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Hydrological response to the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm
Journal of Hydrology 582 (2020) 124499
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Research papers
Hydrological response to the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm ⁎
T
Hallel Lutzky , Vladimir Lyakhovsky, Ittai Kurzon, Eyal Shalev Geological Survey of Israel, 32 Yesha'ayahu Leibowitz, Jerusalem 9692100, Israel
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
This manuscript was handled by C. Corradini, Editor-in-Chief, with the assistance of Carla Saltalippi, Associate Editor
Co-seismic and post-seismic groundwater response to the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm, along with other teleseismic earthquakes are analyzed in nine water pressure monitoring wells, with high sampling rates (40 sps). The largest event of the swarm (Mw 4.6) caused significant water level oscillations of 0.216 bar (2.16 m) and sustained water level drop of 0.121 bar (1.21 m). The response of groundwater to this event and two other distant large events include co-seismic oscillations, co-seismic undrained sustained change, and post seismic drained change. In addition, the proximity of the earthquake swarm to high resolution monitoring wells provides an opportunity to analyze the changes in the oscillations’ amplitudes of most events. The ratio of the water level to ground motion acceleration amplitudes increased after the Mw 4.6 event, suggesting that the aquifer poroelastic properties have changed. These co-seismic amplitude changes are more sensitive measure than the water level response to earth tides that showed no significant change in the phase and amplitude associated with any of the events. The maximum amplitude of the oscillations is correlated to the amount of drained response, suggested to be caused by activation of a nearby fault and drainage of water between aquifers. The undrained behavior is related to poro-elastic properties changes within the aquifer and depends on the duration of the oscillations. Details of the groundwater high sampling rate can shed light on deformation processes that were described previously as step like changes.
Keywords: Hydroseismograms Monitoring wells Sustained water level change Permeability changes Tidal analysis
1. Introduction Pore pressure oscillations have been shown to correlate with seismic waves and earth tides (Brodsky et al., 2003; Cooper et al., 1965; Kitagawa et al., 2011; Liu et al., 1989; Roeloffs, 1996). The aquifer fluid pressure fluctuates due to expansion and contraction, induced by any stress variations including propagation of seismic waves (Hsieh et al., 1987). In some setups, the borehole-aquifer system shows a large amplification associated with ground motions generated by earthquakes (He and Singh, 2019; Yan et al., 2014, 2016). Permeability changes induced by earthquake have been widely documented (Kinoshita et al., 2015; Liao et al., 2015; Manga et al., 2012; Petitta et al., 2018; Rojstaczer et al., 1995). Changes in permeability are often quantified by calculating the response of the groundwater levels to Earth tides with respect to earthquakes (Elkhoury et al., 2006; Shi et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2015, 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). In these studies, both phase shift and amplitude ratio significantly changed after great earthquakes. However, there was no detectible change in the phase and amplitude in response to smaller earthquakes (Mw < 6). Water level changes induced by earthquake include oscillations and sustained water level changes in response to the propagation of the
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Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Lutzky).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124499
Available online 21 December 2019 0022-1694/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
seismic waves (Ingebritsen and Manga, 2019). The sustained water level changes include short-term undrained behavior (seconds to minutes) that reflects changes in the rock properties (Brodsky et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2001) and longer period (hours and days) drained behavior associated with groundwater flow (Amoruso et al., 2011; Ben-Zion et al., 1990; Chia et al., 2001; Hosono et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018; Shalev et al., 2016a, 2016b). Wang et al. (2009) suggested that S waves may generate shear stress large enough to create damage and enhance the permeability of aquifers. Enhanced permeability can cause either positive or negative changes in the water level depending on the location of the well with respect to water levels and gradients in the reservoir (Shi et al., 2015). Hosono et al. (2019) postulated that sudden groundwater drawdown after the Mw 7.0, 2016 Kumamoto earthquake are associated with water migration through open cracks along crustal ruptures. The amplitude of the oscillating water level in response to earthquakes depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, the distance of the monitoring well from the earthquake, poro-elastic properties of the aquifer, and the geometry of the well (Cooper et al., 1965). The seismic energy density that combines the magnitude and distance is used to relate the variety of hydrologic responses (Wang and Chia, 2008; Wang
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Fig. 1. Location map. Left: water wells (blue diamond) and the seismic station (brown circle) locations near the Dead Sea Rift. Right: earthquake events location and magnitude of the July 2018 Sea of Galilee swarm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Gomè 1 well. YFTH is a strong motion seismic station, with a threechannel Strong Motion Accelerometer (Titan, Nanometrics), and a 24bit digitizer (Centaur, Nanometrics), with sampling rate of 200 samples per second. Waveforms were rotated to RTZ coordinates based on the event to site azimuth, in order to capture the Radial and Transversal components of the seismic energy; these components should dominate the local rock-water interaction at the vicinity of the well. Events’ reference locations were obtained by a relocation process, following the consistent methodology shown by Wetzler and Kurzon (2016).
and Manga, 2011). Weingarten and Ge (2014) showed that for the same seismic energy density, the hydrological response was different depending on the frequency content of seismic waves. Shalev et al. (2016a) showed that the amplitude of the water level fluctuations reflects the poro-elastic properties of the aquifer and these properties might change during the propagation of seismic waves through poroelastic media due to compaction and dilatation. The goal of this work is to show that the amplitude response of the water level oscillations to earthquakes changes after a large or close earthquakes (high seismic energy). We demonstrate this behavior as reflected by the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm.
