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Illegal hunting and protected areas: Tourist perceptions on wild animal poisoning in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe
Tourism Management 52 (2016) 170e172
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
Research note
Illegal hunting and protected areas: Tourist perceptions on wild animal poisoning in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe Never Muboko*, Edson Gandiwa, Victor Muposhi, Tawanda Tarakini Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Private Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
h i g h l i g h t s Some tourists are aware and concerned about conservation challenges facing protected areas they visit. Poaching and the use of poisons are increasing worldwide. Tourists suggested valuable mitigatory measures that are useful in policy decisions and management. Media and word of mouth can influence tourist perceptions towards conservation at a given tourist destination.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 20 December 2014 Received in revised form 26 June 2015 Accepted 29 June 2015 Available online xxx
Tourists visiting protected areas for leisure often have perceptions based on pre-conceived knowledge and awareness about wildlife conservation obtained through various media. However, these perceptions are rarely tapped into for management and policy reviews. To understand tourists' perceptions on conservation, we surveyed 76 tourists in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, using a questionnaire administered through convenience sampling. Our results showed significant differences (c2 ¼ 11.8; df ¼ 1; P ¼ 0.001) between tourists who acknowledged awareness (69.7%, n ¼ 53) of the use of chemical poisoning to kill wild animals prior to their visit and those who were unaware (30.3%, n ¼ 23). We conclude that some tourists are concerned about the state of wildlife conservation at their destinations of choice. We recommend the consideration of tourists concerns in conservation policies and strategies. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Attitudes Communities Conservation Elephant Threat Wildlife Wildlife tourism
1. Introduction The framing of tourist perceptions about threats to wildlife conservation is influenced by events occurring or perceived to be present at a given protected area (PA). Media plays a key role in disseminating such information (Gandiwa et al., 2014). Media coverage on risks and threats either to people or wildlife influences framing of tourists' perceptions and judgements (Schroeder & Hahn, 2013). Wildlife threats may include poaching and chemical poisoning. Although poaching through poisoning of wild animals is s, Olea, S considered traditional (Mateo-Toma anchez-Barbudo, & Mateo, 2012), such methods are still prevalent, e.g., in Australia on fishing (Butler, Tawake, Skewes, Tawake, & McGrath, 2012), Mexico on felids (Garcia-Alaniz, Naranjo, & Mallory, 2010) and in
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Muboko). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.023 0261-5177/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
China on birds (MaMing, Zhang, Blank, Ding, & Zhao, 2012). Despite national and international efforts, wildlife chemical poisoning is reportedly increasing even where law enforcement is arguably well resourced, e.g. in somecountries in America and Europe (Guitart et al., 2010). In southern African countries, e.g., Zimbabwe (Groom, Gandiwa, Gandiwa, & van der Westhuizen, s et al., 2012) and Tanzania 2013), South Africa (Mateo-Toma (Masenga et al., 2013) cases of poisoning have been reported. Most misused chemicals are aldicarb (temik), carbofuran (furadan) and cyanide (Masterson, 2013; Muboko et al., 2014). In large PAs with low anti-poaching patrol coverage, detectability is a major challenge to animal poisoning incidences. Baral (2013) suggests the possibility of using tourists to detect poisoning incidences although s et al. (2012) argue otherwise. Mateo-Toma Few studies look at the perceptions of tourists on wildlife threats with many concentrating on local people's perceptions of PAs (e.g., Bhat, Kumar, Negi, & Todaria, 2012) and yet Ballantyne,
N. Muboko et al. / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 170e172
171
Table 1 Tourist perceptions on wildlife conservation threats in HNP. Rating scale: 1 ¼ serious threat; 2 ¼ moderate threat; 3 ¼ not sure; 4 ¼ minor threat; 5 ¼ not a threat; N: ¼ 76. Threat
