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Improving Driving Behaviour — Some Programmes and Results
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IMPROVING DRIVING BEHAVIOUR PROGRAMMES AND RESULTS
SOME
Ch. Michalik A I/ll r i(/II
HIJ(I(! Sal"l." n o(m!. (j!:l'ilg{/\\I' 3. .~ . J(J3/
1 '/1'11/ 111. . 1 //1 11'/(/
Abstract . Possible ways of improving driving behaviour include developi~g the right attitudes fro~ early ~~ildhood on , improving t~e training a~d recuirene~ts for tre driving test, paying ~articular attention to grouos with dispro~~rtionately high accident rates such as youthful beginning drivers or elderly roae users . Various measures adopted by Euronean co un ries to deal with the ~orner ~roup are discussed . TvJO specific Austriar rrogrammes to irrtprove driving behaviour are dpa~t v-Ji:h : first . a Driver ImDrovement Course instituted in 1976 for people wit~ drink-drivi~g offences , and second, a road safety campaign with the goal of cutting down the ~umber of accidents involving personal injury by 10 % over the course of one year . Beyond the need for safety education there is also a need for increased cooperation between engineers and social scientists in order to get close r to finding a solution of the pro~lem . 90th the vehicle and the road should be designed to aid the user in behaving as safely as possible on the road ra her than tempting him into giving way to other motives . Let the engineers not forget that technology should not be an end in itself, but must serve man by increasing safety for the road user . Keywords . Driving behaviour; safety education measures ] driver improvement ] interdisciplinary approach . The opportunity for gathering experience on one ' s own arises not only with learned abilities and skills (e . g . the first few times of walking in the street alone), but also with reaching a certain agB Thus in Austria a child is not allowed to ride a bike alone on public roads until the age of 12 , to drive a moped untii the age of 16 , and to get a driving licence until the age of 18 .
AQUIREMENT OF A PARTICULAR DRIVING REHAVIDUR Before repo r ting on the possibilities of improving the driving behaviour of motorists and on the experience gathered in this respect it seems necessary to briefly outline how a person acquires a particular driving behaviour , i . e . his own particula r pattern of driving behaviour :
The drivi~f, of notor vehicles - including mopeds should be continp,ent on appropriate training and the passing o~ an examination . The opportunities offered by good and t~orough training and a driving test demanding more ac~ual prastical driving behaviour and knowledge , have - at least as far as the situation in Austria is concerned - not yet been made the mos~ of . An i~Drovement in these areas would be an imoortant contribution towards increasing road sa~e~j .
The basis is laid already in the pre-school years . Children grow up in a particular traffic environment , in a traffic "climate" which often influences their later driving behaviour i~ a negative way . Young children learn by rial and error , but als~ by imitating . In this case they initate the adults around them which , due to lack of eXDerience of their own , they usually CODY uncritically . Of course they copy not only positive but also negative behaviour . This is true of walkinF, along with adults but also of riding in their cars - and this is when they develop their basic attitudes towards rules , vehicles , other road users, etc . - attitudes which will later be a strong influence on their driving behaviour .
drivers re~~esgn: a group involving risks. a ~roble~ which is steadily gaining in im~ortance . en t~e majority of cases the lack of practical driving exoerience is coupled with a specific age-related risk affecting particularly young drivers between the ages of approximately 1E and 24 . Age-related faulty att:tudes . e . g . :~e strong desire to be mobile , an enotiona: attas~eMent to the vehic:e . an increased willingness to ~a~e risks or an unrealistic risk assess~en: . as well as the tende~cy to test one ' s own limits and those of one ' s vehicle , together with t~e lack of driving exoerience lead ~o a disoroportional ~igh accident ris~ o~ t~is age grouD . Beginni~g
~articular
But not only attitudes , also the actual behaviour on the road is learned . The general learning conditions . however . are ex:re~ely u~~avourable i~ road t r affic . :f we start ~ro~ t~e ~act that - to simplify matters a b~t - the essence of education is to promote desired behaviour and to punish undesirable behaviour then in road tra~fic very of then the opposite is true . Frecuently a tra~fic violation is not follD~ed by eit~er a ounishment or any other ~ind 0: negative co~sequence . Duite on the con: r ary : a viola:io~ of :~e t~affis regulations or a ris~j driving manoeuvre endangering not only one ' s own life but often the lives of other road users , results in a feeling of elation and a sense of achieveme,t . What is t~e result? Such behaviour is repeated again and again !