3. Results
2. Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm
Oscillations of water pressure induced by seismic waves, radiated from events of the 2018 Sea of Galilee swarm were recorded by all nine wells equipped with the monitoring systems (see Fig. 1 for locations). The amplitude of the water level oscillations (hydroseismograms), due to the seismic events, was different at each well depending on the epicentral distance of the wells, direction to the event (event-site azimuth), and on the confinement of the aquifers (Fig. 2). However, only one well (Gomè 1) showed significantly high oscillations, in most cases, an order of magnitude higher than the rest of the wells. Gomè 1 well is located ∼ 0.1 km west of the western boundary fault of the Hula pullapart basin (see Garfunkel (1981) for the internal structure of the Dead Sea transform area). This 396-meter deep well was drilled down to the Kurnub sandstone group that is confined by a 70-meter thick clay layer. The amplitude of the pressure oscillations (hydroseismograms in Fig. 2) in Gomè 1 well were above 0.2 bar (∼2 m) whereas the largest oscillations in the rest of the wells were 0.06 bar (< 10 cm). Therefore, changes in the aquifers properties (sustained effect) is observed only in the Gomè 1 well (see below). Smaller response in other wells is not enough to cause any observable sustained effect. The frequency of the water level oscillations was affected by the poro-elastic properties of the aquifer and by the natural frequency of the borehole (Cooper et al., 1965; He et al., 2017). It is possible to calculate the averaged P-wave velocity dominating the region, by
During July and August 2018, the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) region experienced a seismic swarm, consisting of 103 events with magnitude 1.9 ≤ Mw ≤ 4.6 (Wetzler et al., 2019). The seismicity initiated in July 2, 2018 with Mw = 2.3 event, followed by Mw 4.2 and 4.6 earthquakes (Fig. 1). The majority of the seismicity at the Sea of Galilee is located to the North West section of the lake, about 7 km long, 3 km wide, and up to 10 km focal depths. Wetzler et al. (2019) suggested that this swarm was triggered by enhanced groundwater extraction from several wells located ∼ 10 km west of the Sea of Galilee. Here we study the effect of this swarm on the water level change in distant wells located outside the basin (Table 1 and Fig. 1) Water pressure is monitored using Keller-Druck PA-33X and PA36XW transmitters in the artesian and open wells, respectively. These transmitters have an accuracy of 2 × 10−4 bar (2 mm) and resolution of 2 × 10−5 bar (0.2 mm). Temperature dependency and non-linearity of the sensor are compensated by the sensor. Water pressure is sampled 40 times per second. In addition, barometric pressure is monitored using Vaisala PTB110. Time is corrected continually by Garmin GPS receiver – GPS16X-HVS. All data is collected by Campbell Scientific CR6 data loggers. Seismic data is obtained from one of the new stations of the Israel Seismic Network, in Kibutz Yiftach (YFTH), 3.1 km south-west of 2
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Table 1 Monitoring well used in this study. Well name
Lat
Lon
Well depth(m)
Perforation depth (m)
Lythology
Well type
Gomè 1 (G1) Meizar 1 (M1) Meizar 2 (M2) Meizar 3 (M3) ENHS 1 (EH) EZ 10 EZ 112 SDM 2 (S2) NHKR T-40 (NH)
33.15105 32.74194 32.71499 32.71515 32.59712 31.71235 31.70051 31.04424 30.92977
35.56953 35.69622 35.69607 35.69619 35.10857 35.45907 35.45051 35.36262 35.37834
396 1250 807 336 1000 38 41 500 150
279–392 964–1250 (open hole) 448–807 (open hole) 80–336 (open hole) 880–935, 945–990 27.8–33.6 31.4–36.4 100–500 103–119.3, 127.3–139.3
sandstone and limestone dolostone dolostone chalk dolostone clay, sand and pebbles clay, sand and pebbles clay, sand and pebbles clay, sand and pebbles
artesian confined and open artesian artesian confined and open artesian artesian artesian artesian
resolved by detailed observations except for cases of long period waves originating from tele-seismic earthquakes (Blanchard and Byerly, 1935; He et al., 2017). The Yiftach seismic station and Gomè 1 well are located very close to each other (Fig. 1) at similar epicentral distances (31 and 33.5 km, respectively) and azimuths. For the last six years, the water pressure at Gomè 1 has been showing annual fluctuations, of winter-related increase and summerrelated decrease (Fig. 5a). Three main abrupt disturbances are related to the 2013 Mw7.7 Pakistan, 2017 Mw 7.3 Iraq-Iran, and 2018 Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee earthquakes. All these earthquakes produced large coseismic oscillations and post-seismic sustained changes. The entire JulyAugust 2018 swarm was recorded in this well, including some remote earthquakes (Fig. 5b, c). The wave-induced pressure oscillations were recorded for all events with Mw > 2.5 occurring in the Sea of Galilee,
picking the arrival times on each of the hydroseismograms at each of the wells (Fig. 3); this provides a very reasonable estimate of 6 km/s. The most significant hydrological effects occurred on the 4th of July event (Mw = 4.6), in the Gomè 1 well. Based on the response of water pressure to deviatoric deformation, Shalev et al. (2016b) suggested that Gomè 1 is located within highly fractured rocks. During the propagation of the seismic waves through Gomè 1 the recorded water pressure oscillations reached a maximum amplitude of 0.216 bar (Fig. 4a) and a sustained co-seismic pressure drop of 2.4 × 10−3 bar (Fig. 4b). The rich data recorded in the wells during the one minute co-seismic response and the similarity between the water pressure and the ground motion acceleration data can only be studied due to the high sampling rate (Fig. 4c). In the literature, similar hydraulic behavior is usually reported as step like pressure change (increase or decrease) and is not
Fig. 2. Hydroseismograms of all nine monitoring wells during the Mw 4.6 2018 Sea of Galilee earthquake. 3
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of the six years record from the Gomè 1 well (Fig. 5a). The phases and amplitudes of the tidal responses of the water level were calculated with Baytap08 program (Doan et al., 2006; Tamura et al., 1991). The data were divided into 30-day spans with an overlap of 23 days. Values of the calculated phase shift and the amplitude response of the water level to the M2 tide component are slightly noisy. Variations associated with the Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee and two strong remote earthquakes are below the sensitivity of the tidal analyses and are not recognized (Fig. 7). The impact of these earthquakes on the water level changes is summarized in Table 2. It includes amplitude of oscillations, undrained sustained change during the propagation of the seismic wave, and drained sustained change that continues days to months after the earthquake. 4. Discussion High-resolution water level monitoring systems installed in nine wells provide a unique opportunity to study the aquifer response to remote and local earthquakes. Although the magnitudes of the July 4th 2018 Mw 4.6 earthquake and events of the entire swarm were not large, their impact on nearby aquifers were recorded by all the monitoring systems. The recorded hydroseismograms (Fig. 2) show that the water pressure oscillations were induced by the propagation of seismic waves. Comparison of the seismic and water pressure records (Fig. 4c) demonstrates significant effect of the S-waves, which cannot be explained in the framework of linear poro-elasticity. This theory (e.g. Wang, 2000) predicts that the fluid pressure is affected only by the volumetric strain and ignores any coupling between shear and volumetric components (dilation). Dilatancy – volume change under shear loading, was first described by Reynolds (1885), who invented the term and it was observed in many laboratory experiments including measurements in fractured rocks and granular media (Lockner et al., 1992; David A Lockner and Stanchits, 2002; Lyakhovsky et al., 2015; Paterson, 1978; Schmitt and Zoback, 1992; Schock and Louis, 1982). Skempton (1954) formulated a poro-elastic law in which both volumetric and deviatoric stress components affect pore pressure. Shalev et al. (2016b) modified the original Skempton relation and connect the pore pressure change, ε −ε Δpf , volumetric strain, ε v , and deviatoric strain, εd = 1 2 3
Fig. 3. Arrival time of the first wave in all monitoring wells. Average velocity of 6 km/s reflects the P wave velocity.