Poaching Uncontrolled veld fires Water shortages Cyanide poisoning Political and economic environment
Category of tourists Local (n ¼ 30)
Regional (n ¼ 21)
International (n ¼ 25)
Friedman ANOVA Mean rank
Test statistics
1 4 2 1 5
1 3 2 3 1
1 3 2 1 1
1.82 2.97 2.73 2.72 2.49
c2 ¼ 43.5, df ¼ 4, P < 0.001
(4) (4) (4) (4) (4)
(4) (4) (3) (4) (4)
Packer, and Hughes et al. (2009) conclude that management practices that involve tourists are bound to be effective in meeting both tourist and wildlife interests. Here we report the perceptions of tourists on wild animal conservation following the cyanide poisoning of an estimated 135 elephants (Loxodonta africana) and other animal species in Hwange National Park (HNP), Zimbabwe in 2013 (Muboko et al., 2014). The objectives of the study were to establish: 1) the extent of knowledge and awareness about wild animal chemical poisoning by tourists in HNP, and 2) tourist perceptions on wildlife and conservation threats in HNP. 2. Methods 2.1. Study area Hwange National Park is the largest PA in Zimbabwe covering 14,651 km2. The park is characterised by semi-arid conditions with annual mean rainfall of about 634 mm (Hubbard & Haynes, 2012) and sustains over 100 mammal species and more than 400 bird species. 2.2. Data collection Perceptions on wild animal poisoning were assessed using a tourist survey questionnaire following procedures outlined by Luksenburg and Parsons (2014). Key questions focussed on knowledge, perceptions and attitudes on conservation. Tourist selection was through convenient sampling, where a pre-tested questionnaire was administered to every third tourist to enter the park tourist office for accommodation registration formalities. Seventy-six tourists responded, representing a 63% response rate comprising 39.5% (n ¼ 30) locals (from Zimbabwe), 27.6% (n ¼ 21) regional (SADC1) and 32.9% (n ¼ 25) international tourists (outside SADC). Respondents consisted of 57.9% (n ¼ 44) men, and 42.1% (n ¼ 32) women, indicating no significant differences by gender (c2 ¼ 1.95, df ¼ 1, P ¼ 0.170). The majority of respondents were between the ages of 31e40 and 41e50 years, who when combined constituted over sixty percent (60.5%, n ¼ 46), while over 24% (n ¼ 18) were between 18 and 30 years and the least 8.1% (n ¼ 6) where over 60 years.
(2) (3) (4) (4) (4)
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Awareness of wildlife chemical poisoning in HNP Respondents had fairly good knowledge about the types of chemicals used to poison wildlife in HNP, with cyanide topping the list (96%, n ¼ 51). Other poisons mentioned were temik (2%, n ¼ 1) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) (2%, n ¼ 1). However, significant differences were observed (c2 ¼ 11.8; df ¼ 1; P ¼ 0.001) between respondents who had prior knowledge of chemical poisoning of animals in HNP before their visit (69.7%, n ¼ 53) and those with no prior knowledge (30.3%, n ¼ 23), with those with prior knowledge being in the majority. In terms of knowledge sources, Zimbabwean newspapers were the major form of media (87.7%, n ¼ 26) informing local tourists about conservation threats (e.g., elephant and other species poisoning) in HNP, while the internet dominated as the main information source for regional tourists (76.2%, n ¼ 16) and international tourists (60%, n ¼ 15). However, despite the dominance of newspapers and internet in conveying conservation information, the word of mouth was also highly rated as information medium, supporting Leach (1999) who found out that the oral method of information provision still predominates. 3.2. Tourist perceptions on conservation and wildlife threats Significant differences on perceptions about conservation practices in HNP by different tourist categories were observed (c2 ¼ 10.4; df ¼ 2; P ¼ 0.006), with locals having the highest respondents (23.7%, n ¼ 18), followed by international (10.5%, n ¼ 8) and then regional (5.3%, n ¼ 4) tourists stating that conservation practices in HNP were good. Also perceptions differed significantly between tourist categories across five major wildlife conservation threats identified in HNP (Friedman ANOVA: c2 ¼ 43.5; df ¼ 4; P < 0.001) (Table 1), although poaching was perceived by all tourist categories as the most serious threat to conservation. Poaching and cyanide chemical use dominated as serious threats to conservation in HNP. The use of chemical poisoning is s et al., 2012) and in proving to be a challenge globally (Mateo-Toma Africa this is reportedly on the increase (Anderson & Jooste, 2014).