EXA~PLES
FOR
FOR "EASURES AND PRDGClAMMES ClR;:VI'lG 9EI-'AVIDUR
I~PRDVI'lG
So much for a short analysis of t~e problem . As fa r as the theraoy o~ this accident risk of beginning
CTS-C
55
56
Ch. Michalik
drivers is concerned there are a number of possibilities some of which are under discussion right now while others have already been put into practice : Probational Driving Licence The probational driving licence is meant to motivate in particular the yout~ful beginning driver to behave defensively during the learning phase. whereby the period of probation is to be regarded as a prolonged controlled learning phase . In case of traffic offences during this learning phase . specific rehabilitation measures are employed to improve the driver's behaviour at a time when ~e has not yet been involved in serious road accidents (special prevention) . This model is going to be introduced in the Federal Republic of Germany in the course of this year. Two-phase Instruction The initial driving instruction is more or less limited to the lower speed range and concentrates on learning to handle the vehicle in actual traffic . With increasing practice and increasing assurance in handling the vehicle the subjective feeling of safety also increases and the beginning driver dares to drive at higher speeds . On the principle of trial-and-error learning faulty behaviour patterns are frequently learned . During this intial phase such faulty behaviour patterns can be corrected more easily . In addition . a second phase of instruction can build upon the driving practice aquired in the meantime . This model of general prevention has been used in No rwa y for a number pf years now . It requires all beginning drivers to undergo a second phase of driving instruction in the second year after obtaining their dr iving licence .
problems have so far manifested themselves mostly in the difficulties of elderly persons as pedestrians . But here. too . due to full moto ri zation. those age 8roups where most people especially men - have a driving licence are advancing towards old age . Thus it has to be expected that for example in Austria more than 15 % of all motorists will be over 55 years old . The problems of older pepole on the road - whether as pedestrians or motorists - will thus be one of the main issues of the nineties . We have learned to live with accident statistics and have in many cases got far too used to them . It is necessary to improve the safety on our road~ i . e . to achieve a decrease in the number of traffic violations and accidents . and not take accident statistics for granted but see them as the tragedy they are . As mentioned above. a person's beha~iour on the road is learned and can therefore be modified in accordance with the principles of the laws of learning . The measures that have usually been taken so far . such as long-term suspension of a person ' s dri ving licence . fines or imprisonment. have proved to be not very successful in decreasing the number of traffic violations and accidents which are regarded as an expression of inappropriate modes of behaviour - in repeat offenders . The external stimuli which control behaviour on the road are frequently difficult to influence and do not promote behaviour appropriate to the traffic conditions . It is the refore necessary to bring about a change in the subjective assessment of the dangerousness of traffic situations in order to effect a change in the individual driving behaviour . These conside rati ons have led to the development of a so-called "probl em-oriented training " for traffic offenders . Problem-oriented training for traffic offenders
Special Conditions concerning Driving Speed for Beginning Drivers Certain requirements concerning the driving speed for a limited period are intended to reduce the accident risk of beginning drivers - this approach has been taken in France . The Model of the Graded Driving Licence This model starts from the idea that a beginning driver is not allowed to drive every type of vehicle which his driving licence entitles him to drive . inmediately a~ter obtaining his licence . The main consideration is that he needs to get used to higher speeds and acceleration values . Each of these therapies . when used in isolation . shows system disadvantages. and a combination of them is usually more effective . Apart from the problem of beginning drivers . in the years to come we will have to deal more and more with the problem of the elderly driver . This group is mentioned here for completeness ' sake - it is a pr oblem of the future. but even so solutions have to be sought for it and more efforts should be expended on it . At pr-sent 13 % of the population of Europe are over 55 years of age ; by the year 2808 this proportion is expected to ri se to aporoximately 20 %. In the U. s . • where full motorization began considerably earlier than in Europe . there is already a large number of aged drivers who have particular problems on the roads . In Europe these