but only the Mw 4.6 earthquake produced sustained water level changes. Ground motion acceleration data from Yiftach station and water pressure oscillation at Gomè 1 well, show a good correlation between the maximum amplitudes of these signals. The susceptibility of groundwater pressure to the Ground motion acceleration wave amplitude is roughly constant with small change after the strongest Mw 4.6 event (Fig. 6). The ratio between these amplitudes for two groups of events (before and after Mw 4.6 event) is approximated by linear regression resulting in different slopes: 1.05 × 10−9 bar/(nm/sec2) before the event to 1.08 × 10−9 bar/(nm/sec2) after the event. The accuracy of the regression is very high with R-squared above 0.98 (see Fig. 6). The two strongest events before and after Mw 4.6, with the best signal to noise ratio, provide the most reliable constrain for estimating the change in the slope. Fig. 7 presents the results of the tidal analyses
Δpf = BKu ε v + Nεd
(1) Fig. 4. Water level oscillation at Gomè 1 well and Yiftach seismic station during the Mw 4.6 2018 Sea of Galilee earthquake. A) entire hydroseismogram, B) blow up, showing the co-seismic undrained sustain drop, C) blow up, showing the first seconds of hydroseismogram along with ground acceleration data from the Yiftach seismic station.
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Fig. 5. Gomè 1 well water level time series. A) Water level records in Gomè 1 well since 2013 showing annual fluctuations with increase in the rainy winter and decrease in the dry summers. Three main abrupt disturbances are related to the 2013 Mw7.7 Pakistan, 2017 Mw 7.3 Iraq-Iran, and 2018 Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee earthquakes. All these earthquakes produced large co-seismic oscillations and post seismic sustained drops. B) Response of water level in Gomè 1 to the Sea of Galilee July-August 2018 earthquake swarms showing the post seismic water level changes associated with the Mw 4.6 event. Some teleseismic events were also recorded during this time period. C) Response of water level in Gomè 1 to the events during the first five days of the swarm.
regression between groundwater pressure oscillations and ground accelerations slightly increases (Fig. 6). We suggest here that this change reflects a small change in the poro-elastic properties of the aquifer, and estimate the new N–value and damage level. To proceed with this estimation we use strain perturbation caused by the seismic waves, which is the ground motion velocities divided by the wave velocity of the considered phase, i.e., body P- and S-waves, or surface waves (Shearer, 2009). The largest amplitude of the ground acceleration data recorded for all events at the Yiftach seismic station corresponds to the body Swave phase. Therefore the proxy for the deviatoric strain is the acceleration amplitude, A (a) , divided by the typical frequency, f, and the Swave velocity, Vs:
εd ∼
A (a) fVs
(2)
During the oscillations, induced by the propagation of the shear wave, linear poro-elasticity predicts that pore pressure changes associated with the volumetric strain are negligible. Substituting (2) into (1), we can express N-value as:
Fig. 6. Maximum amplitudes of water pressure at Gomè 1 well versus ground acceleration at Yiftach seismic station. The ratio between the maximum amplitudes of the water pressure and ground acceleration changed from 1.05E to 9 bar/(nm/sec2) before the Mw 4.6 to 1.08E-9 bar/(nm/sec2) after the event.
N=
where B is the Skempton coefficients, Ku is the undrained bulk modulus (Wang, 2000) and N is the shear strain coupling coefficient. Shalev et al. (2016a) related between the N–value and the level of damage of the aquifer rocks around the well and found that for Gomè 1 well, N = 8.5 GPa correlating with damage of 0.9. This was done based on the comparison between water well response and seismograms for the Mw 7.7, September 24, 2013 Pakistan earthquake. The presented results show that after the Mw 4.6 earthquake the slope of the linear
Δpf CA (a)
(3)
where C is the frequency-dependent coefficient that relates strain to acceleration amplitude. Since the magnitude range of the earthquakes is small, we assume the same typical frequency for all events (Fig. 7). With this assumption, using the same C-value in (3) for all small events, the relative N-value change is equal to the change of the slope of the linear regression between the pore pressure to acceleration for the two groups (before and after the Mw 4.6 event):
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The undrained short-term response of water levels is followed by the drained response of water levels and it is suggested to occur because of permeability enhancement of nearby faults that create shortcuts between aquifers. The deformation mechanism that creates the water level increase or decrease during the drained and undrained response are different. The undrained mechanism includes inelastic deformation (Brodsky et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2001) within the aquifer whereas the drained mechanism includes deformation along a nearby fault (slip) that connects between aquifers (e.g. Hosono et al., 2018; Sibson, 2007; Stanislavsky and Garven, 2003). The slip along the fault depends mostly on the maximum force that acted on the fault and less on the duration. We hypothesize, that one or several small faults were activated or dynamically triggered during the propagation of the seismic waves in the area of the well. The permeability in the local activated fault increased and allowed for significant drainage of the water from the over-pressurized aquifer, which is monitored by the Gomè 1 well. 5. Conclusions
Fig. 7. Tidal phase and amplitude variations in water level at Gomè 1 well. The three earthquakes that produced large co-seismic oscillations and post seismic sustained drops are marked as red dashed lines (Fig. 5A). There is no significant change associated with any of these events.