2.3. Data analysis
3.3. Mitigation
Perceptions across different tourist categories were analysed using Friedman analysis of variance (ANOVA). Where significant differences were observed across tourist categories post-hoc analyses using the ManneWhitney U test were carried out. Chi-square tests were used to compare grouped data sets, e.g. age and gender to test if the responses occurred with equal probability. Analyses were done in STATISTICA version 6 for Windows (Stat Soft, 2001).
Suggested mitigation of identified threats are varied (Table 2), although law enforcement is still important despite its weaknesses, complimenting it with other initiatives like education and awareness, employment of locals and improving on local community involvement can be effective in enhancing conservation (Challender & MacMillan, 2014). 4. Conclusions and recommendations
1
Other Southern African Development Community member countries.
We conclude that tourists to HNP have high conservation
172
N. Muboko et al. / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 170e172
Table 2 Suggested mitigation measures to conservation threats in HNP (n ¼ 76). Suggested measures
Responsea
(%)
Law enforcement Park management Upgrade infrastructure Strengthen education and awareness programs Employ locals in adjacent Pas Increase jail term Strengthen CAMPFIRE and CBNRM Privatise some activities Stop corruption at all levels
28 18 13 8 6 6 3 2 1
37 24 17 11 8 8 4 3 1
a Multiple responses were allowed; hence % total exceeds 100%. Note: CAMPFIRECommunal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources; CBNRMCommunity-based Natural Resources Management.
knowledge and are concerned about threats to biodiversity conservation. Our results may be interpreted in the context of HNP and such similar areas where wildlife and tourism issues are sensationalised through the media, but may not reflect universality as tourists visit places for varied reasons. As suggested by tourists, we recommend for the use of multi-pronged approaches such as law enforcement together with other complementary strategies like strengthening community-based conservation programmes to improve on wildlife conservation.
Luksenburg, J. A., & Parsons, E. C. M. (2014). Attitudes towards marine mammal conservation issues before the introduction of whale-watching: a case study in Aruba (southern Caribbean). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 24(1), 135e146. MaMing, R., Zhang, T., Blank, D., Ding, P., & Zhao, X. (2012). Geese and ducks killed by poison and analysis of poaching cases in China. Goose Bulletin, 15, 2e11. Masenga, E. H., Lyamuya, R. D., Nyaki, A., Kuya, S., Jaco, A., Kohi, E., et al. (2013). Strychnine poisoning in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Loliondo game controlled area, Tanzania. International Journal of Biodiversity Conservation, 5, 367e370. Masterson, C. (2013). Practical case management for malicious wildlife poisoning in Zimbabwe. Document produced with the support of the Frankfurt Zoological Society, Gonarezhou Conservation Project, Chiredzi. s, P., Olea, P. P., Sa nchez-Barbudo, I. S., & Mateo, R. (2012). Alleviating Mateo-Toma humanewildlife conflicts: identifying the causes and mapping the risk of illegal poisoning of wild fauna. Journal of Applied Ecology, 49(2), 376e385. Muboko, N., Muposhi, V., Tarakini, T., Gandiwa, E., Vengesayi, S., & Makuwe, E. (2014). Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: a preliminary assessment. Pachyderm, 55, 92e94. Schroeder, R., & Hahn, O. (2013). Media and sustainable tourism. In Sustainability in tourism (pp. 177e191). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien.
Never Muboko is the Chair of the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe. His current research interests include social ecology, human-wildlife conflicts and wildlife management.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Chinhoyi University of Technology management for the logistical and financial support. The assistance, permission and support from the Director-General of the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority and staff of Hwange National Park are highly appreciated. Appendix A. Supplementary data
Edson Gandiwa is a Professor and Dean of the School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe. His research interests include media framing of wildlife conservation, biodiversity conservation and protected area management.
