and the plateau. b)

798

Decorrelation stretching of Landsat-8/OLI imagery which enhances color separation with

799

significant band-to-band correlation, and shows the different types of lithology over the studied

800

basin (carbonate, sandstone, sand sheets, and silt). c) Panchromatic band of OLI imagery showing

801

fans area which contains drainage lines that drain from the top of the plateau to the sandy silty

802

plain and are forming fans deposits. d) Google earth TM showing fans that created along drainage

803

lines flowing from the carbonate plateau. e) High resolution satellite image (Sentinel-2A, 10 m)

804

focusing on fans and drainage which are passing between Nubian sandstone, where these

805

sediments have a favorable conditions for groundwater accumulations.

806

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Fig.11. a) Color composite Landsat-8/Operational Land Imager (OLI) band ratio (4/3, 6/2, 7/4 in

29

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

807

where the sandy plain of El-Kubanyia basin represents a part of this huge plain. a) The radar data

808

set with ratio combination "VV, VH, VV/VH". This combination well distinguishes water

809

objects, open soils, moistened agricultural fields, vegetation, and urban areas. Water is

810

represented by bluish dark, bright blue or black hues with impregnations of radar signal noise.

811

Blue fields are also agricultural fields with bare soils, often sufficiently waterlogged. Fields with

812

vegetation have greenish-green colors. The dense vegetation is represented by dark green shades

813

of color. The radar image clarifies the old Nile path. b) Radar data set with polarization VV

814

indicates high contrast between soil texture as it is showing the difference between sediments of

815

El Gallaba plain and other vicinities (Koch et al., 2012).

SC

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Fig.12. Radar data sets, Sentinel-1 (S_1A, 7.5m / pixel, 8 July 2018), showing El Gallaba plain

M AN U

Fig.13. Composite log of deep groundwater well that penetrated different rock units and clarify

817

the subsurface succession of El Gallaba plain. The location of this well was illustrated on figure

818

(12, W1).

819 820

available sources in the vicinities of El-Kubanyia basin. A-A’ and B-B’: Showing the possibility

821

of recharge from the Naser lake through the two faults; F3 and F4 respectively (as they are shown

822

in Fig. 8). C-C’ and D-D’: Showing the chances of recharge in past humid periods where the

823

plateau was receiving palaeo-precipitation that lead to recharge the groundwater in all of Nubian

824

and sandy plains, as well as fan areas. E-E’: Represents the possibility of recharge from the Nile

825

River to the Nubian sandstone and the alluvial sediments. The field photo to the lift is refer to the

826

direct contact between Um Barmil Formation (Nubian group) and Nile River as it was indicated

827

in E-E’ model.

828

Fig.15. Proposed recommendations map for future groundwater exploration and sustainable

829

development, supported by field photographs (c-h). The proposed recommendations are

830

illustrated over a) Microsoft visual Earth hybrid image with histogram equalize stretch type and

831

pan sharpening HIS of hill shade layer to clarify the third dimension of the studied basin and the

832

topographic difference between the two plains and other units. The recommendations include

833

sites for exploration of three aquifers based on multi-layers analyses and data extracted from

834

EP

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Fig.14. Conceptual groundwater models showing the recharge mechanisms from the different

AC C

30

816

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

835

investigations. The both of sandy and Nubian plains are covering a wide area with low elevation;

836

therefore these plains should be evaluated from the point of view of its soil potential. The

837

proposed roads are suggested to provide the basic logistic support for any future development.

838

AC C

EP

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M AN U

SC

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remote sensing processing where these sites should be subjected to detailed hydro-geophysical

31

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Long. (E)

Lat. (N)

Aquifer

Ground Depth to elevation water (m.a.s.l) (m)

Depth to water (m.a.s.l)

58.8

Drilled

132

147

67

80

3142

54.1

Drilled

150

147

90

57

2395

38

34.6

Drilled

100

38

24.4

Drilled

105

37

57.0

Drilled

100

24

37

47.8

Drilled

112

29.6

24

33

1.5

Drilled

210

43

45.9

24

32

2.2

Drilled

210

32

43

44.8

24

31

24.8

Drilled

10

32

44

58.1

24

29

8.6

11

32

50

45.6

24

13

10.9

12

32

50

38.5

24

13

15.2

13

32

50

29.11

24

13

20.9

14

32

50

27.3

24

13

23.8

15

32

50

5.0

24

13

34.4

32 46 11.0 24 24 16 (m.a.s.l): Meter above sea level

53.1

ˋ

ˋˋ

1

32

42

13.3

24

38

2

32

42

32.3

24

39

3

32

54

12.9

24

4

32

54

3.1

24

5

32

53

51.1

24

6

32

53

39.9

7

32

43

8

32

9

Formation

EP AC C

TDS (mg/l)

122

35

87

1010

127

37

90

1447

120

35

85

1437

123

70

53

1733

143

70

73

1517

144

70

74

1517

210

150

75

75

1743

Drilled

170

151

55

96

1714

Hand dug

37

101

9

92

775

SC

°

M AN U

ˋˋ

Quaternary

ˋ

Hand dug

23

93

12

81

1106

Hand dug

56

95

5.5

89.5

1250

Hand dug

56

92

5.5

86.5

1250

Hand dug

36

94

9

85

1329

Drilled 175 TDS: Total dissolved salts

151

60

91

1900

TE D

°

RI PT

Type of drilling

Total Depth (m)

Well No.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

29

7.7

4833

3142

152.9

49.5

876.3

7.6

1465.2

29

7.8

3684

2395

142.6

40.9

652.5

11.6

28

7.9

1554

1010

99.1

35.6

212.8

8.6

0.0

292.8

305.5

201.7

29

7.7

2227

1447

141.2

45.8

354.3

8.8

0.0

207.4

485.3

308.2

29

7.7

2211

1437

140.4

58.1

281.3

9.6

0.0

219.6

473.5

364.1

29

7.6

2666

1733

137.1

61.1

401.6

12.2

0.0

219.6

449.8

561.1

25

7.4

2333

1517

43.6

10.3

533.9

10.1

0.0

414.8

108.5

602.9

TDS

°C

Cation (mg/l)

Anion (mg/l)

µS/cm

mg/l

Ca2+

Mg2+

Na+

K+

CO32-

HCO3-

SO42-

Cl-

0.0

207.4

486.3

0.0

134.2

535.4

944.4

SC

EC Ph

M AN U

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

T Aquifer

Quaternary

well no.