Δpf 1 Δpf 2 N1 = / N2 A (a)1 A (a)2
Water levels from nine wells in Israel show strong oscillations caused by travelling seismic waves of the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm. One well exhibits a sustained water level change in response to the largest event of the swarm (Mw 4.6), similar to the previous two remote teleseismic earthquakes. In these three earthquakes, it is possible to quantify three characteristics of the water level response: Maximum amplitude of the water level oscillations, undrained sustained change of the average water level during the propagation of the seismic waves, and drained sustained change that continues for days or even months after the earthquakes. The Maximum amplitudes of the water level oscillations correlate with the drain changes but not with the undrained changes due to the different deformation mechanisms that are responsible for the drained and undrained behavior. The drained change is suggested to be caused by activation of a nearby fault and drainage of water from this aquifer to a different aquifer with lower pressure. The amount of slip on the fault is related to the maximum amplitudes that increases the permeability on the fault. The undrained behavior is related to poro-elastic properties changes induced by the seismic wave. During the propagation of seismic waves the rocks may be damaged (fractured) whenever the strain is above the yield condition. The increased damage depends on the duration in which the strain is above yield conditions. Since the duration of the Mw 4.6 is much smaller, the sustained water level changes are small as well. The water pressure – ground acceleration amplitude ratio of the 2018 Sea of Galilee swarm was changed after the Mw 4.6 event. The sustained water pressure change and the change in the amplitude ratio are explained by changes in the poroelastic/hydraulic properties of the aquifer. Records of nearby large seismic events are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
(4)
The pressure-acceleration amplitude ratio, separately estimated for two groups of events (Fig. 6), is increased from 1.05E to 9 bar/(nm/ sec2) to 1.08E-9 bar/(nm/sec2). Therefore, the effect that the Mw 4.6 N 1.08E − 9 earthquake had on the N–value is calculated by N1 = 1.05E − 9 = 1.03. 2 This means that after the Mw 4.6 earthquake the shear strain coupling coefficient increased by 3% from N = 8.5 GPa to N = 8.7 GPa. This new value correlates with damage change of the order 4.0 × 10−3 (Shalev et al., 2016a). Only Gomè 1 well showed significantly high oscillations induced by the largest Mw = 4.6 event, order of magnitude higher than most of the wells. Small responses in Gomè 1 to other events as well as responses of other wells even to the largest Mw = 4.6 event were not enough to record any observable sustained water level change and resolve any change in the aquifers properties. Shalev et al. (2016a) connected the damage accumulation (permeability increase) and compaction (porosity and permeability decrease) of the aquifer rocks, induced by the seismic shaking, with the undrained sustained water level change. Their model predicts that for a highly damaged zone, as in Gomè 1 well, the damage accumulation dominates the compaction effect and leads to permeability enhancement and sustained water level drop. This change depends on the amplitude, frequency, and duration of the strain oscillations. The Mw 4.6 earthquake was the only event in the seismic swarm that was strong enough to produce the observable sustained drop (about 2.4 × 10−3 bar; Table 2) due to relatively large shaking amplitude and in spite of its short duration. The presented data show that the amplitudes of the pressure oscillations induced by strong remote earthquakes Mw 7.3 in Iraq-Iran border and Mw7.7 in Pakistan were about five times lower, but the duration of the shaking were significantly longer (Table 2). Long shaking duration leads to even larger undrained sustained decrease.
CRediT authorship contribution statement Hallel Lutzky: Methodology, Conceptualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Vladimir Lyakhovsky: Conceptualization, Software. Ittai Kurzon: Resources, Methodology. Eyal Shalev: Conceptualization, Methodology.
Table 2 Water level characteristics response to three earthquakes. The duration of water level response to earthquakes is defined here as the time since the first wave arrives at the well and until the time when water level oscillation’s amplitude decrease and settle below the value of 0.001 bar (1 cm).
Maximum amplitude Undrained sustained drop Drained sustained drop Duration
Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee
Mw 7.3 Iraq-Iran
Mw7.7 Pakistan
0.216 bar (2.16 m) 2.4 × 10−3 bar (2.4 cm) 0.121 bar (1.21 m) 79 sec
0.067 bar (0.67 m) 5 × 10−3 bar (5 cm) 0.034 bar (0.34 m) 41 min
0.06 bar (0.6 m) 7 × 10−3 bar (7 cm) 0.02 bar (0.2 m) 55 min
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Declaration of Competing Interest
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Theory of Linear Poroelasticity with Applications to Geomechanics and Hydrogeology. Princeton University Press. Weingarten, M., Ge, S., 2014. Insights into water level response to seismic waves: A 24 year high-fidelity record of global seismicity at Devils Hole. Geophys. Res. Lett. 41 (1), 74–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL058418. Wetzler, N., Kurzon, I., 2016. The earthquake activity of Israel: Revisiting 30 years of local and regional seismic records along the dead sea transform. Seismol. Res. Lett. 87 (1), 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220150157. Wetzler, N., Shalev, E., Göbel, T., Amelung, F., Kurzon, I., Lyakhovsky, V., Brodsky, E., 2019. Earthquake swarms triggered by groundwater extraction near the Dead Sea Fault. Retrieved from. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 8056–8063. https://doi.org/10.1029/ 2019GL083491. Yan, R., Woith, H., Wang, R., 2014. Groundwater level changes induced by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake in China mainland. Retrieved from. Geophys. J. Int. 199, 533–548. http://gji. oxfordjournals.org/content/199/1/533.abstract. Yan, R., Wang, G., Shi, Z., 2016. Sensitivity of hydraulic properties to dynamic strain within a fault damage zone. J. Hydrol. 543, 721–728 Part. Zhang, H., Shi, Z., Wang, G., Sun, X., Yan, R., Liu, C., 2019. Large earthquake reshapes the groundwater flow system: insight from the water-level response to earth tides and atmospheric pressure in a deep well. Water Resour. Res. 55 (5), 4207–4219. https://doi.org/10. 1029/2018WR024608.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgments We would like to thank Uri Malik for his important technical assistance. References Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L., Petitta, M., Rusi, S., Tallini, M., 2011. Impact of the 6 April 2009 L’Aquila earthquake on groundwater flow in the Gran Sasso carbonate aquifer, Central Italy. Hydrol. Process. 25 (11), 1754–1764. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7933. Ben-Zion, Y., Henyey, T.L., Leary, P.C., Lund, S.P., 1990. Observations and implications of water well and creepmeter anomalies in the Mojave segment of the San Andreas fault zone. Retrieved from. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 80, 1661–1676. http://www.bssaonline.org/ content/80/6A/1661.abstract. Blanchard, F.B., Byerly, P., 1935. A study of a well gauge as a seismograph. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 25 (4), 313–321. Brodsky, E.E., Roeloffs, E., Woodcock, D., Gall, I., Manga, M., 2003. A mechanism for sustained groundwater pressure changes induced by distant earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 108, 2390. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002jb002321. Chia, Y., Wang, Y.-S., Chiu, J.J., Liu, C.-W., 2001. Changes of Groundwater Level due to the 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake in the Choshui River Alluvial Fan in Taiwan. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 91 (5), 1062–1068. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120000726. Cooper, H.H., Bredehoeft, J.D., Papadopulos, I.S., Bennett, R.R., 1965. The response of wellaquifer systems to seismic waves. J. Geophys. Res. 70, 3915–3926. https://doi.org/10. 1029/JZ070i016p03915. Doan, M.-L., Brodsky, E.E., Prioul, R., Signer, C., 2006. Tidal Analysis of Borehole Pressure: A Tutorial. University of California, Santa Cruz. Elkhoury, J.E., Brodsky, E.E., Agnew, D.C., 2006. Seismic waves increase permeability. Nature 441, 1135–1138 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v441/n7097/suppinfo/ nature04798_S1.html. Garfunkel, Z., 1981. Internal structure of the Dead Sea leaky transform (rift) in relation to plate kinematics. Tectonophysics 80 (1–4), 81–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(81) 90143-8. He, A., Singh, R.P., 2019. Groundwater level response to the Wenchuan earthquake of May 2008. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 10 (1), 336–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 19475705.2018.1523236. He, A., Fan, X., Zhao, G., Liu, Y., Singh, R.P., Hu, Y., 2017. Co-seismic response of water level in the Jingle well (China) associated with the Gorkha Nepal (Mw 7.8) earthquake. Tectonophysics 714–715, 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TECTO.2016.08.019. Hosono, T., Yamada, C., Shibata, T., Tawara, Y., Wang, C.-Y., Manga, M., et al., 2019. Coseismic groundwater drawdown along crustal ruptures during the 2016 Mw 7.0 Kumamoto earthquake. Water Resour. Res.(ja). https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR024871. Hosono, Takahiro, Hartmann, J., Louvat, P., Amann, T., Washington, K.E., West, A.J., et al., 2018. Earthquake-induced structural deformations enhance long-term solute fluxes from active volcanic systems. Sci. Rep. 8 (1), 14809. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-01832735-1. Hsieh, P.A., Bredehoeft, J.D., Farr, J.M., 1987. Determination of aquifer transmissivity from Earth tide analysis. Water Resour. Res. 23, 1824–1832. https://doi.org/10.1029/ WR023i010p01824. Ingebritsen, S.E., Manga, M., 2019. Earthquake Hydrogeology. Water Resour. Res. https://doi. org/10.1029/2019WR025341. Kinoshita, C., Kano, Y., Ito, H., 2015. Shallow crustal permeability enhancement in central Japan due to the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42 (3), 773–780. https:// doi.org/10.1002/2014GL062792. Kitagawa, Y., Itaba, S., Matsumoto, N., Koizumi, N., 2011. Frequency characteristics of the response of water pressure in a closed well to volumetric strain in the high-frequency domain. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 116, B08301. https://doi.org/10.1029/ 2010jb007794. Liao, X., Wang, C.-Y., Liu, C.-P., 2015. Disruption of groundwater systems by earthquakes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42 (22), 9758–9763. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL066394. Liu, C.-Y., Chia, Y., Chuang, P.-Y., Chiu, Y.-C., Tseng, T.-L., 2018. Impacts of hydrogeological characteristics on groundwater-level changes induced by earthquakes. Hydrogeol. J. 26 (2), 451–465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1684-z. Liu, L.-B., Roeloffs, E., Zheng, X.-Y., 1989. Seismically induced water level fluctuations in the Wali Well, Beijing, China. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 94, 9453–9462. https://doi.org/10. 1029/JB094iB07p09453. Lockner, D.A., Byerlee, J.D., Kuksenko, V., Ponomarev, A., Sidorin, A., 1992. Chapter 1 Observations of Quasistatic Fault Growth from Acoustic Emissions. Int. Geophys. 51, 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-6142(08)62813-2. Lockner, David A, Stanchits, S.A., 2002. Undrained poroelastic response of sandstones to deviatoric stress change. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 107, 2353. https://doi.org/10.1029/ 2001jb001460. Lyakhovsky, V., Zhu, W., Shalev, E., 2015. Visco-poroelastic damage model for brittle-ductile failure of porous rocks. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth. https://doi.org/10.1002/ 2014JB011805. Manga, M., Beresnev, I., Brodsky, E.E., Elkhoury, J.E., Elsworth, D., Ingebritsen, S.E., et al., 2012. Changes in permeability caused by transient stresses: Field observations,
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Research papers
Hydrological response to the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm ⁎
T
Hallel Lutzky , Vladimir Lyakhovsky, Ittai Kurzon, Eyal Shalev Geological Survey of Israel, 32 Yesha'ayahu Leibowitz, Jerusalem 9692100, Israel
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
This manuscript was handled by C. Corradini, Editor-in-Chief, with the assistance of Carla Saltalippi, Associate Editor
Co-seismic and post-seismic groundwater response to the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm, along with other teleseismic earthquakes are analyzed in nine water pressure monitoring wells, with high sampling rates (40 sps). The largest event of the swarm (Mw 4.6) caused significant water level oscillations of 0.216 bar (2.16 m) and sustained water level drop of 0.121 bar (1.21 m). The response of groundwater to this event and two other distant large events include co-seismic oscillations, co-seismic undrained sustained change, and post seismic drained change. In addition, the proximity of the earthquake swarm to high resolution monitoring wells provides an opportunity to analyze the changes in the oscillations’ amplitudes of most events. The ratio of the water level to ground motion acceleration amplitudes increased after the Mw 4.6 event, suggesting that the aquifer poroelastic properties have changed. These co-seismic amplitude changes are more sensitive measure than the water level response to earth tides that showed no significant change in the phase and amplitude associated with any of the events. The maximum amplitude of the oscillations is correlated to the amount of drained response, suggested to be caused by activation of a nearby fault and drainage of water between aquifers. The undrained behavior is related to poro-elastic properties changes within the aquifer and depends on the duration of the oscillations. Details of the groundwater high sampling rate can shed light on deformation processes that were described previously as step like changes.