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.023 References Anderson, B., & Jooste, J. (2014). Wildlife poaching: Africa's surging trafficking threat. National Defense Univ Fort Mcnair DC, Africa Center for Strategic Studies. Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., & Hughes, K. (2009). Tourists' support for conservation messages and sustainable management practices in wildlife tourism experiences. Tourism Management, 30(5), 658e664. Baral, A. N. (2013). Impacts of wildlife tourism on poaching of greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Doctoral dissertation. Lincoln University. Bhat, J. A., Kumar, M., Negi, A. K., & Todaria, N. P. (2012). People's perceptions on conservation options and use value of a protected area in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Forester, 138(10), 961e967. Butler, J. R., Tawake, A., Skewes, T., Tawake, L., & McGrath, V. (2012). Integrating traditional ecological knowledge and fisheries management in the Torres Strait, Australia: the catalytic role of turtles and dugong as cultural keystone species. Ecology and Society, 17, 1e19. Challender, D. W., & MacMillan, D. C. (2014). Poaching is more than an enforcement problem. Conservation Letters, 7(5), 484e494. €nig, I. M. A., Leeuwis, C., & Gandiwa, E., Sprangers, S., van Bommel, S., Heitko Prins, H. H. T. (2014). Spill-over effect in media framing: representations of wildlife conservation in Zimbabwean and international media. Journal for Nature Conservation, 22(5), 413e423. Garcia-Alaniz, N., Naranjo, E. J., & Mallory, F. F. (2010). Human-felid interactions in three Mestizo communities of the Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, Mexico: benefits, conflicts and traditional uses of species. Human Ecology, 38(3), 451e457. Groom, R. J., Gandiwa, E., Gandiwa, P., & van der Westhuizen, H. J. (2013). A mass poisoning of white-backed and Lappet-faced vultures in Gonarezhou National Park. Honeyguide, 59(1), 5e9. Guitart, R., Sachana, M., Caloni, F., Croubels, S., Vandenbroucke, V., & Berny, P. (2010). Animal poisoning in Europe. Part 3: wildlife. The Veterinary Journal,183(3), 260e265. Hubbard, P., & Haynes, G. (2012). Mtoa Ruins, Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Zimbabwean Prehistory, 30, 25e33. Leach, A. (1999). The provision of information to adults in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, by non-governmental organisation. Libri, 49(2), 71e89.
Victor Muposhi is a lecturer in the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe and is currently a PhD student. His research interests include wildlife ecology, behavioural ecology, biodiversity conservation and sustainable wildlife use.
Tawanda Tarakini a lecturer in the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe and is currently a PhD student. His research interests include avian ecology, behaviour and ecosystem services
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
Research note
Illegal hunting and protected areas: Tourist perceptions on wild animal poisoning in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe Never Muboko*, Edson Gandiwa, Victor Muposhi, Tawanda Tarakini Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Private Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
h i g h l i g h t s Some tourists are aware and concerned about conservation challenges facing protected areas they visit. Poaching and the use of poisons are increasing worldwide. Tourists suggested valuable mitigatory measures that are useful in policy decisions and management. Media and word of mouth can influence tourist perceptions towards conservation at a given tourist destination.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 20 December 2014 Received in revised form 26 June 2015 Accepted 29 June 2015 Available online xxx
Tourists visiting protected areas for leisure often have perceptions based on pre-conceived knowledge and awareness about wildlife conservation obtained through various media. However, these perceptions are rarely tapped into for management and policy reviews. To understand tourists' perceptions on conservation, we surveyed 76 tourists in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, using a questionnaire administered through convenience sampling. Our results showed significant differences (c2 ¼ 11.8; df ¼ 1; P ¼ 0.001) between tourists who acknowledged awareness (69.7%, n ¼ 53) of the use of chemical poisoning to kill wild animals prior to their visit and those who were unaware (30.3%, n ¼ 23). We conclude that some tourists are concerned about the state of wildlife conservation at their destinations of choice. We recommend the consideration of tourists concerns in conservation policies and strategies. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Attitudes Communities Conservation Elephant Threat Wildlife Wildlife tourism