Driving a motor vehicle while intoxic~ted is the most frequent reason for suspending a person ' s driving licence in Austria . In addition . the rate of personal injury or death is disproportionally high in traffic accidents involving intoxicated drivers . T~erefore this group of motorists is an obvious target group for subsequent efforts at additional training . Moreover. the rate of r epeated offences in drivers cited for drunken driving has been considerable . i . e . about one third in the case of first offences and two thirds in the case of second citations for driving a motor vehicle while intoxicated . In 1976 therefore the first Driver Improvement Course in Austria was carried out at a special prison with traffic offenders who had been previously convicted for the same offence . The courses were designed as a group training prog ramme for small groups of 6 to 9 participants with an expe r t in traffic psychology as moderato r . The topic "al cohol consumption and driving " is analyzed on the basis of analyses of their past driv i ng and drinking habits in a series of six gr oup sessions. The goal of the efforts by means of discussions and opinions. past experience and information. as well as the required fulfilment of individually assigned practice tasks is the better understanding of those conditions which will lead to intoxicated driving . In short . the consumption of alcohol on the one hand and driving on the other hand are to be seen as two totally sepe r ate and incompatible activities . Since 1979 such courses have also been held outside of prison . A discussion of the conditions
Impro Yln g Driving Be ha \'io ur fo r partic i pat i on in such courses would exceed the scope of the present paper. So far a total of about 600 Aust ri an dr ivers with traffic citations have unde r gone such additional training , Firs t steps towards evaluation of this programme have alre ady been taken . The sample will include a bout 350 pa r ticipants in Driver Improvement Courses an d approximately 100 persons from a control group to whom Driver Improvement had been suggested but who had not taken part in a course for various r easons . Ouestionnaires were sent out to the local Road Traffic Licencing Departments who were asked to complete and return them . The return rate has so far been satisfactory . The period of observation r anges from 12 to 84 months , a fact that certainly has to be taken into account when interpreting the data . The complete results have not yet been compiled but already a few trends can be seen (Michalke , 1984) : o After the Driver Improvement Course or in the control group for which such a measure had been suggested the incidence of alcohol offences does not rise in a linear way but most of the repeat offences occur during the second year . o The participants in Driver Improvement Courses who had no or only one suspension of licence did not show statistically significant differences in comparison to the control group . This might be due to various factors , among them the fact that their drinking and dr iving habits had not yet become so ingrained or that the psychological assessment and interview befo r e the course - in combinat~on with the punishment for their offence - had had enough impact . o 90 % of the participants en Driver Improvement Coul'ses who had had two suspensions of their licence , did not commit a new offence during the pe r iod of observation whereas the corresponding figure for the control grouD was only 55 %. This is certainly highly significant . Thus our experience has shown that a certain group of traffic offenders cited for driving under the influence of alcohol will benefit most by the pr esent Dr iver Improvement programme . This group is rather young (25 - 35 years) and has already had two suspensions of their driving licence . This also means that all second offenders with t r affic violations should be subjected to mandatory psychological assessment . Safety campai"n Another example for reasons of topical interest is a road safety campaign which was started in Austria this June . Its essential features are o Tr ying to gain the involvement and cooperation of the municipal authorities since they are able to take effective measures in their areas . o The campaign is aimed at the individual citizen who by his behaviour cannot only effect greater road safety but can even compensate for existing shortcomings in the system of traffic . o The concrete target , namely to decrease the number of accidents involving oersonal injury in the respective regio~ by 10 % within one y8ar . Education , training , rehabilitation measures , punishment and suspension of licence are all measu r es that have the individual human being a s their primary target in o r der to improve driving behaviour and to increase his own safety as well as that of his fellow-men .
