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Hydropower in Turkey: Economical, social and environmental aspects and legal challenges
environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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Hydropower in Turkey: Economical, social and environmental aspects and legal challenges Elc¸in Kentel a,*, Emre Alp b,1 a
Department of Civil Engineering, Water Resources Laboratory, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey b Department of Environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
abstract article info Article history: Received 1 May 2012 Received in revised form 24 February 2013 Accepted 25 February 2013 Published on line 23 April 2013
Turkey, as a rapidly developing and industrializing country, is in need of reliable, inexpensive, and high quality energy. The main energy sources of Turkey are coal, natural gas and hydropower. However, almost all the natural gas and high quality coal is imported. Thus, hydropower is the main domestic energy source. According to the State Hydraulic Works (SHW), the primary executive state agency responsible for the planning, operation, and management of water resources, Turkey has an economically viable hydroelectric potential of 140,000 GWh/year. Currently, around 35% of this potential is utilized. Increasing the share of hydropower in the energy budget of Turkey will reduce dependency on foreign energy
Keywords:
sources. However, development of the unused hydropower potential, especially through
Hydropower
run-of-river plants, has caused many problems in the country. Run-of-river plants are small
Economical aspects
hydropower plants (SHPPs) usually with no storage. Electricity Market Law No. 4628 which
Social aspects
came into effect in February 2001 was a major step towards the privatization of the
Environmental aspects
electricity sector. The law enabled planning and construction of SHPPs by the private sector.
Integrated watershed management
This created a big market for consulting firms which prepare feasibility reports, construction
Turkey
companies, and companies that own and operate these SHPPs. However, due to inadequate water resources management strategies, rivers are impaired; their natural flows are disturbed to generate electricity without paying necessary attention to components of the ecosystem and the needs and concerns of local residents. Thus, Turkey faces a challenging problem: Maximizing the utilization of hydropower which is the main domestic energy source while maintaining environmentally conscious and sustainable development. This study aims to explain the change in the contribution of hydropower in the energy budget of Turkey with time and current social and environmental problems associated particularly with SHPPs. Issues requiring immediate attention to facilitate sustainable development of hydropower potential are identified. # 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1.
Introduction
Energy plays a critical role in economic growth and social development. However, the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) (2005) states ‘‘But however essential it may be for development, energy is only a means to an end. The end is good health, high living standards, a sustainable economy and a clean environment.’’ Thus, energy resources that serve this end with relatively fewer adverse impacts on public
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 312 210 5412; fax: +90 312 210 7956. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Kentel), [email protected] (E. Alp). 1 Tel.: +90 312 210 5853; fax: +90 312 210 2646. 1462-9011/$ – see front matter # 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2013.02.008
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environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
production and consumption (1000 toe)
1.2E+05 production
1.0E+05 consumption
8.0E+04 6.0E+04 4.0E+04 2.0E+04
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Fig. 1 – Energy production and consumption in Turkey from 1970 to 2011.
future energy predictions (Toklu, 2013; Benli, 2013; Yu¨ksel, 2013; Akpinar, 2013; Melikoglu, 2013). For example, Melikoglu (2013) states that electricity consumption of Turkey is expected to reach 530,000 GWh at year 2023 and 30% of this demand will be produced from renewable energy sources. Among all the potential energy sources in Turkey, importance of hydroelectric energy is going to increase due to high hydropower potential and restrictions related to the carbon emissions. The change in energy production and consumption of Turkey from 1970 to 2011 is given in Fig. 1. The energy demand of Turkey was 114 million tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 2011. In terms of oil, natural gas and hard coal, over 90% of this demand and around 80% of the total energy demand in 2008 was supplied through imports (MENR, 2013). The contributions of ‘‘hard coal’’ (hard coal, asphaltite, secondary coal and petrocoke), petroleum and natural gas in total energy consumptions from 1970 to 2011 are given in Fig. 2. As can be seen in Fig. 2, contribution of these three sources in the total energy consumption of Turkey was around 60% in the 1970s and increased to approximately 75% in 2011. Thus, currently hard coal, petroleum and natural gas are main energy sources for Turkey.
health and the environment need to be preferred. Yet many areas of the world have no reliable and secure energy supplies which limit economic development while in other areas, environmental degradation from energy production and use inhibits sustainable development (UN and IAEA, 2006). In these areas, governments are responsible for identifying and promoting appropriate policies that will lead to sustainable development. Turkey’s energy balance in the previous four decades reflects that the share of foreign energy sources in the total primary energy supply is very high and the main domestic resource, hydropower, is not appropriately utilized. Thus, Turkey is among those countries for which suitable energy policies need to be immediately developed. This paper presents the change in the energy budget of Turkey within the past four decades, the role of hydropower, and social and environmental problems associated especially with small hydropower plants. Various suggestions which may provide guidance in developing appropriate energy policies for Turkey, are provided. Turkey is a developing country and its energy consumption has increased continuously in the last four decades. Many researchers have evaluated Turkey’s energy policy and provided
90
consumption (%)
natural gas
80
petroleum
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hardcoal
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Fig. 2 – Contributions of hard coal, petroleum and natural gas in the total energy consumption from 1970 to 2011 in Turkey.
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environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
110 hard coal
90
petroleum
80
natural gas
70
total
P/C (%)
100
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0 year Fig. 3 – Energy production to consumption ratios for main energy sources from 1970 to 2011.
Hard coal, petroleum and natural gas resources of Turkey are very limited. Although most of these resources are imported from other countries (Yu¨ksel, 2013; Benli, 2013), these sources contributed more than 50% to the total consumption since 1970 (see Fig. 2). The changes in the production to consumption ratios (P/C) of natural gas, petroleum and hard coal are given in Fig. 3. As can be seen in Fig. 2, the contribution of natural gas in the total energy consumption became apparent after the mid1980s and its P/C declined sharply around the same time (see Fig. 3). These two figures indicate that in the last two decades, utilization of imported natural gas has increased considerably in Turkey. A similar situation is valid for petroleum. As can be seen in Fig. 2, petroleum had a significant contribution (i.e. 40– 50%) to the total energy consumption until the mid-1980s, and then introduction of imported natural gas into the market caused this contribution to gradually decrease to around 30– 40%. Production to consumption ratio for petroleum was less than 50% in the 1970s and it decreased to less than 10% in the last decade. Compared to petroleum, hard coal always had a smaller contribution in the total energy consumption but as can be seen in Fig. 2, it consistently contributed around 15% of the total consumption between 1970 and 2011. Similar to natural gas and petroleum, P/C of hard coal also demonstrated a decreasing trend in this time period (see Fig. 3). To summarize, contribution of the sum of the three main energy sources, namely natural gas, petroleum and hard coal in the total energy consumption of Turkey increased from approximately 60% to around 75% from 1970 to 2011 while P/C of all three sources decreased to less than 10% in the last 40 years. It is worth investigating how contribution of domestic resources of Turkey in the total consumption changed in this same period. Contributions of ‘‘renewable resources’’ (including biomass, geothermal, solar and wind), plant and animal wastes, hydropower, wood and lignite to the total energy consumption of Turkey from 1970 to 2011 are given in Fig. 4. Energy P/C for these domestic sources are given in Fig. 5 for the same period.