1. Introduction The framing of tourist perceptions about threats to wildlife conservation is influenced by events occurring or perceived to be present at a given protected area (PA). Media plays a key role in disseminating such information (Gandiwa et al., 2014). Media coverage on risks and threats either to people or wildlife influences framing of tourists' perceptions and judgements (Schroeder & Hahn, 2013). Wildlife threats may include poaching and chemical poisoning. Although poaching through poisoning of wild animals is s, Olea, S considered traditional (Mateo-Toma anchez-Barbudo, & Mateo, 2012), such methods are still prevalent, e.g., in Australia on fishing (Butler, Tawake, Skewes, Tawake, & McGrath, 2012), Mexico on felids (Garcia-Alaniz, Naranjo, & Mallory, 2010) and in
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Muboko). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.023 0261-5177/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
China on birds (MaMing, Zhang, Blank, Ding, & Zhao, 2012). Despite national and international efforts, wildlife chemical poisoning is reportedly increasing even where law enforcement is arguably well resourced, e.g. in somecountries in America and Europe (Guitart et al., 2010). In southern African countries, e.g., Zimbabwe (Groom, Gandiwa, Gandiwa, & van der Westhuizen, s et al., 2012) and Tanzania 2013), South Africa (Mateo-Toma (Masenga et al., 2013) cases of poisoning have been reported. Most misused chemicals are aldicarb (temik), carbofuran (furadan) and cyanide (Masterson, 2013; Muboko et al., 2014). In large PAs with low anti-poaching patrol coverage, detectability is a major challenge to animal poisoning incidences. Baral (2013) suggests the possibility of using tourists to detect poisoning incidences although s et al. (2012) argue otherwise. Mateo-Toma Few studies look at the perceptions of tourists on wildlife threats with many concentrating on local people's perceptions of PAs (e.g., Bhat, Kumar, Negi, & Todaria, 2012) and yet Ballantyne,
N. Muboko et al. / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 170e172
171
Table 1 Tourist perceptions on wildlife conservation threats in HNP. Rating scale: 1 ¼ serious threat; 2 ¼ moderate threat; 3 ¼ not sure; 4 ¼ minor threat; 5 ¼ not a threat; N: ¼ 76. Threat
Poaching Uncontrolled veld fires Water shortages Cyanide poisoning Political and economic environment
Category of tourists Local (n ¼ 30)
Regional (n ¼ 21)
International (n ¼ 25)
Friedman ANOVA Mean rank
Test statistics
1 4 2 1 5
1 3 2 3 1
1 3 2 1 1
1.82 2.97 2.73 2.72 2.49
c2 ¼ 43.5, df ¼ 4, P < 0.001
(4) (4) (4) (4) (4)
(4) (4) (3) (4) (4)
Packer, and Hughes et al. (2009) conclude that management practices that involve tourists are bound to be effective in meeting both tourist and wildlife interests. Here we report the perceptions of tourists on wild animal conservation following the cyanide poisoning of an estimated 135 elephants (Loxodonta africana) and other animal species in Hwange National Park (HNP), Zimbabwe in 2013 (Muboko et al., 2014). The objectives of the study were to establish: 1) the extent of knowledge and awareness about wild animal chemical poisoning by tourists in HNP, and 2) tourist perceptions on wildlife and conservation threats in HNP. 2. Methods 2.1. Study area Hwange National Park is the largest PA in Zimbabwe covering 14,651 km2. The park is characterised by semi-arid conditions with annual mean rainfall of about 634 mm (Hubbard & Haynes, 2012) and sustains over 100 mammal species and more than 400 bird species. 2.2. Data collection Perceptions on wild animal poisoning were assessed using a tourist survey questionnaire following procedures outlined by Luksenburg and Parsons (2014). Key questions focussed on knowledge, perceptions and attitudes on conservation. Tourist selection was through convenient sampling, where a pre-tested questionnaire was administered to every third tourist to enter the park tourist office for accommodation registration formalities. Seventy-six tourists responded, representing a 63% response rate comprising 39.5% (n ¼ 30) locals (from Zimbabwe), 27.6% (n ¼ 21) regional (SADC1) and 32.9% (n ¼ 25) international tourists (outside SADC). Respondents consisted of 57.9% (n ¼ 44) men, and 42.1% (n ¼ 32) women, indicating no significant differences by gender (c2 ¼ 1.95, df ¼ 1, P ¼ 0.170). The majority of respondents were between the ages of 31e40 and 41e50 years, who when combined constituted over sixty percent (60.5%, n ¼ 46), while over 24% (n ¼ 18) were between 18 and 30 years and the least 8.1% (n ¼ 6) where over 60 years.