57
CONCLUSIONS In conclusion it should be pointed out quite clearly that what has been stressed so far is only one approach out of a wide range of possibilities . Man is both the creator and the user of roads and vehicles . He can even by his own behaviour defeat the purpose of facilities that have been built or designed to increase road safety . For this reason technology should take into account even more the user, his possibilities and his limitations . The design of both the vehicle and the road should aid the user in behaving as safely as possible and should not tempt him into giving way to other motives wihtin himself . The interdisciplinary cooperation between engineers and social scientists must be intensified , since the design of motor vehicles and roads as well as their construction can make an essential contribution towards and improvement in driving behaviour in the sense of improving road safety and the quality of road traffic . In this sense technology should not be an end in itself but an aid to a greater goal . REFERENCES KlebeL E. (1982) . Alkohol und Fahren - Oaten , Programme und MaBnahmen in Osterreich . Unfall- und Sicherheitsforschung StraBenverkehr , H. 39 , Bundesanstalt fUr StraBenwesen , Koln . Michalke , H. (1982). Driver Improvement in Osterreich - Konzept , Realisierung und Zukunftsperspektiven . Unveroffentlichter Bericht . OECD (1975) . Young driver accidents . Pa ri s . DECD (1976) . Driver instruction . Paris . DECD (1981) . Guidelines for driver instruction . Paris . Schmidt , L. , H. Michalke , E. Klebel (1979) . Inhaftierte Verkehrsstraftater als Zielg r uppe fUr ein Driver - Improvement-Programm . Zeitschrift fur Verkehrsrecht , Jg . 24 , H. 7-r214223) , H. 8 (248-255) , Wien .
IMPROVING DRIVING BEHAVIOUR PROGRAMMES AND RESULTS
SOME
Ch. Michalik A I/ll r i(/II
HIJ(I(! Sal"l." n o(m!. (j!:l'ilg{/\\I' 3. .~ . J(J3/
1 '/1'11/ 111. . 1 //1 11'/(/
Abstract . Possible ways of improving driving behaviour include developi~g the right attitudes fro~ early ~~ildhood on , improving t~e training a~d recuirene~ts for tre driving test, paying ~articular attention to grouos with dispro~~rtionately high accident rates such as youthful beginning drivers or elderly roae users . Various measures adopted by Euronean co un ries to deal with the ~orner ~roup are discussed . TvJO specific Austriar rrogrammes to irrtprove driving behaviour are dpa~t v-Ji:h : first . a Driver ImDrovement Course instituted in 1976 for people wit~ drink-drivi~g offences , and second, a road safety campaign with the goal of cutting down the ~umber of accidents involving personal injury by 10 % over the course of one year . Beyond the need for safety education there is also a need for increased cooperation between engineers and social scientists in order to get close r to finding a solution of the pro~lem . 90th the vehicle and the road should be designed to aid the user in behaving as safely as possible on the road ra her than tempting him into giving way to other motives . Let the engineers not forget that technology should not be an end in itself, but must serve man by increasing safety for the road user . Keywords . Driving behaviour; safety education measures ] driver improvement ] interdisciplinary approach . The opportunity for gathering experience on one ' s own arises not only with learned abilities and skills (e . g . the first few times of walking in the street alone), but also with reaching a certain agB Thus in Austria a child is not allowed to ride a bike alone on public roads until the age of 12 , to drive a moped untii the age of 16 , and to get a driving licence until the age of 18 .