As can be seen in Fig. 4, contribution of domestic resources in the total energy consumption of Turkey oscillated between 20% and 40% in the last 40 years. However, it showed a decreasing trend starting from the mid-1980s when natural gas was introduced into the Turkish energy market as a primary energy source. Domestic lignite is an important energy source for Turkey. However high sulfur content of domestic lignite is a major drawback since it contributes to air pollution (Kaygusuz, 2009). Compared to wood and lignite, hydropower and renewable resources cause less air pollution. As can be seen in Fig. 4, contribution of animal and plant wastes in the total energy consumption decreased from around 10% to almost none from 1970 to 2011. In 1970, the total energy consumption from renewable resources was only 23,000 toe and it reached to 1,314,000 toe in 2011 which is less than 3% of the total consumption. Contribution of hydraulic energy in the total energy consumption of Turkey had oscillated through the years but stayed below 6% in the last 40 years. Share of hydraulic energy in the total electricity generation of Turkey is explained in more detail in the following section. Energy P/C for domestic energy sources, as expected, stayed around 100% all the time (see Fig. 5). The total energy P/C represented by the solid line in Fig. 5 is an indicator of the dependency of Turkey on foreign energy sources. Total P/C decreased from around 80% to less than 30% from 1970 to 2011 which indicates that in the past 40 years dependency of Turkey on foreign energy sources approximately tripled. Decreasing the dependency on imported sources can be achieved by increasing the contribution of domestic sources to the energy budget of Turkey. The government is well aware of this fact and the following items are identified by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Turkey among primary energy policies and priorities (MENR, 2010): (i) decreasing dependency on imported resources by prioritizing utilization of domestic resources, (ii) increasing the share of renewable energy resources in energy budget of Turkey; (iii) minimization of adverse environmental impacts of production and utilization of natural resources.
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Fig. 4 – Contributions of renewable resources, hydraulic, wood and lignite to the total energy consumption of Turkey from 1970 to 2011.
2.1.
Hydropower in Turkey
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total
1978
renewable res.
animal & plant wastes 1976
hydraulic
lignite
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P/C (%)
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wood
1996
SHW estimates the economically viable hydroelectric potential of Turkey as 140,000 GWh/year of which only around 35% is currently utilized (SHW, 2009). The current installed capacity of hydroelectric power plants in Turkey is around 13700 MW and the status of economically viable potential of Turkey is provided in Table 1. In 2011, the share of hydropower in the total electricity generation of Turkey was around 20% (TETC, 2013). As can be seen in Fig. 6, the share of hydropower in the total electricity generation oscillated between 18% and 60% from 1970s to today, reaching its lowest value in 2008. This contradicts with the energy policy and priorities of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. A more detailed graph of the development of electricity generation from thermal and hydraulic sources between 1990
In accordance with Turkey’s energy policies and priorities, the number of SHPPs planned and built by the private sector has increased considerably, especially after the Electricity Market Law No. 4628 was enacted in 2001. This law aims to facilitate an energy reform to establish a more competitive structure that involves private investments and to improve the ¨ zkıvrak, 2005). efficiency of energy production in Turkey (O The need for the development of hydropower potential to decrease the dependency on foreign energy sources was explained in the Introduction section. Contribution of hydraulic energy to electricity generation in the past four decades and social and environmental problems associated with hydroelectric power plants (HEPPs), especially SHPPs, in Turkey are explained in the following sections.
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Economical aspects
1994
2.
year Fig. 5 – Energy production to consumption ratios for renewable resources, hydraulic, wood and lignite from 1970 to 2011.
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Table 1 – Status of economically viable potential of Turkey (SHW, 2009). Number of HEPPs
Installed capacity [MW]
Average annual generation [GWh/yr]
Ratio [%]
In operation (SHW) (Other) Under construction (SHW) (Other) In program (Private sectora) (Bilateral cooperationb)
172 57 115 148 23 125 1418 1401 17
13,700 10,700 3000 8600 3600 5000 22,700 18,700 4000
48,000
35
20,000
14
72,000
51
Total
1738
45,000
140,000
100
Laws No. 4628 or 3096. Laws No. 4628 or 5625.
Utilization of hydropower will reduce Turkey’s dependency on imported energy sources. However planning, development and operation of hydropower plants need to be realized in a sustainable manner considering their environmental and social impacts. Another improvement in reducing the dependency may be achieved through renewing transmission and distribution networks. Comparison of the total network loss to the net electricity consumption from 1970 to 2011 is given in Fig. 8. Ratios of network loss to gross generation (NL/GG) and electricity supplied to the network (NL/ESN) are given in Fig. 9. Between 1970 and 2011, at least 10% of the total electricity supplied to the system was lost through transmission and distribution networks and in 2011, NL/GG was around 14% (see Fig. 9). This ratio is much smaller in developed countries. For example, NL/GG for Germany, Belgium, France and the Netherlands is 4.7%, 5.0%, 5.7% and 4.3%, respectively (IEA, 2011). As can be seen in Fig. 8, the total network loss increased in years and reached 32,000 GWh per year in 2011 which is more than the economically feasible small hydropower potential of Turkey identified by Punys and Laguna (2005).
and 2011 for Turkey is given in Fig. 7. As can be seen in Fig. 7, share of thermal power plants in electricity generation has increased significantly in the last two decades. Consequently, the share of hydropower has continuously decreased. As a result, in 2011, more than 75% of the electricity was generated from thermal sources. According to SHW, Turkey has approximately 90,000 GWh per year remaining economically viable hydroelectricity generation capacity (SHW, 2009). In this article hydropower plants with an installed capacity smaller than or equal to 10 MW are considered as SHPPs. The economically feasible small hydropower potential for Turkey is identified as 19,300 GWh per year by Punys and Laguna (2005). According to SHW the annual average electricity generation of SHPPs in operation as of April 2010 is 722 GWh (SHW, 2010). Thus there is an unused economically feasible small hydropower potential of around 18,578 GWh per year and the private sector is willing to develop this potential. Although SHPPs which are mostly run-of-river type have localized environmental impacts compared to plants with reservoirs, they still may adversely impact ecosystems. In a run-of-river hydropower plant, water is diverted from its natural course into channels or tunnels, carried to a turbine located at a lower elevation and returned back into a downstream section of the river after passing through the turbine(s). This results in a decrease in the amount of flowing water between the points where it is diverted from the river and released back to it. Environmental impacts of SHPPS are explained later.
2.2. Social and environmental aspects and legal considerations In a run-of-river hydropower plant some of the river’s flow is diverted into a channel or a tunnel and returned back to the river downstream of the turbine(s). Environmental impacts of run-of-river type hydroelectric power plants have many
Share of hydropower in total electricity generation (%)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 2008
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0 1990
b
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year Fig. 6 – Share of hydropower in the total electricity generation from 1970 to 2011.
39
90 thermal hydro
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
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year
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environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
Fig. 7 – Turkey’s electricity generation from thermal sources and hydropower from 1990 to 2011.
dimensions associated with both construction and operational phases. The issues that are expected to occur during the construction phase include dust emissions, air pollution, noise, erosion, landslide, and excavation debris. Especially dust and landslide are the major problems of the construction phase that cause health and environmental degradation problems. The topics related to the amount and the timing of water to be released back to the river, efficiency of fish passages, sediment passages, access roads and energy transmission lines are the main considerations of the operational phase. Aquatic life may be adversely impacted in the diversion reach if sufficient amount of water is not kept in the river for sustaining a healthy aquatic habitat. Moreover, chemical composition and physical characteristics of the water (pH, temperature, suspended solids, etc.) might change and migration of fish may also be disturbed.
Run-of-river plants require either tunnels or channels – to transport water from a higher upstream elevation to a downstream location where the head difference is utilized to generate electricity – which may damage the natural habitat and spoil the scenery. If the route of the tunnels or channels reside inside forests or agricultural areas then trees or farm land will be destroyed. In addition to such ecological, environmental and aesthetic impacts, run-of-river plants have major social impacts on the local people. Local people usually utilize rivers for their social and economic needs such as irrigation, fishing, swimming, recreation, transportation, etc. Amount of water diverted from the river has to be identified such that all social and economic needs of local people can be satisfied and aquatic life in the river can be maintained with the remaining river flow. The amounts of water required for demands other than electricity generation; i.e. water supply, irrigation, recreational purposes, etc. and
Fig. 8 – Comparison of net electricity consumption to the total network loss from 1970 to 2011.