(2) (3) (4) (4) (4)
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Awareness of wildlife chemical poisoning in HNP Respondents had fairly good knowledge about the types of chemicals used to poison wildlife in HNP, with cyanide topping the list (96%, n ¼ 51). Other poisons mentioned were temik (2%, n ¼ 1) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) (2%, n ¼ 1). However, significant differences were observed (c2 ¼ 11.8; df ¼ 1; P ¼ 0.001) between respondents who had prior knowledge of chemical poisoning of animals in HNP before their visit (69.7%, n ¼ 53) and those with no prior knowledge (30.3%, n ¼ 23), with those with prior knowledge being in the majority. In terms of knowledge sources, Zimbabwean newspapers were the major form of media (87.7%, n ¼ 26) informing local tourists about conservation threats (e.g., elephant and other species poisoning) in HNP, while the internet dominated as the main information source for regional tourists (76.2%, n ¼ 16) and international tourists (60%, n ¼ 15). However, despite the dominance of newspapers and internet in conveying conservation information, the word of mouth was also highly rated as information medium, supporting Leach (1999) who found out that the oral method of information provision still predominates. 3.2. Tourist perceptions on conservation and wildlife threats Significant differences on perceptions about conservation practices in HNP by different tourist categories were observed (c2 ¼ 10.4; df ¼ 2; P ¼ 0.006), with locals having the highest respondents (23.7%, n ¼ 18), followed by international (10.5%, n ¼ 8) and then regional (5.3%, n ¼ 4) tourists stating that conservation practices in HNP were good. Also perceptions differed significantly between tourist categories across five major wildlife conservation threats identified in HNP (Friedman ANOVA: c2 ¼ 43.5; df ¼ 4; P < 0.001) (Table 1), although poaching was perceived by all tourist categories as the most serious threat to conservation. Poaching and cyanide chemical use dominated as serious threats to conservation in HNP. The use of chemical poisoning is s et al., 2012) and in proving to be a challenge globally (Mateo-Toma Africa this is reportedly on the increase (Anderson & Jooste, 2014).
2.3. Data analysis
3.3. Mitigation
Perceptions across different tourist categories were analysed using Friedman analysis of variance (ANOVA). Where significant differences were observed across tourist categories post-hoc analyses using the ManneWhitney U test were carried out. Chi-square tests were used to compare grouped data sets, e.g. age and gender to test if the responses occurred with equal probability. Analyses were done in STATISTICA version 6 for Windows (Stat Soft, 2001).
Suggested mitigation of identified threats are varied (Table 2), although law enforcement is still important despite its weaknesses, complimenting it with other initiatives like education and awareness, employment of locals and improving on local community involvement can be effective in enhancing conservation (Challender & MacMillan, 2014). 4. Conclusions and recommendations
1
Other Southern African Development Community member countries.
We conclude that tourists to HNP have high conservation
172
N. Muboko et al. / Tourism Management 52 (2016) 170e172
Table 2 Suggested mitigation measures to conservation threats in HNP (n ¼ 76). Suggested measures
Responsea
(%)
Law enforcement Park management Upgrade infrastructure Strengthen education and awareness programs Employ locals in adjacent Pas Increase jail term Strengthen CAMPFIRE and CBNRM Privatise some activities Stop corruption at all levels
28 18 13 8 6 6 3 2 1
37 24 17 11 8 8 4 3 1
a Multiple responses were allowed; hence % total exceeds 100%. Note: CAMPFIRECommunal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources; CBNRMCommunity-based Natural Resources Management.
knowledge and are concerned about threats to biodiversity conservation. Our results may be interpreted in the context of HNP and such similar areas where wildlife and tourism issues are sensationalised through the media, but may not reflect universality as tourists visit places for varied reasons. As suggested by tourists, we recommend for the use of multi-pronged approaches such as law enforcement together with other complementary strategies like strengthening community-based conservation programmes to improve on wildlife conservation.