AQUIREMENT OF A PARTICULAR DRIVING REHAVIDUR Before repo r ting on the possibilities of improving the driving behaviour of motorists and on the experience gathered in this respect it seems necessary to briefly outline how a person acquires a particular driving behaviour , i . e . his own particula r pattern of driving behaviour :
The drivi~f, of notor vehicles - including mopeds should be continp,ent on appropriate training and the passing o~ an examination . The opportunities offered by good and t~orough training and a driving test demanding more ac~ual prastical driving behaviour and knowledge , have - at least as far as the situation in Austria is concerned - not yet been made the mos~ of . An i~Drovement in these areas would be an imoortant contribution towards increasing road sa~e~j .
The basis is laid already in the pre-school years . Children grow up in a particular traffic environment , in a traffic "climate" which often influences their later driving behaviour i~ a negative way . Young children learn by rial and error , but als~ by imitating . In this case they initate the adults around them which , due to lack of eXDerience of their own , they usually CODY uncritically . Of course they copy not only positive but also negative behaviour . This is true of walkinF, along with adults but also of riding in their cars - and this is when they develop their basic attitudes towards rules , vehicles , other road users, etc . - attitudes which will later be a strong influence on their driving behaviour .
drivers re~~esgn: a group involving risks. a ~roble~ which is steadily gaining in im~ortance . en t~e majority of cases the lack of practical driving exoerience is coupled with a specific age-related risk affecting particularly young drivers between the ages of approximately 1E and 24 . Age-related faulty att:tudes . e . g . :~e strong desire to be mobile , an enotiona: attas~eMent to the vehic:e . an increased willingness to ~a~e risks or an unrealistic risk assess~en: . as well as the tende~cy to test one ' s own limits and those of one ' s vehicle , together with t~e lack of driving exoerience lead ~o a disoroportional ~igh accident ris~ o~ t~is age grouD . Beginni~g
~articular
But not only attitudes , also the actual behaviour on the road is learned . The general learning conditions . however . are ex:re~ely u~~avourable i~ road t r affic . :f we start ~ro~ t~e ~act that - to simplify matters a b~t - the essence of education is to promote desired behaviour and to punish undesirable behaviour then in road tra~fic very of then the opposite is true . Frecuently a tra~fic violation is not follD~ed by eit~er a ounishment or any other ~ind 0: negative co~sequence . Duite on the con: r ary : a viola:io~ of :~e t~affis regulations or a ris~j driving manoeuvre endangering not only one ' s own life but often the lives of other road users , results in a feeling of elation and a sense of achieveme,t . What is t~e result? Such behaviour is repeated again and again !
EXA~PLES
FOR
FOR "EASURES AND PRDGClAMMES ClR;:VI'lG 9EI-'AVIDUR
I~PRDVI'lG
So much for a short analysis of t~e problem . As fa r as the theraoy o~ this accident risk of beginning
CTS-C
55
56
Ch. Michalik
drivers is concerned there are a number of possibilities some of which are under discussion right now while others have already been put into practice : Probational Driving Licence The probational driving licence is meant to motivate in particular the yout~ful beginning driver to behave defensively during the learning phase. whereby the period of probation is to be regarded as a prolonged controlled learning phase . In case of traffic offences during this learning phase . specific rehabilitation measures are employed to improve the driver's behaviour at a time when ~e has not yet been involved in serious road accidents (special prevention) . This model is going to be introduced in the Federal Republic of Germany in the course of this year. Two-phase Instruction The initial driving instruction is more or less limited to the lower speed range and concentrates on learning to handle the vehicle in actual traffic . With increasing practice and increasing assurance in handling the vehicle the subjective feeling of safety also increases and the beginning driver dares to drive at higher speeds . On the principle of trial-and-error learning faulty behaviour patterns are frequently learned . During this intial phase such faulty behaviour patterns can be corrected more easily . In addition . a second phase of instruction can build upon the driving practice aquired in the meantime . This model of general prevention has been used in No rwa y for a number pf years now . It requires all beginning drivers to undergo a second phase of driving instruction in the second year after obtaining their dr iving licence .