Keywords: Hydroseismograms Monitoring wells Sustained water level change Permeability changes Tidal analysis
1. Introduction Pore pressure oscillations have been shown to correlate with seismic waves and earth tides (Brodsky et al., 2003; Cooper et al., 1965; Kitagawa et al., 2011; Liu et al., 1989; Roeloffs, 1996). The aquifer fluid pressure fluctuates due to expansion and contraction, induced by any stress variations including propagation of seismic waves (Hsieh et al., 1987). In some setups, the borehole-aquifer system shows a large amplification associated with ground motions generated by earthquakes (He and Singh, 2019; Yan et al., 2014, 2016). Permeability changes induced by earthquake have been widely documented (Kinoshita et al., 2015; Liao et al., 2015; Manga et al., 2012; Petitta et al., 2018; Rojstaczer et al., 1995). Changes in permeability are often quantified by calculating the response of the groundwater levels to Earth tides with respect to earthquakes (Elkhoury et al., 2006; Shi et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2015, 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). In these studies, both phase shift and amplitude ratio significantly changed after great earthquakes. However, there was no detectible change in the phase and amplitude in response to smaller earthquakes (Mw < 6). Water level changes induced by earthquake include oscillations and sustained water level changes in response to the propagation of the
⁎
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Lutzky).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124499
Available online 21 December 2019 0022-1694/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
seismic waves (Ingebritsen and Manga, 2019). The sustained water level changes include short-term undrained behavior (seconds to minutes) that reflects changes in the rock properties (Brodsky et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2001) and longer period (hours and days) drained behavior associated with groundwater flow (Amoruso et al., 2011; Ben-Zion et al., 1990; Chia et al., 2001; Hosono et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018; Shalev et al., 2016a, 2016b). Wang et al. (2009) suggested that S waves may generate shear stress large enough to create damage and enhance the permeability of aquifers. Enhanced permeability can cause either positive or negative changes in the water level depending on the location of the well with respect to water levels and gradients in the reservoir (Shi et al., 2015). Hosono et al. (2019) postulated that sudden groundwater drawdown after the Mw 7.0, 2016 Kumamoto earthquake are associated with water migration through open cracks along crustal ruptures. The amplitude of the oscillating water level in response to earthquakes depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, the distance of the monitoring well from the earthquake, poro-elastic properties of the aquifer, and the geometry of the well (Cooper et al., 1965). The seismic energy density that combines the magnitude and distance is used to relate the variety of hydrologic responses (Wang and Chia, 2008; Wang
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Fig. 1. Location map. Left: water wells (blue diamond) and the seismic station (brown circle) locations near the Dead Sea Rift. Right: earthquake events location and magnitude of the July 2018 Sea of Galilee swarm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Gomè 1 well. YFTH is a strong motion seismic station, with a threechannel Strong Motion Accelerometer (Titan, Nanometrics), and a 24bit digitizer (Centaur, Nanometrics), with sampling rate of 200 samples per second. Waveforms were rotated to RTZ coordinates based on the event to site azimuth, in order to capture the Radial and Transversal components of the seismic energy; these components should dominate the local rock-water interaction at the vicinity of the well. Events’ reference locations were obtained by a relocation process, following the consistent methodology shown by Wetzler and Kurzon (2016).
and Manga, 2011). Weingarten and Ge (2014) showed that for the same seismic energy density, the hydrological response was different depending on the frequency content of seismic waves. Shalev et al. (2016a) showed that the amplitude of the water level fluctuations reflects the poro-elastic properties of the aquifer and these properties might change during the propagation of seismic waves through poroelastic media due to compaction and dilatation. The goal of this work is to show that the amplitude response of the water level oscillations to earthquakes changes after a large or close earthquakes (high seismic energy). We demonstrate this behavior as reflected by the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm.
3. Results
2. Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm
Oscillations of water pressure induced by seismic waves, radiated from events of the 2018 Sea of Galilee swarm were recorded by all nine wells equipped with the monitoring systems (see Fig. 1 for locations). The amplitude of the water level oscillations (hydroseismograms), due to the seismic events, was different at each well depending on the epicentral distance of the wells, direction to the event (event-site azimuth), and on the confinement of the aquifers (Fig. 2). However, only one well (Gomè 1) showed significantly high oscillations, in most cases, an order of magnitude higher than the rest of the wells. Gomè 1 well is located ∼ 0.1 km west of the western boundary fault of the Hula pullapart basin (see Garfunkel (1981) for the internal structure of the Dead Sea transform area). This 396-meter deep well was drilled down to the Kurnub sandstone group that is confined by a 70-meter thick clay layer. The amplitude of the pressure oscillations (hydroseismograms in Fig. 2) in Gomè 1 well were above 0.2 bar (∼2 m) whereas the largest oscillations in the rest of the wells were 0.06 bar (< 10 cm). Therefore, changes in the aquifers properties (sustained effect) is observed only in the Gomè 1 well (see below). Smaller response in other wells is not enough to cause any observable sustained effect. The frequency of the water level oscillations was affected by the poro-elastic properties of the aquifer and by the natural frequency of the borehole (Cooper et al., 1965; He et al., 2017). It is possible to calculate the averaged P-wave velocity dominating the region, by
During July and August 2018, the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) region experienced a seismic swarm, consisting of 103 events with magnitude 1.9 ≤ Mw ≤ 4.6 (Wetzler et al., 2019). The seismicity initiated in July 2, 2018 with Mw = 2.3 event, followed by Mw 4.2 and 4.6 earthquakes (Fig. 1). The majority of the seismicity at the Sea of Galilee is located to the North West section of the lake, about 7 km long, 3 km wide, and up to 10 km focal depths. Wetzler et al. (2019) suggested that this swarm was triggered by enhanced groundwater extraction from several wells located ∼ 10 km west of the Sea of Galilee. Here we study the effect of this swarm on the water level change in distant wells located outside the basin (Table 1 and Fig. 1) Water pressure is monitored using Keller-Druck PA-33X and PA36XW transmitters in the artesian and open wells, respectively. These transmitters have an accuracy of 2 × 10−4 bar (2 mm) and resolution of 2 × 10−5 bar (0.2 mm). Temperature dependency and non-linearity of the sensor are compensated by the sensor. Water pressure is sampled 40 times per second. In addition, barometric pressure is monitored using Vaisala PTB110. Time is corrected continually by Garmin GPS receiver – GPS16X-HVS. All data is collected by Campbell Scientific CR6 data loggers. Seismic data is obtained from one of the new stations of the Israel Seismic Network, in Kibutz Yiftach (YFTH), 3.1 km south-west of 2
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Table 1 Monitoring well used in this study. Well name
Lat
Lon
Well depth(m)
Perforation depth (m)
Lythology
Well type
Gomè 1 (G1) Meizar 1 (M1) Meizar 2 (M2) Meizar 3 (M3) ENHS 1 (EH) EZ 10 EZ 112 SDM 2 (S2) NHKR T-40 (NH)
33.15105 32.74194 32.71499 32.71515 32.59712 31.71235 31.70051 31.04424 30.92977
35.56953 35.69622 35.69607 35.69619 35.10857 35.45907 35.45051 35.36262 35.37834
396 1250 807 336 1000 38 41 500 150
279–392 964–1250 (open hole) 448–807 (open hole) 80–336 (open hole) 880–935, 945–990 27.8–33.6 31.4–36.4 100–500 103–119.3, 127.3–139.3