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20 18 ratio of network loss (%)
16 14 12 10 8 6 4
network loss/gross generation
2
network loss/electricity supplied to network
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year Fig. 9 – Ratios of network loss to gross generation and to electricity supplied to the network from 1970 to 2011.
sustainability of ecosystems can only be determined through Integrated Watershed Management (IWM), Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) approaches.
2.2.1.
Integrated watershed management
Sustainability of ecosystems can only be achieved through IWM plans which consider physical, biological, chemical components of the ecosystem and socio-economic constrains. IWM approach which requires involvement of all stakeholders is a guided tool explained in the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EEC) to achieve good ecological status in European Waters. Turkey being an EU candidate country is currently in the harmonization process with the European laws and regulations. Thus, Turkey is expected to establish the necessary scientific and legal bases to develop watershed management plans to compile with the EU WFD. This tool will help decision makers in Turkey to protect ecosystems and evaluate decisions related not only with HEPPs but also with any other investment that may have an impact on the environment. However, until the harmonization with the Water Framework Directive is completed, decision makers can still use the current regulations to develop watershed management plans. A couple of international projects (i.e. ‘‘Implementation of the Water Framework Directive in Turkey’’ (MAT01/TR/9/3) and ‘‘Capacity Building Support to Turkey for the water sector’’ (TR 06 IB EN 01)) have been completed and under way (i.e. ‘‘Capacity Building on Water Quality Monitoring’’ (TR 09 EB EN 03)) for capacity building on the water sector and implementation of WFD in Turkey. Apart from these projects, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey announced two project calls in 2012. One of these projects is related with developing methodologies for the identification of environmental objectives for surface, coastal and transitional waters. The other project aims to identify chemical and quantitative status of groundwater bodies and measures required to achieve and maintain good status for the
groundwater bodies. The Bu¨yu¨k Menderes Basin is selected as the pilot study area for both of these projects. Being the beneficiary institution of both of these projects, the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization has taken the leadership in implementing the WFD. Within the scope of these two projects human activities that may impact the quality and quantity of surface and groundwater bodies will be investigated and necessary measures to achieve and maintain good status will be identified. Energy generation through small hydropower plants is among the potential water uses of water resources of Turkey. Thus, these two projects provide opportunities for the evaluation of the impacts of SHPPs within an IWM framework. Law No. 4856 about the organization and duties of the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization assigns the duty of conducting necessary studies related with the protection of water resources, preparation of utilization plans and the integrated management of land and inland waters at the watershed level to the General Directorate of Environmental Management. However, Water Pollution Control Regulation No. 25687 which came into effect in 2004 states that the Ministry of Environment and Forest, considering the suggestions of SHW and related organizations, is responsible for preparing watershed protection action plans. As can be seen, Turkey’s current legal framework already establishes a base to implement watershed management plans in order to protect ecological balance. Accordingly, preparation of IWM plans for eleven basins in Turkey has been initiated by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization very recently (Basin Protection, 2011) although they are not fully operational yet.
2.2.2. Strategic environmental assessment, cumulative impact assessment and environmental impact assessment Cumulative impacts are defined as impacts that result from incremental changes caused by other past, present or reasonably foreseeable actions together with the project (EC, 1999). For example: (i) combined effect of individual impacts of hydroelectric power plants during the construction period, e.g. noise, dust, landslide and erosion, or (ii) several developments
environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
with insignificant impacts individually but which together have a cumulative effect, e.g. several run-of-river type hydroelectric power plants that are constructed on the same river. The combined influence on the environment of all projects occurring in a single area should be evaluated through cumulative impact assessment (Strimbu and Innes, 2011). The CIA considers all the consequences of multiple projects, each insignificant on its own, yet important when considered collectively (Council on Environmental Quality, 1969). The simultaneous occurrence of several projects impacts the environment not only additively but also synergistically, as supplementary effects can appear beyond the simple accumulation of the effects of individual projects. Cooper (2004) states that causes, pathways and consequences of these impacts are essential parts of the CIA. Furthermore, cumulative effects are best considered at plan or program levels, where decisions about future developments are made. The CIA may be undertaken as part of the Strategic Environmental Assessment which is a systematic process of addressing the environmental consequences of proposed policy, plans and programs (Cooper, 2004). SEA can facilitate the analysis of cumulative effects since the scope of the SEA is appropriate to the temporal and geographical scales at which cumulative effects occur (EU SEA Directive, European Parliament and Council, 2001; Cooper, 2004). Although the private sector and Turkish government are aware of the SEA and the CIA, they are not regulated by the law yet. On the other hand, pilot scale applications of both the SEA and the CIA are being carried out for the projects for which international lenders are involved. Moreover, studies are conducted for preparing draft regulations for SEA and CIA. In Turkey, the environmental and social impacts of individual projects are required to be assessed by an environmental impact assessment study. In Turkey, there is a legal requirement enforced by the Ministry of the Environment and Urbanization (formerly Ministry of Environment and Forestry) to complete an EIA study for HEPP projects with installed capacities of 25 MW or larger. Projects with installed capacities between 0.5 MW and 25 MW are subject to the Selection and Elimination Criteria. The owner prepares a ‘‘Project Presentation File’’ and the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization decides whether an EIA is required or not (MOEU, 2008). Currently, around 2000 ¨ zalp et al., 2010). SHPPs are planned throughout Turkey (O Although planning, construction and operation of these hydropower plants must be realized in accordance with the submitted project presentation files or EIA reports, currently appropriate auditing of these studies cannot be carried out by the government since the necessary organizational infrastructure is not fully established yet (Abay et al., 2010). This has resulted in many lawsuits and suspension of executions related with hydropower projects in Turkey. The Eastern Black Sea Region is among the problematic areas in terms of the development of small hydropower in Turkey. The Eastern Black Sea Region has a large hydropower potential due to high precipitation and existence of sharp valleys and steep streams with considerable discharges and heads (Dursun and Gokcol, 2011). This hydropower potential is planned to be harnessed by a total of 181 SHPPs with a total installed capacity of 860 MW (Uzlu et al., 2011). In Artvin
41
province alone, as of May 2009, a total of 116 run-of river hydropower plants are planned. Many of these HEPPs are planned as multiple run-of river plants on the same branch of the river. For example, at District of Meydancık in the city of S¸avs¸at, on approximately 20 km long section of Papart Creek, a ¨ zalp et al., total of seven hydropower plants are planned (O 2010). However, local people and various environmental groups oppose construction of these hydropower plants and many projects have been taken to the court. More than 25 HEPPs have been suspended or cancelled by courts (CCEB, 2010; Evcimen, 2010). As mentioned in the previous paragraph, there are tens of lawsuits filed by the local residents against SHPPs. Local residents realize that Turkey is in need of energy but at the same time they have concerns about preservation of local ecosystems. They believe that the construction of the SHPPs will damage the integrity of these ecosystems. In addition, they are concerned about the sufficiency of the amount of water released to the river for supplying their current needs (i.e. drinking water, irrigation, fishing, etc.) and the needs of future generations considering the shifts in hydrologic regimes due to climate change. Local residents believe that decisions about SHPPs have to be made based on comprehensive, site-specific scientific studies which investigate all related economic, environmental and social issues. Local residents’ awareness of the environment and desire to protect ecosystems for future generations bring ethical and legal considerations related with SHPP projects into the picture. Ethical issues related with planning and construction of SHPPs is explained in the following paragraphs. According to Aldo Leopold who established the principles of land/environmental ethics, ‘‘a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise’’. Leopold defines the boundary of the environment/ecosystem as: ‘‘soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land.’’ Leopold also realizes that ‘‘a land ethic cannot prevent the alteration, management, and use of these resources but it does affirm their right to continued existence, and, at least in spots, their continued existence in a natural state’’. The local residents’ approach to utilization of water through SHPPs is in agreement with the principles of the land ethics. Local residents essentially want to know the impact of HEPPs on the integrity of the ecosystems. As Leopold correctly emphasized, land ethics itself cannot assure the integrity of the ecosystems. For this reason, environmental laws and regulations are required to guarantee continued functional existence of ecosystems. Law of Environment (MOEU, 2006) which was established in 1983 is the main law in Turkey that defines general principles for the protection and improvement of the environment and prevention of pollution. In this law, environment is defined as ‘‘biological, physical, social, economic and cultural media where living things exist and mutually interact during the course of their life spans’’. In the same law, pollution is defined as ‘‘any negative impact that occurs on the environment and may deteriorate the wellbeing of biological life, environmental values and ecological balance’’. For example, a SHPP that poses risk on the integrity of the ecosystem is considered as ‘‘pollution’’ according to the Turkish Law of Environment. Turkish Law of Environment strongly follows the principles of
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land ethics. Hence, according to the Law of Environment, a decision based on ‘‘Selection and Elimination Criteria’’ of the EIA Regulation should not conclude that there is no need to complete an EIA study for a SHPP project unless a comprehensive feasibility study showing that the SHPP will not damage the integrity of the biotic community has been prepared. Effective laws, regulations and guidelines realize and establish rules for protecting the integrity of the environment and promoting sustainable development. On the other hand, the necessity and urgency of developing the hydropower potential of Turkey is well established and accepted. Simultaneous achievement of these two conflicting goals can only be achieved by the combined efforts of all the stakeholders (i.e. the government, SHPP owners, local residents, researchers, and the public).