problems have so far manifested themselves mostly in the difficulties of elderly persons as pedestrians . But here. too . due to full moto ri zation. those age 8roups where most people especially men - have a driving licence are advancing towards old age . Thus it has to be expected that for example in Austria more than 15 % of all motorists will be over 55 years old . The problems of older pepole on the road - whether as pedestrians or motorists - will thus be one of the main issues of the nineties . We have learned to live with accident statistics and have in many cases got far too used to them . It is necessary to improve the safety on our road~ i . e . to achieve a decrease in the number of traffic violations and accidents . and not take accident statistics for granted but see them as the tragedy they are . As mentioned above. a person's beha~iour on the road is learned and can therefore be modified in accordance with the principles of the laws of learning . The measures that have usually been taken so far . such as long-term suspension of a person ' s dri ving licence . fines or imprisonment. have proved to be not very successful in decreasing the number of traffic violations and accidents which are regarded as an expression of inappropriate modes of behaviour - in repeat offenders . The external stimuli which control behaviour on the road are frequently difficult to influence and do not promote behaviour appropriate to the traffic conditions . It is the refore necessary to bring about a change in the subjective assessment of the dangerousness of traffic situations in order to effect a change in the individual driving behaviour . These conside rati ons have led to the development of a so-called "probl em-oriented training " for traffic offenders . Problem-oriented training for traffic offenders
Special Conditions concerning Driving Speed for Beginning Drivers Certain requirements concerning the driving speed for a limited period are intended to reduce the accident risk of beginning drivers - this approach has been taken in France . The Model of the Graded Driving Licence This model starts from the idea that a beginning driver is not allowed to drive every type of vehicle which his driving licence entitles him to drive . inmediately a~ter obtaining his licence . The main consideration is that he needs to get used to higher speeds and acceleration values . Each of these therapies . when used in isolation . shows system disadvantages. and a combination of them is usually more effective . Apart from the problem of beginning drivers . in the years to come we will have to deal more and more with the problem of the elderly driver . This group is mentioned here for completeness ' sake - it is a pr oblem of the future. but even so solutions have to be sought for it and more efforts should be expended on it . At pr-sent 13 % of the population of Europe are over 55 years of age ; by the year 2808 this proportion is expected to ri se to aporoximately 20 %. In the U. s . • where full motorization began considerably earlier than in Europe . there is already a large number of aged drivers who have particular problems on the roads . In Europe these
Driving a motor vehicle while intoxic~ted is the most frequent reason for suspending a person ' s driving licence in Austria . In addition . the rate of personal injury or death is disproportionally high in traffic accidents involving intoxicated drivers . T~erefore this group of motorists is an obvious target group for subsequent efforts at additional training . Moreover. the rate of r epeated offences in drivers cited for drunken driving has been considerable . i . e . about one third in the case of first offences and two thirds in the case of second citations for driving a motor vehicle while intoxicated . In 1976 therefore the first Driver Improvement Course in Austria was carried out at a special prison with traffic offenders who had been previously convicted for the same offence . The courses were designed as a group training prog ramme for small groups of 6 to 9 participants with an expe r t in traffic psychology as moderato r . The topic "al cohol consumption and driving " is analyzed on the basis of analyses of their past driv i ng and drinking habits in a series of six gr oup sessions. The goal of the efforts by means of discussions and opinions. past experience and information. as well as the required fulfilment of individually assigned practice tasks is the better understanding of those conditions which will lead to intoxicated driving . In short . the consumption of alcohol on the one hand and driving on the other hand are to be seen as two totally sepe r ate and incompatible activities . Since 1979 such courses have also been held outside of prison . A discussion of the conditions