sandstone and limestone dolostone dolostone chalk dolostone clay, sand and pebbles clay, sand and pebbles clay, sand and pebbles clay, sand and pebbles
artesian confined and open artesian artesian confined and open artesian artesian artesian artesian
resolved by detailed observations except for cases of long period waves originating from tele-seismic earthquakes (Blanchard and Byerly, 1935; He et al., 2017). The Yiftach seismic station and Gomè 1 well are located very close to each other (Fig. 1) at similar epicentral distances (31 and 33.5 km, respectively) and azimuths. For the last six years, the water pressure at Gomè 1 has been showing annual fluctuations, of winter-related increase and summerrelated decrease (Fig. 5a). Three main abrupt disturbances are related to the 2013 Mw7.7 Pakistan, 2017 Mw 7.3 Iraq-Iran, and 2018 Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee earthquakes. All these earthquakes produced large coseismic oscillations and post-seismic sustained changes. The entire JulyAugust 2018 swarm was recorded in this well, including some remote earthquakes (Fig. 5b, c). The wave-induced pressure oscillations were recorded for all events with Mw > 2.5 occurring in the Sea of Galilee,
picking the arrival times on each of the hydroseismograms at each of the wells (Fig. 3); this provides a very reasonable estimate of 6 km/s. The most significant hydrological effects occurred on the 4th of July event (Mw = 4.6), in the Gomè 1 well. Based on the response of water pressure to deviatoric deformation, Shalev et al. (2016b) suggested that Gomè 1 is located within highly fractured rocks. During the propagation of the seismic waves through Gomè 1 the recorded water pressure oscillations reached a maximum amplitude of 0.216 bar (Fig. 4a) and a sustained co-seismic pressure drop of 2.4 × 10−3 bar (Fig. 4b). The rich data recorded in the wells during the one minute co-seismic response and the similarity between the water pressure and the ground motion acceleration data can only be studied due to the high sampling rate (Fig. 4c). In the literature, similar hydraulic behavior is usually reported as step like pressure change (increase or decrease) and is not
Fig. 2. Hydroseismograms of all nine monitoring wells during the Mw 4.6 2018 Sea of Galilee earthquake. 3
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of the six years record from the Gomè 1 well (Fig. 5a). The phases and amplitudes of the tidal responses of the water level were calculated with Baytap08 program (Doan et al., 2006; Tamura et al., 1991). The data were divided into 30-day spans with an overlap of 23 days. Values of the calculated phase shift and the amplitude response of the water level to the M2 tide component are slightly noisy. Variations associated with the Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee and two strong remote earthquakes are below the sensitivity of the tidal analyses and are not recognized (Fig. 7). The impact of these earthquakes on the water level changes is summarized in Table 2. It includes amplitude of oscillations, undrained sustained change during the propagation of the seismic wave, and drained sustained change that continues days to months after the earthquake. 4. Discussion High-resolution water level monitoring systems installed in nine wells provide a unique opportunity to study the aquifer response to remote and local earthquakes. Although the magnitudes of the July 4th 2018 Mw 4.6 earthquake and events of the entire swarm were not large, their impact on nearby aquifers were recorded by all the monitoring systems. The recorded hydroseismograms (Fig. 2) show that the water pressure oscillations were induced by the propagation of seismic waves. Comparison of the seismic and water pressure records (Fig. 4c) demonstrates significant effect of the S-waves, which cannot be explained in the framework of linear poro-elasticity. This theory (e.g. Wang, 2000) predicts that the fluid pressure is affected only by the volumetric strain and ignores any coupling between shear and volumetric components (dilation). Dilatancy – volume change under shear loading, was first described by Reynolds (1885), who invented the term and it was observed in many laboratory experiments including measurements in fractured rocks and granular media (Lockner et al., 1992; David A Lockner and Stanchits, 2002; Lyakhovsky et al., 2015; Paterson, 1978; Schmitt and Zoback, 1992; Schock and Louis, 1982). Skempton (1954) formulated a poro-elastic law in which both volumetric and deviatoric stress components affect pore pressure. Shalev et al. (2016b) modified the original Skempton relation and connect the pore pressure change, ε −ε Δpf , volumetric strain, ε v , and deviatoric strain, εd = 1 2 3
Fig. 3. Arrival time of the first wave in all monitoring wells. Average velocity of 6 km/s reflects the P wave velocity.
but only the Mw 4.6 earthquake produced sustained water level changes. Ground motion acceleration data from Yiftach station and water pressure oscillation at Gomè 1 well, show a good correlation between the maximum amplitudes of these signals. The susceptibility of groundwater pressure to the Ground motion acceleration wave amplitude is roughly constant with small change after the strongest Mw 4.6 event (Fig. 6). The ratio between these amplitudes for two groups of events (before and after Mw 4.6 event) is approximated by linear regression resulting in different slopes: 1.05 × 10−9 bar/(nm/sec2) before the event to 1.08 × 10−9 bar/(nm/sec2) after the event. The accuracy of the regression is very high with R-squared above 0.98 (see Fig. 6). The two strongest events before and after Mw 4.6, with the best signal to noise ratio, provide the most reliable constrain for estimating the change in the slope. Fig. 7 presents the results of the tidal analyses
Δpf = BKu ε v + Nεd
(1) Fig. 4. Water level oscillation at Gomè 1 well and Yiftach seismic station during the Mw 4.6 2018 Sea of Galilee earthquake. A) entire hydroseismogram, B) blow up, showing the co-seismic undrained sustain drop, C) blow up, showing the first seconds of hydroseismogram along with ground acceleration data from the Yiftach seismic station.
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Fig. 5. Gomè 1 well water level time series. A) Water level records in Gomè 1 well since 2013 showing annual fluctuations with increase in the rainy winter and decrease in the dry summers. Three main abrupt disturbances are related to the 2013 Mw7.7 Pakistan, 2017 Mw 7.3 Iraq-Iran, and 2018 Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee earthquakes. All these earthquakes produced large co-seismic oscillations and post seismic sustained drops. B) Response of water level in Gomè 1 to the Sea of Galilee July-August 2018 earthquake swarms showing the post seismic water level changes associated with the Mw 4.6 event. Some teleseismic events were also recorded during this time period. C) Response of water level in Gomè 1 to the events during the first five days of the swarm.
regression between groundwater pressure oscillations and ground accelerations slightly increases (Fig. 6). We suggest here that this change reflects a small change in the poro-elastic properties of the aquifer, and estimate the new N–value and damage level. To proceed with this estimation we use strain perturbation caused by the seismic waves, which is the ground motion velocities divided by the wave velocity of the considered phase, i.e., body P- and S-waves, or surface waves (Shearer, 2009). The largest amplitude of the ground acceleration data recorded for all events at the Yiftach seismic station corresponds to the body Swave phase. Therefore the proxy for the deviatoric strain is the acceleration amplitude, A (a) , divided by the typical frequency, f, and the Swave velocity, Vs:
εd ∼
A (a) fVs
(2)
During the oscillations, induced by the propagation of the shear wave, linear poro-elasticity predicts that pore pressure changes associated with the volumetric strain are negligible. Substituting (2) into (1), we can express N-value as:
Fig. 6. Maximum amplitudes of water pressure at Gomè 1 well versus ground acceleration at Yiftach seismic station. The ratio between the maximum amplitudes of the water pressure and ground acceleration changed from 1.05E to 9 bar/(nm/sec2) before the Mw 4.6 to 1.08E-9 bar/(nm/sec2) after the event.