Luksenburg, J. A., & Parsons, E. C. M. (2014). Attitudes towards marine mammal conservation issues before the introduction of whale-watching: a case study in Aruba (southern Caribbean). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 24(1), 135e146. MaMing, R., Zhang, T., Blank, D., Ding, P., & Zhao, X. (2012). Geese and ducks killed by poison and analysis of poaching cases in China. Goose Bulletin, 15, 2e11. Masenga, E. H., Lyamuya, R. D., Nyaki, A., Kuya, S., Jaco, A., Kohi, E., et al. (2013). Strychnine poisoning in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in the Loliondo game controlled area, Tanzania. International Journal of Biodiversity Conservation, 5, 367e370. Masterson, C. (2013). Practical case management for malicious wildlife poisoning in Zimbabwe. Document produced with the support of the Frankfurt Zoological Society, Gonarezhou Conservation Project, Chiredzi. s, P., Olea, P. P., Sa nchez-Barbudo, I. S., & Mateo, R. (2012). Alleviating Mateo-Toma humanewildlife conflicts: identifying the causes and mapping the risk of illegal poisoning of wild fauna. Journal of Applied Ecology, 49(2), 376e385. Muboko, N., Muposhi, V., Tarakini, T., Gandiwa, E., Vengesayi, S., & Makuwe, E. (2014). Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: a preliminary assessment. Pachyderm, 55, 92e94. Schroeder, R., & Hahn, O. (2013). Media and sustainable tourism. In Sustainability in tourism (pp. 177e191). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien.
Never Muboko is the Chair of the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe. His current research interests include social ecology, human-wildlife conflicts and wildlife management.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Chinhoyi University of Technology management for the logistical and financial support. The assistance, permission and support from the Director-General of the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority and staff of Hwange National Park are highly appreciated. Appendix A. Supplementary data
Edson Gandiwa is a Professor and Dean of the School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe. His research interests include media framing of wildlife conservation, biodiversity conservation and protected area management.
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.023 References Anderson, B., & Jooste, J. (2014). Wildlife poaching: Africa's surging trafficking threat. National Defense Univ Fort Mcnair DC, Africa Center for Strategic Studies. Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., & Hughes, K. (2009). Tourists' support for conservation messages and sustainable management practices in wildlife tourism experiences. Tourism Management, 30(5), 658e664. Baral, A. N. (2013). Impacts of wildlife tourism on poaching of greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Doctoral dissertation. Lincoln University. Bhat, J. A., Kumar, M., Negi, A. K., & Todaria, N. P. (2012). People's perceptions on conservation options and use value of a protected area in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Forester, 138(10), 961e967. Butler, J. R., Tawake, A., Skewes, T., Tawake, L., & McGrath, V. (2012). Integrating traditional ecological knowledge and fisheries management in the Torres Strait, Australia: the catalytic role of turtles and dugong as cultural keystone species. Ecology and Society, 17, 1e19. Challender, D. W., & MacMillan, D. C. (2014). Poaching is more than an enforcement problem. Conservation Letters, 7(5), 484e494. €nig, I. M. A., Leeuwis, C., & Gandiwa, E., Sprangers, S., van Bommel, S., Heitko Prins, H. H. T. (2014). Spill-over effect in media framing: representations of wildlife conservation in Zimbabwean and international media. Journal for Nature Conservation, 22(5), 413e423. Garcia-Alaniz, N., Naranjo, E. J., & Mallory, F. F. (2010). Human-felid interactions in three Mestizo communities of the Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, Mexico: benefits, conflicts and traditional uses of species. Human Ecology, 38(3), 451e457. Groom, R. J., Gandiwa, E., Gandiwa, P., & van der Westhuizen, H. J. (2013). A mass poisoning of white-backed and Lappet-faced vultures in Gonarezhou National Park. Honeyguide, 59(1), 5e9. Guitart, R., Sachana, M., Caloni, F., Croubels, S., Vandenbroucke, V., & Berny, P. (2010). Animal poisoning in Europe. Part 3: wildlife. The Veterinary Journal,183(3), 260e265. Hubbard, P., & Haynes, G. (2012). Mtoa Ruins, Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Zimbabwean Prehistory, 30, 25e33. Leach, A. (1999). The provision of information to adults in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, by non-governmental organisation. Libri, 49(2), 71e89.
Victor Muposhi is a lecturer in the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe and is currently a PhD student. His research interests include wildlife ecology, behavioural ecology, biodiversity conservation and sustainable wildlife use.
Tawanda Tarakini a lecturer in the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe and is currently a PhD student. His research interests include avian ecology, behaviour and ecosystem services