Impro Yln g Driving Be ha \'io ur fo r partic i pat i on in such courses would exceed the scope of the present paper. So far a total of about 600 Aust ri an dr ivers with traffic citations have unde r gone such additional training , Firs t steps towards evaluation of this programme have alre ady been taken . The sample will include a bout 350 pa r ticipants in Driver Improvement Courses an d approximately 100 persons from a control group to whom Driver Improvement had been suggested but who had not taken part in a course for various r easons . Ouestionnaires were sent out to the local Road Traffic Licencing Departments who were asked to complete and return them . The return rate has so far been satisfactory . The period of observation r anges from 12 to 84 months , a fact that certainly has to be taken into account when interpreting the data . The complete results have not yet been compiled but already a few trends can be seen (Michalke , 1984) : o After the Driver Improvement Course or in the control group for which such a measure had been suggested the incidence of alcohol offences does not rise in a linear way but most of the repeat offences occur during the second year . o The participants in Driver Improvement Courses who had no or only one suspension of licence did not show statistically significant differences in comparison to the control group . This might be due to various factors , among them the fact that their drinking and dr iving habits had not yet become so ingrained or that the psychological assessment and interview befo r e the course - in combinat~on with the punishment for their offence - had had enough impact . o 90 % of the participants en Driver Improvement Coul'ses who had had two suspensions of their licence , did not commit a new offence during the pe r iod of observation whereas the corresponding figure for the control grouD was only 55 %. This is certainly highly significant . Thus our experience has shown that a certain group of traffic offenders cited for driving under the influence of alcohol will benefit most by the pr esent Dr iver Improvement programme . This group is rather young (25 - 35 years) and has already had two suspensions of their driving licence . This also means that all second offenders with t r affic violations should be subjected to mandatory psychological assessment . Safety campai"n Another example for reasons of topical interest is a road safety campaign which was started in Austria this June . Its essential features are o Tr ying to gain the involvement and cooperation of the municipal authorities since they are able to take effective measures in their areas . o The campaign is aimed at the individual citizen who by his behaviour cannot only effect greater road safety but can even compensate for existing shortcomings in the system of traffic . o The concrete target , namely to decrease the number of accidents involving oersonal injury in the respective regio~ by 10 % within one y8ar . Education , training , rehabilitation measures , punishment and suspension of licence are all measu r es that have the individual human being a s their primary target in o r der to improve driving behaviour and to increase his own safety as well as that of his fellow-men .
57
CONCLUSIONS In conclusion it should be pointed out quite clearly that what has been stressed so far is only one approach out of a wide range of possibilities . Man is both the creator and the user of roads and vehicles . He can even by his own behaviour defeat the purpose of facilities that have been built or designed to increase road safety . For this reason technology should take into account even more the user, his possibilities and his limitations . The design of both the vehicle and the road should aid the user in behaving as safely as possible and should not tempt him into giving way to other motives wihtin himself . The interdisciplinary cooperation between engineers and social scientists must be intensified , since the design of motor vehicles and roads as well as their construction can make an essential contribution towards and improvement in driving behaviour in the sense of improving road safety and the quality of road traffic . In this sense technology should not be an end in itself but an aid to a greater goal . REFERENCES KlebeL E. (1982) . Alkohol und Fahren - Oaten , Programme und MaBnahmen in Osterreich . Unfall- und Sicherheitsforschung StraBenverkehr , H. 39 , Bundesanstalt fUr StraBenwesen , Koln . Michalke , H. (1982). Driver Improvement in Osterreich - Konzept , Realisierung und Zukunftsperspektiven . Unveroffentlichter Bericht . OECD (1975) . Young driver accidents . Pa ri s . DECD (1976) . Driver instruction . Paris . DECD (1981) . Guidelines for driver instruction . Paris . Schmidt , L. , H. Michalke , E. Klebel (1979) . Inhaftierte Verkehrsstraftater als Zielg r uppe fUr ein Driver - Improvement-Programm . Zeitschrift fur Verkehrsrecht , Jg . 24 , H. 7-r214223) , H. 8 (248-255) , Wien .