N=
where B is the Skempton coefficients, Ku is the undrained bulk modulus (Wang, 2000) and N is the shear strain coupling coefficient. Shalev et al. (2016a) related between the N–value and the level of damage of the aquifer rocks around the well and found that for Gomè 1 well, N = 8.5 GPa correlating with damage of 0.9. This was done based on the comparison between water well response and seismograms for the Mw 7.7, September 24, 2013 Pakistan earthquake. The presented results show that after the Mw 4.6 earthquake the slope of the linear
Δpf CA (a)
(3)
where C is the frequency-dependent coefficient that relates strain to acceleration amplitude. Since the magnitude range of the earthquakes is small, we assume the same typical frequency for all events (Fig. 7). With this assumption, using the same C-value in (3) for all small events, the relative N-value change is equal to the change of the slope of the linear regression between the pore pressure to acceleration for the two groups (before and after the Mw 4.6 event):
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The undrained short-term response of water levels is followed by the drained response of water levels and it is suggested to occur because of permeability enhancement of nearby faults that create shortcuts between aquifers. The deformation mechanism that creates the water level increase or decrease during the drained and undrained response are different. The undrained mechanism includes inelastic deformation (Brodsky et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2001) within the aquifer whereas the drained mechanism includes deformation along a nearby fault (slip) that connects between aquifers (e.g. Hosono et al., 2018; Sibson, 2007; Stanislavsky and Garven, 2003). The slip along the fault depends mostly on the maximum force that acted on the fault and less on the duration. We hypothesize, that one or several small faults were activated or dynamically triggered during the propagation of the seismic waves in the area of the well. The permeability in the local activated fault increased and allowed for significant drainage of the water from the over-pressurized aquifer, which is monitored by the Gomè 1 well. 5. Conclusions
Fig. 7. Tidal phase and amplitude variations in water level at Gomè 1 well. The three earthquakes that produced large co-seismic oscillations and post seismic sustained drops are marked as red dashed lines (Fig. 5A). There is no significant change associated with any of these events.
Δpf 1 Δpf 2 N1 = / N2 A (a)1 A (a)2
Water levels from nine wells in Israel show strong oscillations caused by travelling seismic waves of the Sea of Galilee 2018 seismic swarm. One well exhibits a sustained water level change in response to the largest event of the swarm (Mw 4.6), similar to the previous two remote teleseismic earthquakes. In these three earthquakes, it is possible to quantify three characteristics of the water level response: Maximum amplitude of the water level oscillations, undrained sustained change of the average water level during the propagation of the seismic waves, and drained sustained change that continues for days or even months after the earthquakes. The Maximum amplitudes of the water level oscillations correlate with the drain changes but not with the undrained changes due to the different deformation mechanisms that are responsible for the drained and undrained behavior. The drained change is suggested to be caused by activation of a nearby fault and drainage of water from this aquifer to a different aquifer with lower pressure. The amount of slip on the fault is related to the maximum amplitudes that increases the permeability on the fault. The undrained behavior is related to poro-elastic properties changes induced by the seismic wave. During the propagation of seismic waves the rocks may be damaged (fractured) whenever the strain is above the yield condition. The increased damage depends on the duration in which the strain is above yield conditions. Since the duration of the Mw 4.6 is much smaller, the sustained water level changes are small as well. The water pressure – ground acceleration amplitude ratio of the 2018 Sea of Galilee swarm was changed after the Mw 4.6 event. The sustained water pressure change and the change in the amplitude ratio are explained by changes in the poroelastic/hydraulic properties of the aquifer. Records of nearby large seismic events are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
(4)
The pressure-acceleration amplitude ratio, separately estimated for two groups of events (Fig. 6), is increased from 1.05E to 9 bar/(nm/ sec2) to 1.08E-9 bar/(nm/sec2). Therefore, the effect that the Mw 4.6 N 1.08E − 9 earthquake had on the N–value is calculated by N1 = 1.05E − 9 = 1.03. 2 This means that after the Mw 4.6 earthquake the shear strain coupling coefficient increased by 3% from N = 8.5 GPa to N = 8.7 GPa. This new value correlates with damage change of the order 4.0 × 10−3 (Shalev et al., 2016a). Only Gomè 1 well showed significantly high oscillations induced by the largest Mw = 4.6 event, order of magnitude higher than most of the wells. Small responses in Gomè 1 to other events as well as responses of other wells even to the largest Mw = 4.6 event were not enough to record any observable sustained water level change and resolve any change in the aquifers properties. Shalev et al. (2016a) connected the damage accumulation (permeability increase) and compaction (porosity and permeability decrease) of the aquifer rocks, induced by the seismic shaking, with the undrained sustained water level change. Their model predicts that for a highly damaged zone, as in Gomè 1 well, the damage accumulation dominates the compaction effect and leads to permeability enhancement and sustained water level drop. This change depends on the amplitude, frequency, and duration of the strain oscillations. The Mw 4.6 earthquake was the only event in the seismic swarm that was strong enough to produce the observable sustained drop (about 2.4 × 10−3 bar; Table 2) due to relatively large shaking amplitude and in spite of its short duration. The presented data show that the amplitudes of the pressure oscillations induced by strong remote earthquakes Mw 7.3 in Iraq-Iran border and Mw7.7 in Pakistan were about five times lower, but the duration of the shaking were significantly longer (Table 2). Long shaking duration leads to even larger undrained sustained decrease.
CRediT authorship contribution statement Hallel Lutzky: Methodology, Conceptualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Vladimir Lyakhovsky: Conceptualization, Software. Ittai Kurzon: Resources, Methodology. Eyal Shalev: Conceptualization, Methodology.
Table 2 Water level characteristics response to three earthquakes. The duration of water level response to earthquakes is defined here as the time since the first wave arrives at the well and until the time when water level oscillation’s amplitude decrease and settle below the value of 0.001 bar (1 cm).
Maximum amplitude Undrained sustained drop Drained sustained drop Duration
Mw 4.6 Sea of Galilee
Mw 7.3 Iraq-Iran
Mw7.7 Pakistan
0.216 bar (2.16 m) 2.4 × 10−3 bar (2.4 cm) 0.121 bar (1.21 m) 79 sec
0.067 bar (0.67 m) 5 × 10−3 bar (5 cm) 0.034 bar (0.34 m) 41 min
0.06 bar (0.6 m) 7 × 10−3 bar (7 cm) 0.02 bar (0.2 m) 55 min
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Journal of Hydrology 582 (2020) 124499
H. Lutzky, et al.
Declaration of Competing Interest
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