3.
Conclusions
It is clear that Turkey is in need of developing its unused hydropower potential to increase the share of its national resources in its energy budget. This has been emphasized strongly by the government and the passing of Electricity Market Law No. 4628 in 2001 has triggered a reform in the electricity sector. This resulted in planning and construction of a large number of run-of-river SHPPs in Turkey in a short period of time. However, in the planning phase, necessary emphasis has not been placed on the evaluation of environmental and social consequences of these SHPPs which has caused strong opposition from the local people and environmental groups. Many SHPP projects are taken to court and some have been cancelled. This reveals that the current system for the utilization of the hydropower potential of Turkey especially through SHPPs planned and owned by the private sector is not functioning properly. To maximize the benefits of water resources the principles of sustainable water management which includes risk and uncertainty anaysis, life-cycle assessment, and environmental impact assessment need to be satisfied through several mechanisms. First of all, IWM plans need to be developed for each basin in order to equitably allocate water resources among different uses including drinking water, industrial and commercial water, irrigation, recreational purposes, electricity generation, etc. in an environmentally and ecologically safe manner. As a part of the CIA strategy, the effects of the all SHHPs along a river reach should be evaluated not only in the vicinity of the SHHPs but at downstream locations to reflect the cumulative impact of the projects planned to be implemented on the same river system. SHPP licenses should be granted only after the combined impacts of all proposed hydropower plants on a basin are evaluated and appropriate environmental and socioeconomic assessment studies are carried out. In addition, CIA should be incorporated into the SEA to evaluate the effects of a policy, plan or program to the watershed over a long time period, including the past and the future. Local people need to be included in the decision making process and their concerns and needs should be listened to and valued. Finally, the government should follow and audit the whole process (i.e. planning, construction and operation
stages of hydropower plants) through a legal framework specifically designed for Turkey. As a summary, although the development of hydropower potential – the main domestic energy resource – is necessary for Turkey, it will not be sufficient for maintaining the public welfare unless the following factors are taken into consideration: (i) protecting the environment, (ii) maintaining a sustainable electricity generation scheme, (iii) including all the stakeholders, especially local people, in the decision making process.
references
Abay, O., Baykan, N.O., Yas¸ar, M., 2010. Evaluation of small hydropower of Turkey (Ku¨c¸u¨k Su Kuvvetlerinin Tu¨rkiye’deki ¨ zerine Bir Deg˘erlendirme). In: VIth National Durumu U Hdyrology Congress. 22–24 September 2010, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey 933–942 (in Turkish). Akpinar, A., 2013. The contribution of hydropower in meeting electric energy needs: the case of Turkey. Renewable Energy 51, 206–219. Basin Protection (Havza Koruma), 2011. http:// www.havzakoruma.com (accessed 25.04.2011). Benli, H., 2013. Potential of renewable energy in electrical energy production and sustainable energy development of Turkey: performance and policies. Renewable Energy 50, 33–46. Chamber of Civil Engineers Bulletin, 2010. Hydropower Plants File (Hidroelektrik Santral Dosyası), 20–37, November 2010 (in Turkish). Cooper, L.M., 2004. Guidelines for Cumulative Effects Assessment in SEA of Plans, EPMG Occasional Paper 04/LMC/ CEA, Imperial College London. Council on Environmental Quality, 1969. The National Environmental Policy Act. Dursun, B., Gokcol, C., 2011. The role of hydroelectric power and contribution of small hydropower plants for sustainable development in Turkey. Renewable Energy 36, 1227–1235. European Parliament and Council, 2000, Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy, Water Framework Directive (WFD). European Parliament and Council, 2001, Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment. Europian Commision, 1999. Guidelines for the Assessment of Indirect and Cumulative Impacts as well as Impact Interactions, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Evcimen, T.U., 2010. Technical Power (Teknik Gu¨c¸). Chamber of Civil Engineers Publication, Ankara, 208 (in Turkish). IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), 2005. Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies. International Atomic Energy Agency, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, International Energy Agency, EUROSAT, and European Environment Agency, IAEA, Austria, Vienna. IEA (International Energy Agency), 2011. http://www.iea,org (accessed 27.02.2011). Kaygusuz, K., 2009. Energy and environmental issues relating to greenhouse gas emissions for sustainable development in Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13, 253–270.
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Leopold, A., 1949. A Sand County Almanac with Essays on Conservation. Oxford University Press, New York, 226. Melikoglu, M., 2013. Vision 2023: feasibility analysis of Turkey’s renewable energy projection. Renewable Energy 50, 570–575. MENR (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources), 2010. Activity Report (2009 Faaliyet Raporu), Directorate of Strategy Development (Strateji Gelis¸tirme Bas¸kanlıg˘ı), April 2010, (in Turkish). MENR (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources), 2013. http:// www.enerji.gov.tr (accessed 2.02.2013). MOEU (Ministry of Environment and Urbanization of Turkey), 2006. Environmental Law No. 2872. Official Gazette, Date: 11/ 8/1983, No: 18132. (This law was revised by Law No 5491 on 26.04.2006). MOEU (Ministry of Environment and Urbanization of Turkey), 2008. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulation, Official Gazette, vol. 26939 (in Turkish). ¨ zalp, M., Kurdog˘lu, O., Yu¨ksel, E.E., Yıldırımer, S., 2010. O Economic and Social Problems Associated with Run-of River Type Hydropower Plants in Artvin (Artvin’de Nehir Tipi Hidroelektrik Santrallerin Neden Oldugu/Olacagi Ekonomik ve Sosyal Sorunlar), 3rd National Black Sea Forestry Congress (III. Ulusal Karadeniz Ormancilik Kongresi), 20–22 May 2010, Vol.: II, 677-687 (in Turkish). ¨ zkıvrak, O., 2005. Electricity restructuring in Turkey. Energy O Policy 33, 1339–1350. Punys, P., Laguna, M., 2005. Small Hydropower Has Much to Offer: The Situation in the New Member States and Candidate Countries. Renewable Energy World, May–June, 74–79. SHW (State Hydraulic Works), 2009. Water and DSI. Ministry of the Environment and Forest, General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works. 5th World Water Forum, Istanbul. SHW (State Hydraulic Works), 2010. http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ skatablo/Tablo1.htm (accessed 25.09.2010). Strimbu, B., Innes, J., 2011. An analytical platform for cumulative impact assessment based on multiple futures: the impact of petroleum drilling and forest harvesting on moose (Alces alces) and marten (Martes americana) habitats in northeastern British Columbia. Journal of Environment Management 92, 1740–1752. TETC (Turkish Electricity Transmission Company), 2013. http:// www.teias.gov.tr (accessed 30.01.2013). Toklu, E., 2013. Overview of potential and utilization of renewable energy sources in Turkey. Renewable Energy 50, 456–463.