RI PT

Table (2): Chemical data (major elements) of the investigated groundwater samples

8.0

2681

1743

56.5

10.7

595.4

12.4

0.0

439.2

186.0

662.0

8.4

2637

1714

51.8

13.2

588.0

8.1

0.0

427.0

181.8

657.9

11

29

7.8

1192

775

50.7

31.1

162.8

8.2

0.0

183.0

404.5

25.8

12

25

7.6

1701

1106

73.8

58.9

219.7

12.8

0.0

183.0

429.6

219.6

13

27

7.5

1923

1250

89.9

72.1

232.5

11.9

0.0

244.0

544.5

177.1

15

28

7.4

2045

1329

90.0

73.5

254.1

13.9

0.0

317.2

571.9

167.6

16

26

7.8

2923

1900

39.2

19.1

679.8

9.7

0.0

366.0

83.1

886.4

10

AC C

EP

For wells location, review figure (8).

TE D

25 28

9

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

25 to 27

Carbonate

21 to 24

The targeted water bearing formation is Thebes which composed of fractured limestone

Nubian sandstone

7 to 20

Two water bearing are targeted; Um Barmil and Abu Aggag that are composed of medium to coarse sandstone with high porosity reflecting their capabilities for storing water. Timsah Formation formed of siltstone and silty sandstone with shale intercalation.

28 to 33 34 to 41 42 to 45 46 to 48 49 to 52

53 54

Structural setting

Lineaments density (km-1 X 10-3)

Elevation (m.a.s.l)

Slope (degree)

Drainage

Main channel (old Nile tributary)

Wadi deposits and Nile silt

Runs along fault (F7), represents a part of graben

Low (0-50)

110-150

Low (0-10) Very gentle slope

Main channel and its tributaries

Part of El Gallaba plain which is bounded by two faults from west and east sides

Low (0-50)

140-160

Low (0'-10) Very gentle slope

Dense drainage network

Moderate (100-150)

Moderate (20-30) Gentle slope

Short drainage lines drain from the plateau

Low (10'-20) Very gentle slope

Along drainage NE-SW line

High (30-50) Steep slope

Along drainage NW-SE line

Nile silt Sandy plain Quaternary

Alluvial fans

Wadi deposits

No structure indications are demarcated

Depression

Eocene

Structural depression that may be runs along fault NE-SW

Drainage

Paleocene and Eocene

Runs along fault (F8)

Runs along fault (F4) Runs along fault (F3) Located in the shear zone of Gebel El Barqa fault (F3)

Nubian plain

Upper Cretaceous

Runs along huge fracture Located in the shear zone of fault (F7) Located in the shear zone of fault (F7) Located along fracture and/or fault

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The water bearing formation here is composed from friable sand and silt with some gravels and shale intercalations.

Surface geology

160-170

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7 to 16

Quaternary

1 to 6

Landforms

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Water bearing Formation

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Table (3): Proposed recommendations sites for future groundwater exploration with criteria of each site.

High (200-300)

High (200-300)

Moderate (100-200) Low to high (0-250)

450

400-450

Subsurface

Recharge opportunities

Subsurface data was obtained from different oil and groundwater wells, with geophysical studies, clarifying Quaternary thickness from 125 m to 207 m

Sites are located in an area represented a part of El Gallaba plain. The old Nile tributary was passed across the middle portion of this plain. It is assumed to cause recharge to the friable Quaternary sediments.

No subsurface data is available

Although the area is arid, the plateau was subjected to palaeo-precipitation during the past wet periods.

Data from deep groundwater well (W1) stated that, the maximum thickness of saturated zone of the Nubian sandstone was recorded at depths from 750 m to 965 m.

Recharge processes to Nubian sandstone can be occurred form Naser Lake through the shear zones of the two faults (F3 and F4). Another recharge opportunity can be from Nile River through fault (F7) and structural lineaments.

170-190 205-215

Low to high (0-250)

220-235

High (200-300)

190-230

High (200-350)

150-170

Moderate (100-150)

145

Moderate (100-150)

250

Low (0-10) Very gentle slope

Sites are located along and between tributaries of El- Kubanyia basin

The locations of the tabulated sites are shown in figure (15), while locations of faults (F3, F4, F7 and F8) are illustrated in figure 8, and location of well (W1) in figure 12.

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Hydrogeological inferences from remote sensing data and geoinformatic applications to assess

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the groundwater conditions: El-Kubanyia Basin, Western Desert, Egypt

Highlights

New approach to extract hydrogeological inferences through remote sensing and GIS.

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An attempt to employ surface and subsurface data for groundwater exploration, is proposed.

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Enhancing decisions for groundwater prospecting by identifying recharge opportunities.

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Appling a multi-proxy approach for identifying groundwater conditions and its recharge.

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Future perspective strategy for groundwater exploration and sustainable development, is presented.

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