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UN and IAEA (United Nations and International Atomic Energy Agency), 2006. Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Country Studies on Brazil, Cuba, Lithuania, Mexico, Russian Federation, Slovakia and Thailand. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Uzlu, E., Akpınar, A., Ko¨mu¨rcu¨, M.I., 2011. Restructuring of Turkey’s electricity market and the share of hydropower energy: the case of the Eastern Black Sea Basin. Renewable Energy 36, 676–688. Yu¨ksel, I., 2013. Renewable energy status of electricity generation and future prospect hydropower in Turkey. Renewable Energy 50, 1037–1043. Elc¸in Kentel. Dr. Kentel’s main research topics include uncertainty modeling, application of probabilistic and possibilistic methods in decision making for human health risk assessment, application of heuristic models to water resources management problems, and application of fuzzy logic and fuzzy arithmetic in water resources engineering problems. After completing her PhD in the USA, she moved back to Turkey in 2006 and she has been teaching and carrying out research activities in the Department of Civil Engineering at Middle East Technical University (METU). Since 2007, she has taught water resources engineering, hydrosystems engineering and management, numerical methods, fluid mechanics, probability and statistics, and soft computing methods for water resources management at METU. Dr. Kentel has been involved in a large number of projects related to the environmental impact assessment and human health risk assessment in Turkey. Emre Alp. Dr. Alp has 16 years of experience and has been involved in extensive number of projects related to the water resources problems in a watershed scale both in Turkey and the U.S. While working on the projects related to the water quality problems of the Chicago River (2000–2008), he had the opportunity to interact and work closely with variety partners such as universities, local administrators, policy makers, consulting agencies. The water quality model he developed for Chicago Waterway System is still being used by the local authorities to aid decision making process. Since he moved back to Turkey in 2008, he has been teaching and carrying out research activities in the Environmental Engineering Department at Middle East Technical University. Dr. Alp’s research focuses on investigation of the water quality problems and development of water quality management alternatives to be implemented as a part of watershed management plans. He also conducts studies to develop economic tools to aid policy makers in different levels of water management.
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envsci
Hydropower in Turkey: Economical, social and environmental aspects and legal challenges Elc¸in Kentel a,*, Emre Alp b,1 a
Department of Civil Engineering, Water Resources Laboratory, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey b Department of Environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
abstract article info Article history: Received 1 May 2012 Received in revised form 24 February 2013 Accepted 25 February 2013 Published on line 23 April 2013
Turkey, as a rapidly developing and industrializing country, is in need of reliable, inexpensive, and high quality energy. The main energy sources of Turkey are coal, natural gas and hydropower. However, almost all the natural gas and high quality coal is imported. Thus, hydropower is the main domestic energy source. According to the State Hydraulic Works (SHW), the primary executive state agency responsible for the planning, operation, and management of water resources, Turkey has an economically viable hydroelectric potential of 140,000 GWh/year. Currently, around 35% of this potential is utilized. Increasing the share of hydropower in the energy budget of Turkey will reduce dependency on foreign energy
Keywords:
sources. However, development of the unused hydropower potential, especially through
Hydropower
run-of-river plants, has caused many problems in the country. Run-of-river plants are small
Economical aspects
hydropower plants (SHPPs) usually with no storage. Electricity Market Law No. 4628 which
Social aspects
came into effect in February 2001 was a major step towards the privatization of the
Environmental aspects
electricity sector. The law enabled planning and construction of SHPPs by the private sector.
Integrated watershed management
This created a big market for consulting firms which prepare feasibility reports, construction
Turkey
companies, and companies that own and operate these SHPPs. However, due to inadequate water resources management strategies, rivers are impaired; their natural flows are disturbed to generate electricity without paying necessary attention to components of the ecosystem and the needs and concerns of local residents. Thus, Turkey faces a challenging problem: Maximizing the utilization of hydropower which is the main domestic energy source while maintaining environmentally conscious and sustainable development. This study aims to explain the change in the contribution of hydropower in the energy budget of Turkey with time and current social and environmental problems associated particularly with SHPPs. Issues requiring immediate attention to facilitate sustainable development of hydropower potential are identified. # 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1.
Introduction
Energy plays a critical role in economic growth and social development. However, the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) (2005) states ‘‘But however essential it may be for development, energy is only a means to an end. The end is good health, high living standards, a sustainable economy and a clean environment.’’ Thus, energy resources that serve this end with relatively fewer adverse impacts on public
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 312 210 5412; fax: +90 312 210 7956. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Kentel), [email protected] (E. Alp). 1 Tel.: +90 312 210 5853; fax: +90 312 210 2646. 1462-9011/$ – see front matter # 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2013.02.008
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environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
production and consumption (1000 toe)
1.2E+05 production
1.0E+05 consumption
8.0E+04 6.0E+04 4.0E+04 2.0E+04
2008
2010
2006
2004
2000
2002
1998
1994
1996
1992
1988
1990
1986
1984
1980
1982
1978
1976
1972
1974
1970
0.0E+00
year
Fig. 1 – Energy production and consumption in Turkey from 1970 to 2011.
future energy predictions (Toklu, 2013; Benli, 2013; Yu¨ksel, 2013; Akpinar, 2013; Melikoglu, 2013). For example, Melikoglu (2013) states that electricity consumption of Turkey is expected to reach 530,000 GWh at year 2023 and 30% of this demand will be produced from renewable energy sources. Among all the potential energy sources in Turkey, importance of hydroelectric energy is going to increase due to high hydropower potential and restrictions related to the carbon emissions. The change in energy production and consumption of Turkey from 1970 to 2011 is given in Fig. 1. The energy demand of Turkey was 114 million tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 2011. In terms of oil, natural gas and hard coal, over 90% of this demand and around 80% of the total energy demand in 2008 was supplied through imports (MENR, 2013). The contributions of ‘‘hard coal’’ (hard coal, asphaltite, secondary coal and petrocoke), petroleum and natural gas in total energy consumptions from 1970 to 2011 are given in Fig. 2. As can be seen in Fig. 2, contribution of these three sources in the total energy consumption of Turkey was around 60% in the 1970s and increased to approximately 75% in 2011. Thus, currently hard coal, petroleum and natural gas are main energy sources for Turkey.
health and the environment need to be preferred. Yet many areas of the world have no reliable and secure energy supplies which limit economic development while in other areas, environmental degradation from energy production and use inhibits sustainable development (UN and IAEA, 2006). In these areas, governments are responsible for identifying and promoting appropriate policies that will lead to sustainable development. Turkey’s energy balance in the previous four decades reflects that the share of foreign energy sources in the total primary energy supply is very high and the main domestic resource, hydropower, is not appropriately utilized. Thus, Turkey is among those countries for which suitable energy policies need to be immediately developed. This paper presents the change in the energy budget of Turkey within the past four decades, the role of hydropower, and social and environmental problems associated especially with small hydropower plants. Various suggestions which may provide guidance in developing appropriate energy policies for Turkey, are provided. Turkey is a developing country and its energy consumption has increased continuously in the last four decades. Many researchers have evaluated Turkey’s energy policy and provided
90
consumption (%)
natural gas
80
petroleum
70
hardcoal
60 50 40 30 20 10 2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
year
1992
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1984
1982
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1970
0
Fig. 2 – Contributions of hard coal, petroleum and natural gas in the total energy consumption from 1970 to 2011 in Turkey.
36
environmental science & policy 31 (2013) 34–43
110 hard coal
90
petroleum
80
natural gas
70
total
P/C (%)
100
60 50 40 30 20 10 2010
2008
2006
2004
2002
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
1978
1976
1974
1972
1970
0 year Fig. 3 – Energy production to consumption ratios for main energy sources from 1970 to 2011.
Hard coal, petroleum and natural gas resources of Turkey are very limited. Although most of these resources are imported from other countries (Yu¨ksel, 2013; Benli, 2013), these sources contributed more than 50% to the total consumption since 1970 (see Fig. 2). The changes in the production to consumption ratios (P/C) of natural gas, petroleum and hard coal are given in Fig. 3. As can be seen in Fig. 2, the contribution of natural gas in the total energy consumption became apparent after the mid1980s and its P/C declined sharply around the same time (see Fig. 3). These two figures indicate that in the last two decades, utilization of imported natural gas has increased considerably in Turkey. A similar situation is valid for petroleum. As can be seen in Fig. 2, petroleum had a significant contribution (i.e. 40– 50%) to the total energy consumption until the mid-1980s, and then introduction of imported natural gas into the market caused this contribution to gradually decrease to around 30– 40%. Production to consumption ratio for petroleum was less than 50% in the 1970s and it decreased to less than 10% in the last decade. Compared to petroleum, hard coal always had a smaller contribution in the total energy consumption but as can be seen in Fig. 2, it consistently contributed around 15% of the total consumption between 1970 and 2011. Similar to natural gas and petroleum, P/C of hard coal also demonstrated a decreasing trend in this time period (see Fig. 3). To summarize, contribution of the sum of the three main energy sources, namely natural gas, petroleum and hard coal in the total energy consumption of Turkey increased from approximately 60% to around 75% from 1970 to 2011 while P/C of all three sources decreased to less than 10% in the last 40 years. It is worth investigating how contribution of domestic resources of Turkey in the total consumption changed in this same period. Contributions of ‘‘renewable resources’’ (including biomass, geothermal, solar and wind), plant and animal wastes, hydropower, wood and lignite to the total energy consumption of Turkey from 1970 to 2011 are given in Fig. 4. Energy P/C for these domestic sources are given in Fig. 5 for the same period.
As can be seen in Fig. 4, contribution of domestic resources in the total energy consumption of Turkey oscillated between 20% and 40% in the last 40 years. However, it showed a decreasing trend starting from the mid-1980s when natural gas was introduced into the Turkish energy market as a primary energy source. Domestic lignite is an important energy source for Turkey. However high sulfur content of domestic lignite is a major drawback since it contributes to air pollution (Kaygusuz, 2009). Compared to wood and lignite, hydropower and renewable resources cause less air pollution. As can be seen in Fig. 4, contribution of animal and plant wastes in the total energy consumption decreased from around 10% to almost none from 1970 to 2011. In 1970, the total energy consumption from renewable resources was only 23,000 toe and it reached to 1,314,000 toe in 2011 which is less than 3% of the total consumption. Contribution of hydraulic energy in the total energy consumption of Turkey had oscillated through the years but stayed below 6% in the last 40 years. Share of hydraulic energy in the total electricity generation of Turkey is explained in more detail in the following section. Energy P/C for domestic energy sources, as expected, stayed around 100% all the time (see Fig. 5). The total energy P/C represented by the solid line in Fig. 5 is an indicator of the dependency of Turkey on foreign energy sources. Total P/C decreased from around 80% to less than 30% from 1970 to 2011 which indicates that in the past 40 years dependency of Turkey on foreign energy sources approximately tripled. Decreasing the dependency on imported sources can be achieved by increasing the contribution of domestic sources to the energy budget of Turkey. The government is well aware of this fact and the following items are identified by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Turkey among primary energy policies and priorities (MENR, 2010): (i) decreasing dependency on imported resources by prioritizing utilization of domestic resources, (ii) increasing the share of renewable energy resources in energy budget of Turkey; (iii) minimization of adverse environmental impacts of production and utilization of natural resources.
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Fig. 4 – Contributions of renewable resources, hydraulic, wood and lignite to the total energy consumption of Turkey from 1970 to 2011.
2.1.
Hydropower in Turkey
2010
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1980
total
1978
renewable res.
animal & plant wastes 1976
hydraulic
lignite
1974
1972
P/C (%)
1970
wood
1996
SHW estimates the economically viable hydroelectric potential of Turkey as 140,000 GWh/year of which only around 35% is currently utilized (SHW, 2009). The current installed capacity of hydroelectric power plants in Turkey is around 13700 MW and the status of economically viable potential of Turkey is provided in Table 1. In 2011, the share of hydropower in the total electricity generation of Turkey was around 20% (TETC, 2013). As can be seen in Fig. 6, the share of hydropower in the total electricity generation oscillated between 18% and 60% from 1970s to today, reaching its lowest value in 2008. This contradicts with the energy policy and priorities of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. A more detailed graph of the development of electricity generation from thermal and hydraulic sources between 1990
In accordance with Turkey’s energy policies and priorities, the number of SHPPs planned and built by the private sector has increased considerably, especially after the Electricity Market Law No. 4628 was enacted in 2001. This law aims to facilitate an energy reform to establish a more competitive structure that involves private investments and to improve the ¨ zkıvrak, 2005). efficiency of energy production in Turkey (O The need for the development of hydropower potential to decrease the dependency on foreign energy sources was explained in the Introduction section. Contribution of hydraulic energy to electricity generation in the past four decades and social and environmental problems associated with hydroelectric power plants (HEPPs), especially SHPPs, in Turkey are explained in the following sections.
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Economical aspects
1994
2.
year Fig. 5 – Energy production to consumption ratios for renewable resources, hydraulic, wood and lignite from 1970 to 2011.
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Table 1 – Status of economically viable potential of Turkey (SHW, 2009). Number of HEPPs
Installed capacity [MW]
Average annual generation [GWh/yr]
Ratio [%]
In operation (SHW) (Other) Under construction (SHW) (Other) In program (Private sectora) (Bilateral cooperationb)
172 57 115 148 23 125 1418 1401 17
13,700 10,700 3000 8600 3600 5000 22,700 18,700 4000
48,000
35
20,000
14
72,000
51
Total
1738
45,000
140,000
100
Laws No. 4628 or 3096. Laws No. 4628 or 5625.
Utilization of hydropower will reduce Turkey’s dependency on imported energy sources. However planning, development and operation of hydropower plants need to be realized in a sustainable manner considering their environmental and social impacts. Another improvement in reducing the dependency may be achieved through renewing transmission and distribution networks. Comparison of the total network loss to the net electricity consumption from 1970 to 2011 is given in Fig. 8. Ratios of network loss to gross generation (NL/GG) and electricity supplied to the network (NL/ESN) are given in Fig. 9. Between 1970 and 2011, at least 10% of the total electricity supplied to the system was lost through transmission and distribution networks and in 2011, NL/GG was around 14% (see Fig. 9). This ratio is much smaller in developed countries. For example, NL/GG for Germany, Belgium, France and the Netherlands is 4.7%, 5.0%, 5.7% and 4.3%, respectively (IEA, 2011). As can be seen in Fig. 8, the total network loss increased in years and reached 32,000 GWh per year in 2011 which is more than the economically feasible small hydropower potential of Turkey identified by Punys and Laguna (2005).
and 2011 for Turkey is given in Fig. 7. As can be seen in Fig. 7, share of thermal power plants in electricity generation has increased significantly in the last two decades. Consequently, the share of hydropower has continuously decreased. As a result, in 2011, more than 75% of the electricity was generated from thermal sources. According to SHW, Turkey has approximately 90,000 GWh per year remaining economically viable hydroelectricity generation capacity (SHW, 2009). In this article hydropower plants with an installed capacity smaller than or equal to 10 MW are considered as SHPPs. The economically feasible small hydropower potential for Turkey is identified as 19,300 GWh per year by Punys and Laguna (2005). According to SHW the annual average electricity generation of SHPPs in operation as of April 2010 is 722 GWh (SHW, 2010). Thus there is an unused economically feasible small hydropower potential of around 18,578 GWh per year and the private sector is willing to develop this potential. Although SHPPs which are mostly run-of-river type have localized environmental impacts compared to plants with reservoirs, they still may adversely impact ecosystems. In a run-of-river hydropower plant, water is diverted from its natural course into channels or tunnels, carried to a turbine located at a lower elevation and returned back into a downstream section of the river after passing through the turbine(s). This results in a decrease in the amount of flowing water between the points where it is diverted from the river and released back to it. Environmental impacts of SHPPS are explained later.
2.2. Social and environmental aspects and legal considerations In a run-of-river hydropower plant some of the river’s flow is diverted into a channel or a tunnel and returned back to the river downstream of the turbine(s). Environmental impacts of run-of-river type hydroelectric power plants have many
Share of hydropower in total electricity generation (%)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 2008
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0 1990
b
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a
year Fig. 6 – Share of hydropower in the total electricity generation from 1970 to 2011.
39
90 thermal hydro
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
2011
2009
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year
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Fig. 7 – Turkey’s electricity generation from thermal sources and hydropower from 1990 to 2011.
dimensions associated with both construction and operational phases. The issues that are expected to occur during the construction phase include dust emissions, air pollution, noise, erosion, landslide, and excavation debris. Especially dust and landslide are the major problems of the construction phase that cause health and environmental degradation problems. The topics related to the amount and the timing of water to be released back to the river, efficiency of fish passages, sediment passages, access roads and energy transmission lines are the main considerations of the operational phase. Aquatic life may be adversely impacted in the diversion reach if sufficient amount of water is not kept in the river for sustaining a healthy aquatic habitat. Moreover, chemical composition and physical characteristics of the water (pH, temperature, suspended solids, etc.) might change and migration of fish may also be disturbed.
Run-of-river plants require either tunnels or channels – to transport water from a higher upstream elevation to a downstream location where the head difference is utilized to generate electricity – which may damage the natural habitat and spoil the scenery. If the route of the tunnels or channels reside inside forests or agricultural areas then trees or farm land will be destroyed. In addition to such ecological, environmental and aesthetic impacts, run-of-river plants have major social impacts on the local people. Local people usually utilize rivers for their social and economic needs such as irrigation, fishing, swimming, recreation, transportation, etc. Amount of water diverted from the river has to be identified such that all social and economic needs of local people can be satisfied and aquatic life in the river can be maintained with the remaining river flow. The amounts of water required for demands other than electricity generation; i.e. water supply, irrigation, recreational purposes, etc. and
Fig. 8 – Comparison of net electricity consumption to the total network loss from 1970 to 2011.
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20 18 ratio of network loss (%)
16 14 12 10 8 6 4
network loss/gross generation
2
network loss/electricity supplied to network
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sustainability of ecosystems can only be determined through Integrated Watershed Management (IWM), Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) approaches.
2.2.1.
Integrated watershed management
Sustainability of ecosystems can only be achieved through IWM plans which consider physical, biological, chemical components of the ecosystem and socio-economic constrains. IWM approach which requires involvement of all stakeholders is a guided tool explained in the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EEC) to achieve good ecological status in European Waters. Turkey being an EU candidate country is currently in the harmonization process with the European laws and regulations. Thus, Turkey is expected to establish the necessary scientific and legal bases to develop watershed management plans to compile with the EU WFD. This tool will help decision makers in Turkey to protect ecosystems and evaluate decisions related not only with HEPPs but also with any other investment that may have an impact on the environment. However, until the harmonization with the Water Framework Directive is completed, decision makers can still use the current regulations to develop watershed management plans. A couple of international projects (i.e. ‘‘Implementation of the Water Framework Directive in Turkey’’ (MAT01/TR/9/3) and ‘‘Capacity Building Support to Turkey for the water sector’’ (TR 06 IB EN 01)) have been completed and under way (i.e. ‘‘Capacity Building on Water Quality Monitoring’’ (TR 09 EB EN 03)) for capacity building on the water sector and implementation of WFD in Turkey. Apart from these projects, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey announced two project calls in 2012. One of these projects is related with developing methodologies for the identification of environmental objectives for surface, coastal and transitional waters. The other project aims to identify chemical and quantitative status of groundwater bodies and measures required to achieve and maintain good status for the
groundwater bodies. The Bu¨yu¨k Menderes Basin is selected as the pilot study area for both of these projects. Being the beneficiary institution of both of these projects, the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization has taken the leadership in implementing the WFD. Within the scope of these two projects human activities that may impact the quality and quantity of surface and groundwater bodies will be investigated and necessary measures to achieve and maintain good status will be identified. Energy generation through small hydropower plants is among the potential water uses of water resources of Turkey. Thus, these two projects provide opportunities for the evaluation of the impacts of SHPPs within an IWM framework. Law No. 4856 about the organization and duties of the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization assigns the duty of conducting necessary studies related with the protection of water resources, preparation of utilization plans and the integrated management of land and inland waters at the watershed level to the General Directorate of Environmental Management. However, Water Pollution Control Regulation No. 25687 which came into effect in 2004 states that the Ministry of Environment and Forest, considering the suggestions of SHW and related organizations, is responsible for preparing watershed protection action plans. As can be seen, Turkey’s current legal framework already establishes a base to implement watershed management plans in order to protect ecological balance. Accordingly, preparation of IWM plans for eleven basins in Turkey has been initiated by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization very recently (Basin Protection, 2011) although they are not fully operational yet.
2.2.2. Strategic environmental assessment, cumulative impact assessment and environmental impact assessment Cumulative impacts are defined as impacts that result from incremental changes caused by other past, present or reasonably foreseeable actions together with the project (EC, 1999). For example: (i) combined effect of individual impacts of hydroelectric power plants during the construction period, e.g. noise, dust, landslide and erosion, or (ii) several developments
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with insignificant impacts individually but which together have a cumulative effect, e.g. several run-of-river type hydroelectric power plants that are constructed on the same river. The combined influence on the environment of all projects occurring in a single area should be evaluated through cumulative impact assessment (Strimbu and Innes, 2011). The CIA considers all the consequences of multiple projects, each insignificant on its own, yet important when considered collectively (Council on Environmental Quality, 1969). The simultaneous occurrence of several projects impacts the environment not only additively but also synergistically, as supplementary effects can appear beyond the simple accumulation of the effects of individual projects. Cooper (2004) states that causes, pathways and consequences of these impacts are essential parts of the CIA. Furthermore, cumulative effects are best considered at plan or program levels, where decisions about future developments are made. The CIA may be undertaken as part of the Strategic Environmental Assessment which is a systematic process of addressing the environmental consequences of proposed policy, plans and programs (Cooper, 2004). SEA can facilitate the analysis of cumulative effects since the scope of the SEA is appropriate to the temporal and geographical scales at which cumulative effects occur (EU SEA Directive, European Parliament and Council, 2001; Cooper, 2004). Although the private sector and Turkish government are aware of the SEA and the CIA, they are not regulated by the law yet. On the other hand, pilot scale applications of both the SEA and the CIA are being carried out for the projects for which international lenders are involved. Moreover, studies are conducted for preparing draft regulations for SEA and CIA. In Turkey, the environmental and social impacts of individual projects are required to be assessed by an environmental impact assessment study. In Turkey, there is a legal requirement enforced by the Ministry of the Environment and Urbanization (formerly Ministry of Environment and Forestry) to complete an EIA study for HEPP projects with installed capacities of 25 MW or larger. Projects with installed capacities between 0.5 MW and 25 MW are subject to the Selection and Elimination Criteria. The owner prepares a ‘‘Project Presentation File’’ and the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization decides whether an EIA is required or not (MOEU, 2008). Currently, around 2000 ¨ zalp et al., 2010). SHPPs are planned throughout Turkey (O Although planning, construction and operation of these hydropower plants must be realized in accordance with the submitted project presentation files or EIA reports, currently appropriate auditing of these studies cannot be carried out by the government since the necessary organizational infrastructure is not fully established yet (Abay et al., 2010). This has resulted in many lawsuits and suspension of executions related with hydropower projects in Turkey. The Eastern Black Sea Region is among the problematic areas in terms of the development of small hydropower in Turkey. The Eastern Black Sea Region has a large hydropower potential due to high precipitation and existence of sharp valleys and steep streams with considerable discharges and heads (Dursun and Gokcol, 2011). This hydropower potential is planned to be harnessed by a total of 181 SHPPs with a total installed capacity of 860 MW (Uzlu et al., 2011). In Artvin
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province alone, as of May 2009, a total of 116 run-of river hydropower plants are planned. Many of these HEPPs are planned as multiple run-of river plants on the same branch of the river. For example, at District of Meydancık in the city of S¸avs¸at, on approximately 20 km long section of Papart Creek, a ¨ zalp et al., total of seven hydropower plants are planned (O 2010). However, local people and various environmental groups oppose construction of these hydropower plants and many projects have been taken to the court. More than 25 HEPPs have been suspended or cancelled by courts (CCEB, 2010; Evcimen, 2010). As mentioned in the previous paragraph, there are tens of lawsuits filed by the local residents against SHPPs. Local residents realize that Turkey is in need of energy but at the same time they have concerns about preservation of local ecosystems. They believe that the construction of the SHPPs will damage the integrity of these ecosystems. In addition, they are concerned about the sufficiency of the amount of water released to the river for supplying their current needs (i.e. drinking water, irrigation, fishing, etc.) and the needs of future generations considering the shifts in hydrologic regimes due to climate change. Local residents believe that decisions about SHPPs have to be made based on comprehensive, site-specific scientific studies which investigate all related economic, environmental and social issues. Local residents’ awareness of the environment and desire to protect ecosystems for future generations bring ethical and legal considerations related with SHPP projects into the picture. Ethical issues related with planning and construction of SHPPs is explained in the following paragraphs. According to Aldo Leopold who established the principles of land/environmental ethics, ‘‘a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise’’. Leopold defines the boundary of the environment/ecosystem as: ‘‘soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land.’’ Leopold also realizes that ‘‘a land ethic cannot prevent the alteration, management, and use of these resources but it does affirm their right to continued existence, and, at least in spots, their continued existence in a natural state’’. The local residents’ approach to utilization of water through SHPPs is in agreement with the principles of the land ethics. Local residents essentially want to know the impact of HEPPs on the integrity of the ecosystems. As Leopold correctly emphasized, land ethics itself cannot assure the integrity of the ecosystems. For this reason, environmental laws and regulations are required to guarantee continued functional existence of ecosystems. Law of Environment (MOEU, 2006) which was established in 1983 is the main law in Turkey that defines general principles for the protection and improvement of the environment and prevention of pollution. In this law, environment is defined as ‘‘biological, physical, social, economic and cultural media where living things exist and mutually interact during the course of their life spans’’. In the same law, pollution is defined as ‘‘any negative impact that occurs on the environment and may deteriorate the wellbeing of biological life, environmental values and ecological balance’’. For example, a SHPP that poses risk on the integrity of the ecosystem is considered as ‘‘pollution’’ according to the Turkish Law of Environment. Turkish Law of Environment strongly follows the principles of
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land ethics. Hence, according to the Law of Environment, a decision based on ‘‘Selection and Elimination Criteria’’ of the EIA Regulation should not conclude that there is no need to complete an EIA study for a SHPP project unless a comprehensive feasibility study showing that the SHPP will not damage the integrity of the biotic community has been prepared. Effective laws, regulations and guidelines realize and establish rules for protecting the integrity of the environment and promoting sustainable development. On the other hand, the necessity and urgency of developing the hydropower potential of Turkey is well established and accepted. Simultaneous achievement of these two conflicting goals can only be achieved by the combined efforts of all the stakeholders (i.e. the government, SHPP owners, local residents, researchers, and the public).
3.
Conclusions
It is clear that Turkey is in need of developing its unused hydropower potential to increase the share of its national resources in its energy budget. This has been emphasized strongly by the government and the passing of Electricity Market Law No. 4628 in 2001 has triggered a reform in the electricity sector. This resulted in planning and construction of a large number of run-of-river SHPPs in Turkey in a short period of time. However, in the planning phase, necessary emphasis has not been placed on the evaluation of environmental and social consequences of these SHPPs which has caused strong opposition from the local people and environmental groups. Many SHPP projects are taken to court and some have been cancelled. This reveals that the current system for the utilization of the hydropower potential of Turkey especially through SHPPs planned and owned by the private sector is not functioning properly. To maximize the benefits of water resources the principles of sustainable water management which includes risk and uncertainty anaysis, life-cycle assessment, and environmental impact assessment need to be satisfied through several mechanisms. First of all, IWM plans need to be developed for each basin in order to equitably allocate water resources among different uses including drinking water, industrial and commercial water, irrigation, recreational purposes, electricity generation, etc. in an environmentally and ecologically safe manner. As a part of the CIA strategy, the effects of the all SHHPs along a river reach should be evaluated not only in the vicinity of the SHHPs but at downstream locations to reflect the cumulative impact of the projects planned to be implemented on the same river system. SHPP licenses should be granted only after the combined impacts of all proposed hydropower plants on a basin are evaluated and appropriate environmental and socioeconomic assessment studies are carried out. In addition, CIA should be incorporated into the SEA to evaluate the effects of a policy, plan or program to the watershed over a long time period, including the past and the future. Local people need to be included in the decision making process and their concerns and needs should be listened to and valued. Finally, the government should follow and audit the whole process (i.e. planning, construction and operation
stages of hydropower plants) through a legal framework specifically designed for Turkey. As a summary, although the development of hydropower potential – the main domestic energy resource – is necessary for Turkey, it will not be sufficient for maintaining the public welfare unless the following factors are taken into consideration: (i) protecting the environment, (ii) maintaining a sustainable electricity generation scheme, (iii) including all the stakeholders, especially local people, in the decision making process.
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UN and IAEA (United Nations and International Atomic Energy Agency), 2006. Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Country Studies on Brazil, Cuba, Lithuania, Mexico, Russian Federation, Slovakia and Thailand. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Uzlu, E., Akpınar, A., Ko¨mu¨rcu¨, M.I., 2011. Restructuring of Turkey’s electricity market and the share of hydropower energy: the case of the Eastern Black Sea Basin. Renewable Energy 36, 676–688. Yu¨ksel, I., 2013. Renewable energy status of electricity generation and future prospect hydropower in Turkey. Renewable Energy 50, 1037–1043. Elc¸in Kentel. Dr. Kentel’s main research topics include uncertainty modeling, application of probabilistic and possibilistic methods in decision making for human health risk assessment, application of heuristic models to water resources management problems, and application of fuzzy logic and fuzzy arithmetic in water resources engineering problems. After completing her PhD in the USA, she moved back to Turkey in 2006 and she has been teaching and carrying out research activities in the Department of Civil Engineering at Middle East Technical University (METU). Since 2007, she has taught water resources engineering, hydrosystems engineering and management, numerical methods, fluid mechanics, probability and statistics, and soft computing methods for water resources management at METU. Dr. Kentel has been involved in a large number of projects related to the environmental impact assessment and human health risk assessment in Turkey. Emre Alp. Dr. Alp has 16 years of experience and has been involved in extensive number of projects related to the water resources problems in a watershed scale both in Turkey and the U.S. While working on the projects related to the water quality problems of the Chicago River (2000–2008), he had the opportunity to interact and work closely with variety partners such as universities, local administrators, policy makers, consulting agencies. The water quality model he developed for Chicago Waterway System is still being used by the local authorities to aid decision making process. Since he moved back to Turkey in 2008, he has been teaching and carrying out research activities in the Environmental Engineering Department at Middle East Technical University. Dr. Alp’s research focuses on investigation of the water quality problems and development of water quality management alternatives to be implemented as a part of watershed management plans. He also conducts studies to develop economic tools to aid policy makers in different levels of water management.